Caffeic acid O-methyltransferase is involved in the synthesis of melatonin by methylating N-acetylserotonin in Arabidopsis

Comprehensive analysis of the metabolism of core microorganisms in polyphenolic compound formation during the acetic acid fermentation stage of millet vinegar

BACKGROUND

Polyphenolic compounds in millet vinegar are crucial functional substances, but the mechanisms underlying their formation and metabolism remain unclear. Acetic acid fermentation (AAF) represents the most active microbial metabolism stage and is pivotal for forming polyphenolic compounds. This study comprehensively analyzed the role of the microbiome in polyphenolic compound production and metabolism during AAF.

RESULTS

Changing patterns were observed in both the microbiome and polyphenolic monomer compounds during AAF of millet vinegar. Lactobacillus harbinensis (0.624-0.454%) was identified as the dominant species in the pre-AAF stage, exhibiting a significant positive correlation with caffeic acid, kaempferic acid and kaempferolide (P < 0.05). Lactobacillus harbinensis-mediated polyphenolic compound metabolism was further confirmed through genomic analysis and pure culture fermentation techniques. Lactobacillus harbinensis encodes enzymes such as carbohydrate hydrolases, glycosidases and cellulases, which promote the release and metabolism of polyphenolic compounds from grain hulls.

CONCLUSION

This study confirmed that L. harbinensis, as a core microorganism in millet vinegar fermentation, can significantly augment the content of total phenols and specific polyphenolic compounds. These findings provide valuable insights for optimizing millet vinegar production. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Jasmonic acid and nitric oxide orchestrate a hierarchical melatonin cascade for Botrytis cinerea resistance in tomato

Tomato gray mold, caused by Botrytis cinerea (B. cinerea), poses a major challenge to tomato production. In plants, B. cinerea resistance is positively regulated by melatonin; however, the regulatory mechanism of melatonin biosynthesis during B. cinerea infection is not known. Here, we established the working model of jasmonic acid (JA) and nitric oxide (NO) on melatonin biosynthesis in the state of B. cinerea infection. NO responded to B. cinerea infection earlier than JA. In the early stage of infection, tomato caffeic acid O-methyltransferase 2 (SlCOMT2) was S-nitrosylated by NO at Cys344, enhancing the stability of SlCOMT2 and preventing its degradation via the 26S proteasome. In the late stage of infection, JA-triggered SlMYC2 bound to SlCOMT1 and SlCOMT2 promoters for their transcription. NO and JA synergistically enhanced COMT-mediated melatonin biosynthesis during B. cinerea infection via post-translational modification and transcriptional activation. The accumulation of melatonin in tomato leaves inhibited cell death by scavenging reactive oxygen species, thereby preventing B. cinerea from establishing infection sites. We propose that SlCOMT2Cys344 is a genetic manipulation site or biological breeding target that can be used to enhance melatonin synthesis and B. cinerea resistance in tomato.

Melatonin confers saline-alkali tolerance in tomato by alleviating nitrosative damage and S-nitrosylation of H+-ATPase 2

Soil salinization and alkalization disrupt redox homeostasis, impairing plant survival and crop production. Disruption of redox homeostasis can cause accumulation of reactive nitrogen species, such as nitric oxide (NO), which causes nitrosative damage in which the properties of biomacromolecules are altered. It is unclear whether melatonin regulates NO homeostasis, thereby affecting plant saline-alkali tolerance. In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), excess NO caused by saline-alkali stress resulted in nitrosative damage, which was alleviated by S-nitrosoglutathione reductase (GSNOR). Moreover, saline-alkali stress-triggered NO stimulated caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT) transcription and melatonin biosynthesis to scavenge excess NO and alleviate nitrosative damage at the proteome level. Under saline-alkali stress, plasma membrane-localized H+-ATPase 2 (HA2) was S-nitrosylated at Cys206, impairing its interaction with 14-3-3 protein 1 (TFT1). HA2 S-nitrosylation resulted in reduced HA activity, H+ efflux, and saline-alkali tolerance. Conversely, COMT-generated melatonin alleviated HA2 S-nitrosylation, recovering its function and tomato saline-alkali tolerance. Therefore, we propose that melatonin and NO are redox switches of HA2 S-nitrosylation for saline-alkali tolerance. Under natural saline-alkali conditions, tomato productivity was improved by grafting with COMT-, GSNOR-, or HA2-overexpression rootstocks, or by generating nonnitrosylated HA2C206S mutants. By establishing the melatonin-NO-HA2 module, this study illuminates a molecular function of melatonin and suggests possible genetic engineering strategies to improve agriculture.

Views and perspectives on the indoleamines serotonin and melatonin in plants: past, present and future

In the decades since their discovery in plants in the mid-to-late 1900s, melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) and serotonin (5-methoxytryptamine) have been established as their own class of phytohormone and have become popular targets for examination and study as stress ameliorating compounds. The indoleamines play roles across the plant life cycle from reproduction to morphogenesis and plant environmental perception. There is growing interest in harnessing the power of these plant neurotransmitters in applied and agricultural settings, particularly as we face increasingly volatile climates for food production; however, there is still a lot to learn about the mechanisms of indoleamine action in plants. A recent explosion of interest in these compounds has led to exponential growth in the field of melatonin research in particular. This concept paper aims to summarize the current status of indoleamine research and highlight some emerging trends.

Exogenous Melatonin Boosts Heat Tolerance in Rosa hybrida via RhCOMT1 Modulation

Rosa hybrida is one the most commonly cultivated ornamental plant of economic importance and faces major challenges under heat stress. Melatonin has been widely shown to regulate plant stress response; however, the exact mechanism involved in heat stress in R. hybrida has yet to be determined. Here, we observed that R. hybrida in vitro plantlets supplemented with melatonin in the culture medium exhibited higher chlorophyll content, relative ion leakage, and fresh weight after 12 d of high-temperature treatment; the optimal concentration was established at 5 mg/L. Using molecular and biochemical techniques, we explored the roles of a melatonin synthase gene RhCOMT1, which expression was influenced by heat stress and melatonin. RhCOMT1 was located in the nuclear-cytoplasmic under ambient conditions, while heat stress translocated the distribution of RhCOMT1 to chloroplasts. Overexpression of RhCOMT1 in rose petal enhanced thermotolerance, and silencing of RhCOMT1 reduced thermotolerance via affect H2O2 content and relative ion leakage. These findings collectively emphasize the pivotal role of melatonin in enhancing thermotolerance to R. hybrida by alleviation of oxidative stress, through modulation of RhCOMT1 expression and location.

GhCOMT33D modulates melatonin synthesis, impacting plant response to Cd2+ in cotton via ROS

Caffeic acid-3-O-methyltransferase (COMT) serves as the final pivotal enzyme in melatonin biosynthesis and plays a crucial role in governing the synthesis of melatonin in plants. This research used bioinformatics to analyze the phylogenetic relationships, gene structure, and promoter cis-acting elements of the upland cotton COMT gene family members， which it identified as the key gene GhCOMT33D to promote melatonin synthesis and responding to Cd2+ stress. After silencing GhCOMT33D through virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS), cotton seedlings showed less resistance to Cd2+ stress. Under Cd2+ stress, the melatonin content in the silenced plants significantly decreased, while ROS, MDA, and proline accumulated in the plant cells. The stomatal aperture of the leaves was reduced, hindering normal photosynthesis, leading to cotton leaves withering and yellowing, and epidermal cells becoming twisted and deformed, with a large number of gaps appearing. The non-silenced plants had a significantly higher melatonin content and were in better condition, providing important evidence for further research on how plant melatonin enhances the Cd2+ resistance of cotton and its regulatory mechanisms.

Systematic Identification and Characterization of O-Methyltransferase Gene Family Members Involved in Flavonoid Biosynthesis in Chrysanthemum indicum L

Chrysanthemum indicum L. capitulum is an enriched source of flavonoids with broad-ranging biological activities, mainly due to their anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, immune regulation, anti-microbial activity, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective effects. The O-methylation of various secondary metabolites has previously been demonstrated to be mainly catalyzed by S-adenosyl-L-methionine-dependent O-methyltransferase (OMT) proteins encoded by the OMT gene family. However, limited comprehensive study was published on the OMT gene family, especially the CCoAOMT subfamily, involved in the O-methylation of flavonoids in Chrysanthemum. Here, we analyzed the spatiotemporal expression patterns of C. indicum OMT genes in leaf and flower at different developmental stages. Transcriptome sequencing and qRT-PCR analysis showed that COMTs were mainly highly expressed in capitulum, especially in full bloom, while CCoAOMTs were mainly highly expressed in leaves. Correlation analysis of OMT gene expression and flavonoids accumulation revealed that four OMTs (CHR00029120, CHR00029783, CHR00077404, and CHR00078333) were putatively involved in most methylated flavonoids biosynthesis in the capitulum. Furthermore, we identified a true CCoAOMT enzyme, CiCCoAOMT1, and found that it catalyzed O-methylation of quercetin and luteolin at the 3'-OH position. In summary, this work provides an important theoretical basis for further research on the biological functions of OMTs in C. indicum.

Genome assembly of Stephania longa provides insight into cepharanthine biosynthesis

Introduction

Stephania longa, a medicinal plant renowned for producing cepharanthine, has gained significance due to the compound's notable antiviral properties against SARS-CoV-2. However, a comprehensive genetic understanding of S. longa has been lacking. This study aimed to develop a high-quality, chromosome-level genome assembly to uncover the genetic intricacies and evolutionary narrative of this species. By integrating genomic data with metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses, we sought to identify key genes involved in cepharanthine biosynthesis.

Methods

We employed a multi-faceted approach comprising genome assembly, phylogenetic analysis, gene family dynamics investigation, metabolomic profiling, and gene expression analysis across various tissues of S. longa. This integrated strategy enabled the identification of key genes involved in cepharanthine biosynthesis and elucidated the species' evolutionary history.

Results

Our phylogenetic analysis clarified the placement of the genus Stephania within the Ranunculales order and revealed its notably high mutation rate. We identified gene family expansions and signs of positive selection likely contributing to Stephania's unique metabolic capabilities. Metabolomic profiling uncovered complex regulatory mechanisms orchestrating the biosynthesis and distribution of cepharanthine and related metabolites. Through the integration of genomic, transcriptomic, and metabolomic data, we identified genes with expression patterns and evolutionary trajectories suggesting pivotal roles in cepharanthine biosynthesis, including those involved in crucial biosynthetic steps.

Discussion

This comprehensive study, integrating genomic, metabolomic, and transcriptomic approaches, provides valuable insights into S. longa's biosynthetic potential. It not only enhances our understanding of the species but also establishes a foundation for future investigations into the biosynthesis and therapeutic exploitation of cepharanthine and related alkaloids.

Integrated Metabolomic-Transcriptomic Analyses of Flavonoid Accumulation in Citrus Fruit under Exogenous Melatonin Treatment

The flavonoids in citrus fruits are crucial physiological regulators and natural bioactive products of high pharmaceutical value. Melatonin is a pleiotropic hormone that can regulate plant morphogenesis and stress resistance and alter the accumulation of flavonoids in these processes. However, the direct effect of melatonin on citrus flavonoids remains unclear. In this study, nontargeted metabolomics and transcriptomics were utilized to reveal how exogenous melatonin affects flavonoid biosynthesis in "Bingtangcheng" citrus fruits. The melatonin treatment at 0.1 mmol L-1 significantly increased the contents of seven polymethoxylated flavones (PMFs) and up-regulated a series of flavonoid pathway genes, including 4CL (4-coumaroyl CoA ligase), FNS (flavone synthase), and FHs (flavonoid hydroxylases). Meanwhile, CHS (chalcone synthase) was down-regulated, causing a decrease in the content of most flavonoid glycosides. Pearson correlation analysis obtained 21 transcription factors co-expressed with differentially accumulated flavonoids, among which the AP2/EREBP members were the most numerous. Additionally, circadian rhythm and photosynthesis pathways were enriched in the DEG (differentially expressed gene) analysis, suggesting that melatonin might also mediate changes in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway by affecting the fruit's circadian rhythm. These results provide valuable information for further exploration of the molecular mechanisms through which melatonin regulates citrus fruit metabolism.

Whole genome identification, molecular docking and expression analysis of enzymes involved in the selenomethionine cycle in Cardamine hupingshanensis

BACKGROUND

The selenomethionine cycle (SeMTC) is a crucial pathway for the metabolism of selenium. The basic bioinformatics and functions of four enzymes involved in the cycle including S-adenosyl-methionine synthase (MAT), SAM-dependent methyltransferase (MTase), S-adenosyl-homocysteine hydrolase (SAHH) and methionine synthase (MTR), have been extensively reported in many eukaryotes. The identification and functional analyses of SeMTC genes/proteins in Cardamine hupingshanensis and their response to selenium stress have not yet been reported.

RESULTS

In this study, 45 genes involved in SeMTC were identified in the C. hupingshanensis genome. Phylogenetic analysis showed that seven genes from ChMAT were clustered into four branches, twenty-seven genes from ChCOMT were clustered into two branches, four genes from ChSAHH were clustered into two branches, and seven genes from ChMTR were clustered into three branches. These genes were resided on 16 chromosomes. Gene structure and homologous protein modeling analysis illustrated that proteins in the same family are relatively conserved and have similar functions. Molecular docking showed that the affinity of SeMTC enzymes for selenium metabolites was higher than that for sulfur metabolites. The key active site residues identified for ChMAT were Ala269 and Lys273, while Leu221/231 and Gly207/249 were determined as the crucial residues for ChCOMT. For ChSAHH, the essential active site residues were found to be Asn87, Asp139 and Thr206/207/208/325. Ile204, Ser111/329/377, Asp70/206/254, and His329/332/380 were identified as the critical active site residues for ChMTR. In addition, the results of the expression levels of four enzymes under selenium stress revealed that ChMAT3-1 genes were upregulated approximately 18-fold, ChCOMT9-1 was upregulated approximately 38.7-fold, ChSAHH1-2 was upregulated approximately 11.6-fold, and ChMTR3-2 genes were upregulated approximately 28-fold. These verified that SeMTC enzymes were involved in response to selenium stress to varying degrees.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this research are instrumental for further functional investigation of SeMTC in C. hupingshanensis. This also lays a solid foundation for deeper investigations into the physiological and biochemical mechanisms underlying selenium metabolism in plants.

Multifunctional 5-hydroxyconiferaldehyde O-methyltransferases (CAldOMTs) in plant metabolism

Lignin, flavonoids, melatonin, and stilbenes are plant specialized metabolites with diverse physiological and biological functions, supporting plant growth and conferring stress resistance. Their biosynthesis requires O-methylations catalyzed by 5-hydroxyconiferaldehyde O-methyltransferase (CAldOMT; also called caffeic acid O-methyltransferase, COMT). CAldOMT was first known for its roles in syringyl (S) lignin biosynthesis in angiosperm cell walls and later found to be multifunctional. This enzyme also catalyzes O-methylations in flavonoid, melatonin, and stilbene biosynthetic pathways. Phylogenetic analysis indicated the convergent evolution of enzymes with OMT activities towards the monolignol biosynthetic pathway intermediates in some gymnosperm species that lack S-lignin and Selaginella moellendorffii, a lycophyte which produces S-lignin. Furthermore, neofunctionalization of CAldOMTs occurred repeatedly during evolution, generating unique O-methyltransferases (OMTs) with novel catalytic activities and/or accepting novel substrates, including lignans, 1,2,3-trihydroxybenzene, and phenylpropenes. This review summarizes multiple aspects of CAldOMTs and their related proteins in plant metabolism and discusses their evolution, molecular mechanism, and roles in biorefineries, agriculture, and synthetic biology.

Caffeic Acid O-Methyltransferase Gene Family in Mango (Mangifera indica L.) with Transcriptional Analysis under Biotic and Abiotic Stresses and the Role of MiCOMT1 in Salt Tolerance

Caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT) participates in various physiological activities in plants, such as positive responses to abiotic stresses and the signal transduction of phytohormones. In this study, 18 COMT genes were identified in the chromosome-level reference genome of mango, named MiCOMTs. A phylogenetic tree containing nine groups (I-IX) was constructed based on the amino acid sequences of the 71 COMT proteins from seven species. The phylogenetic tree indicated that the members of the MiCOMTs could be divided into four groups. Quantitative real-time PCR showed that all MiCOMT genes have particularly high expression levels during flowering. The expression levels of MiCOMTs were different under abiotic and biotic stresses, including salt and stimulated drought stresses, ABA and SA treatment, as well as Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides infection, respectively. Among them, the expression level of MiCOMT1 was significantly up-regulated at 6-72 h after salt and stimulated drought stresses. The results of gene function analysis via the transient overexpression of the MiCOMT1 gene in Nicotiana benthamiana showed that the MiCOMT1 gene can promote the accumulation of ABA and MeJA, and improve the salt tolerance of mango. These results are beneficial to future researchers aiming to understand the biological functions and molecular mechanisms of MiCOMT genes.

Biosynthesis of melatonin from L-tryptophan by an engineered microbial cell factory

BACKGROUND

The demand for melatonin is increasing due to its health-promoting bioactivities such as antioxidant and sleep benefits. Although melatonin is present in various organisms, its low content and high extraction cost make it unsustainable. Biosynthesis is a promising alternative method for melatonin production. However, the ectopic production of melatonin in microorganisms is very difficult due to the low or insoluble expression of melatonin synthesis genes. Hence, we aim to explore the biosynthesis of melatonin using Escherichia coli as a cell factory and ways to simultaneously coordinated express genes from different melatonin synthesis pathways.

RESULTS

In this study, the mXcP4H gene from Xanthomonas campestris, as well as the HsAADC, HsAANAT and HIOMT genes from human melatonin synthesis pathway were optimized and introduced into E. coli via a multi-monocistronic vector. The obtained strain BL7992 successfully synthesized 1.13 mg/L melatonin by utilizing L-tryptophan (L-Trp) as a substrate in a shake flask. It was determined that the rate-limiting enzyme for melatonin synthesis is the arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase, which is encoded by the HsAANAT gene. Targeted metabolomics analysis of L-Trp revealed that the majority of L-Trp flowed to the indole pathway in BL7992, and knockout of the tnaA gene may be beneficial for increasing melatonin production.

CONCLUSIONS

A metabolic engineering approach was adopted and melatonin was successfully synthesized from low-cost L-Trp in E. coli. This study provides a rapid and economical strategy for the synthesis of melatonin.

Genome-wide characterization of COMT family and regulatory role of CsCOMT19 in melatonin synthesis in Camellia sinensis

BACKGROUND

Caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT) is a key enzyme that regulates melatonin synthesis and is involved in regulating the growth, development, and response to abiotic stress in plants. Tea plant is a popular beverage consumed worldwide, has been used for centuries for its medicinal properties, including its ability to reduce inflammation, improve digestion, and boost immune function. By analyzing genetic variation within the COMT family, while helping tea plants resist adversity, it is also possible to gain a deeper understanding of how different tea varieties produce and metabolize catechins, then be used to develop new tea cultivars with desired flavor profiles and health benefits.

RESULTS

In this study, a total of 25 CsCOMT genes were identified based on the high-quality tea (Camellia sinensis) plant genome database. Phylogenetic tree analysis of CsCOMTs with COMTs from other species showed that COMTs divided into four subfamilies (Class I, II, III, IV), and CsCOMTs was distributed in Class I, Class II, Class III. CsCOMTs not only undergoes large-scale gene recombination in pairs internally in tea plant, but also shares 2 and 7 collinear genes with Arabidopsis thaliana and poplar (Populus trichocarpa), respectively. The promoter region of CsCOMTs was found to be rich in cis-acting elements associated with plant growth and stress response. By analyzing the previously transcriptome data, it was found that some members of CsCOMT family exhibited significant tissue-specific expression and differential expression under different stress treatments. Subsequently, we selected six CsCOMTs to further validated their expression levels in different tissues organ using qRT-PCR. In addition, we silenced the CsCOMT19 through virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) method and found that CsCOMT19 positively regulates the synthesis of melatonin in tea plant.

CONCLUSION

These results will contribute to the understanding the functions of CsCOMT gene family and provide valuable information for further research on the role of CsCOMT genes in regulating tea plant growth, development, and response to abiotic stress.

Evolution and diversification of the O-methyltransferase (OMT) gene family in Solanaceae

O-methyltransferases (OMTs) are a group of enzymes involved in several fundamental biological processes in plants, including lignin biosynthesis, pigmentation, and aroma production. Despite the intensive investigation of the role of OMTs in plant secondary metabolism, the evolution and diversification of this gene family in Solanaceae remain poorly understood. Here, we conducted a genome-wide survey of OMT genes in six Solanaceae species, reconstructing gene phylogenetic trees, predicting the potential involvement in biological processes, and investigating the exon/intron structure and chromosomal location. We identified 57 caffeoyl-CoA OMTs (CCoAOMTs) and 196 caffeic acid OMTs (COMTs) in the studied species. We observed a conserved gene block on chromosome 2 that consisted of tandem duplicated copies of OMT genes. Our results suggest that the expansion of the OMT gene family in Solanaceae was driven by whole genome duplication, segmental duplication, and tandem duplication, with multiple genes being retained by neofunctionalization and subfunctionalization. This study represents an essential first step in unraveling the evolutionary history of OMTs in Solanaceae. Our findings deepen our understanding of the crucial role of OMTs in several biological processes and highlight their significance as potential biotechnological targets.

A Rehmannia glutinosa caffeic acid O-methyltransferase functional identification: Reconstitution of the ferulic acid biosynthetic pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae using Rehmannia glutinosa enzymes

Rehmannia glutinosa produces many pharmacological natural components, including ferulic acid (FA) which is also an important precursor of some medicinal ingredients, so it is very significant to explore FA biosynthesis for enhancing the production of FA and its derivations. This study aimed to determine and reconstitute the R. glutinosa FA biosynthetic pathway from phenylalanine (Phe) metabolism in Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a safe host for the biosynthesis of plant-derived products. Although plant caffeic acid O-methyltransferases (COMTs) are thought to be a vital catalytic enzyme in FA biosynthesis pathways, to date, none of the RgCOMTs in R. glutinosa has been characterized. This study identified an RgCOMT and revealed its protein enzymatic activity for FA production in vitro. The RgCOMT overexpression in R. glutinosa significantly increased FA yield, suggesting that its molecular function is involved in FA biosynthesis. Heterologous expression of the RgCOMT and reported R. glutinosa genes, RgPAL2 (encoding phenylalanine ammonia-lyase [PAL] protein), RgC4H (cinnamate 4-hydroxylase [C4H]), and RgC3H (p-coumarate-3-hydroxylase [C3H]), in S. cerevisiae confirmed their catalytic abilities in the reaction steps for the FA biosynthesis. Importantly, in this study, these genes were introduced into S. cerevisiae and coexpressed to reconstitute the R. glutinosa FA biosynthetic pathway from Phe metabolism, thus obtaining an engineered strain that produced an FA titer of 148.34 mg L-1 . This study identified the functional activity of RgCOMT and clarified the R. glutinosa FA biosynthesis pathway in S. cerevisiae, paving the way for the efficient production of FA and its derivatives.

Melatonin receptor, GhCAND2-D5 motivated responding to NaCl signaling in cotton

As a receptor for plant melatonin, CAND2/PMTR plays an important role in melatonin signaling. Most of the CANDs are membrane proteins and play indispensable roles in signal transduction. In this study, the CANDs from four cotton species were characterized, and the phylogenetic relationships, expression patterns, stress responses of cotton CANDs were analyzed by bioinformatics. Through the analysis of phylogenetic and protein structure, it was found that the CANDs in clade Ⅱ might function as cotton melatonin receptors, and most of the GhCANDs in clade Ⅱ were induced by melatonin. A putative cotton melatonin receptor, GhCAND2-D5, was functionally probed by gene silencing. The plants with silenced expression of this gene exhibited decreased salt tolerance. Protein interaction prediction identified that GhCAND2-D5 interacted with several membrane proteins and played an important role in melatonin signaling. This study provided a theoretical reference for further investigation of melatonin signaling in cotton.

Understanding the mechanism of red light-induced melatonin biosynthesis facilitates the engineering of melatonin-enriched tomatoes

Melatonin is a functionally conserved broad-spectrum physiological regulator found in most biological organisms in nature. Enrichment of tomato fruit with melatonin not only enhances its agronomic traits but also provides extra health benefits. In this study, we elucidate the full melatonin biosynthesis pathway in tomato fruit by identifying biosynthesis-related genes that encode caffeic acid O-methyltransferase 2 (SlCOMT2) and N-acetyl-5-hydroxytryptamine-methyltransferases 5/7 (SlASMT5/7). We further reveal that red light supplementation significantly enhances the melatonin content in tomato fruit. This induction relies on the "serotonin-N-acetylserotonin-melatonin" biosynthesis route via the SlphyB2-SlPIF4-SlCOMT2 module. Based on the regulatory mechanism, we design a gene-editing strategy to target the binding motif of SlPIF4 in the promoter of SlCOMT2, which significantly enhances the production of melatonin in tomato fruit. Our study provides a good example of how the understanding of plant metabolic pathways responding to environmental factors can guide the engineering of health-promoting foods.

Role of melatonin in enhancing arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis and mitigating cold stress in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)

Melatonin is a biomolecule that affects plant development and is involved in protecting plants from environmental stress. However, the mechanisms of melatonin's impact on arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis and cold tolerance in plants are still unclear. In this research, AM fungi inoculation and exogenous melatonin (MT) were applied to perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) seedlings alone or in combination to investigate their effect on cold tolerance. The study was conducted in two parts. The initial trial examined two variables, AM inoculation, and cold stress, to investigate the involvement of the AM fungus Rhizophagus irregularis in endogenous melatonin accumulation and the transcriptional levels of its synthesis genes in the root system of perennial ryegrass under cold stress. The subsequent trial was designed as a three-factor analysis, encompassing AM inoculation, cold stress, and melatonin application, to explore the effects of exogenous melatonin application on plant growth, AM symbiosis, antioxidant activity, and protective molecules in perennial ryegrass subjected to cold stress. The results of the study showed that compared to non-mycorrhizal (NM) plants, cold stress promoted an increase in the accumulation of melatonin in the AM-colonized counterparts. Acetylserotonin methyltransferase (ASMT) catalyzed the final enzymatic reaction in melatonin production. Melatonin accumulation was associated with the level of expression of the genes, LpASMT1 and LpASMT3. Treatment with melatonin can improve the colonization of AM fungi in plants. Simultaneous utilization of AM inoculation and melatonin treatment enhanced the growth, antioxidant activity, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) activity, while simultaneously reducing polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity and altering osmotic regulation in the roots. These effects are expected to aid in the mitigation of cold stress in Lolium perenne. Overall, melatonin treatment would help Lolium perenne to improve growth by promoting AM symbiosis, improving the accumulation of protective molecules, and triggering in antioxidant activity under cold stress.

Combined Transcriptome and Metabolome Analysis Reveals Adaptive Defense Responses to DON Induction in Potato

Phytophthora infestans poses a serious threat to potato production, storage, and processing. Understanding plant immunity triggered by fungal elicitors is important for the effective control of plant diseases. However, the role of the potato stress response to Fusarium toxin deoxynivalenol (DON)-induced stress is still not fully understood. In this study, the metabolites of DON-treated potato tubers were studied for four time intervals using UPLC-MS/MS. We identified 676 metabolites, and differential accumulation metabolite analysis showed that alkaloids, phenolic acids, and flavonoids were the major differential metabolites that directly determined defense response. Transcriptome data showed that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were significantly enriched in phenylpropane and flavonoid metabolic pathways. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) identified many hub genes, some of which modulate plant immune responses. This study is important for understanding the metabolic changes, transcriptional regulation, and physiological responses of active and signaling substances during DON induction, and it will help to design defense strategies against Phytophthora infestans in potato.

Melatonin as a Possible Natural Anti-Viral Compound in Plant Biocontrol

Melatonin is a multifunctional and ubiquitous molecule. In animals, melatonin is a hormone that is involved in a wide range of physiological activities and is also an excellent antioxidant. In plants, it has been considered a master regulator of multiple physiological processes as well as of hormonal homeostasis. Likewise, it is known for its role as a protective biomolecule and activator of tolerance and resistance against biotic and abiotic stress in plants. Since infections by pathogens such as bacteria, fungi and viruses in crops result in large economic losses, interest has been aroused in determining whether melatonin plays a relevant role in plant defense systems against pathogens in general, and against viruses in particular. Currently, several strategies have been applied to combat infection by pathogens, one of them is the use of eco-friendly chemical compounds that induce systemic resistance. Few studies have addressed the use of melatonin as a biocontrol agent for plant diseases caused by viruses. Exogenous melatonin treatments have been used to reduce the incidence of several virus diseases, reducing symptoms, virus titer, and even eradicating the proliferation of viruses such as Tobacco Mosaic Virus, Apple Stem Grooving Virus, Rice Stripe Virus and Alfalfa Mosaic Virus in tomato, apple, rice and eggplant, respectively. The possibilities of using melatonin as a possible natural virus biocontrol agent are discussed.

Creation of a Plant Metabolite Spectral Library for Untargeted and Targeted Metabolomics

Large-scale high throughput metabolomic technologies are indispensable components of systems biology in terms of discovering and defining the metabolite parts of the system. However, the lack of a plant metabolite spectral library limits the metabolite identification of plant metabolomic studies. Here, we have created a plant metabolite spectral library using 544 authentic standards, which increased the efficiency of identification for untargeted metabolomic studies. The process of creating the spectral library was described, and the mzVault library was deposited in the public repository for free download. Furthermore, based on the spectral library, we describe a process of creating a pseudo-targeted method, which was applied to a proof-of-concept study of Arabidopsis leaf extracts. As authentic standards become available, more metabolite spectra can be easily incorporated into the spectral library to improve the mzVault package.

Melatonin from Microorganisms, Algae, and Plants as Possible Alternatives to Synthetic Melatonin

Melatonin dietary supplements are widely consumed worldwide, with developed countries as the largest consumers, with an estimated annual growth rate of approximately 10% until 2027, mainly in developing countries. The wide use of melatonin against sleep disorders and particular problems, such as jet lag, has been added to other applications, such as anti-aging, anti-stress, immune system activation, anticancer, and others, which have triggered its use, normally without a prescription. The chemical industry currently covers 100% of the needs of the melatonin market. Motivated by sectors with more natural consumption habits, a few years ago, the possibility of obtaining melatonin from plants, called phytomelatonin, arose. More recently, the pharmaceutical industry has developed genetically modified microorganisms whose ability to produce biological melatonin in bioreactors has been enhanced. This paper reviews the aspects of the chemical and biological synthesis of melatonin for human consumption, mainly as dietary supplements. The pros and cons of obtaining melatonin from microorganisms and phytomelatonin from plants and algae are analyzed, as well as the advantages of natural melatonin, avoiding unwanted chemical by-products from the chemical synthesis of melatonin. Finally, the economic and quality aspects of these new products, some of which are already marketed, are analyzed.

NtCOMT1 responsible for phytomelatonin biosynthesis confers drought tolerance in Nicotiana tabacum

Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) is one of the most important industrial crops and its productivity is vulnerable to drought, particularly in Yunnan province, China due to the long water-deficit spring. Here, we aimed at identifying caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT) in melatonin biosynthesis to provide genetic resources against drought tolerance of tobacco. The integration of the genome-wide identification, phylogenetic relationships, and conserved domain/motif analysis revealed that NtCOMT1 could be the probable functional COMT homolog for melatonin production. In vitro enzyme activity test approved that NtCOMT1 enabled the conversion of N-acetylserotonin into melatonin, occurring both in the cytoplasm and nucleus by subcellular localization analysis. The Km and Vmax values for NtCOMT1 at the optimum temperature (30 °C) were 266.0 μM and 2.155 nmol/min/mg protein. NtCOMT1 was significantly induced by drought stress; whereby if this gene functioned on promoting drought resistance was further conducted. Overexpression of NtCOMT1 resulted in decreased wilting in transgenic tobacco plants subjected to dehydration treatment. The combinatorial effects of NtCOMT1 in increasing melatonin content, inducing antioxidant system, and elevating the expression of drought-related genes could deliver the drought tolerance in tobacco. The characterization of NtCOMT1 may represent a solution to cope with the increasing drought stress in tobacco production in Yunnan province.

Anabolism and signaling pathways of phytomelatonin

Phytomelatonin is a small multifunctional molecule found ubiquitously in plants, which plays an important role in plant growth, development, and biotic and abiotic stress responses. The classical biosynthetic and metabolic pathways of phytomelatonin have been elucidated, and uncovering alternative pathways has deepened our understanding of phytomelatonin synthesis. Phytomelatonin functions mainly via two pathways. In the direct pathway, phytomelatonin mediates the stress-induced reactive oxygen species burst through its strong antioxidant capacity. In the indirect pathway, phytomelatonin acts as a signal to activate signaling cascades and crosstalk with other plant hormones. The phytomelatonin receptor PMTR1/CAND2 was discovered in 2018, which enhanced our understanding of phytomelatonin function. This review summarizes the classical and potential pathways involved in phytomelatonin synthesis and metabolism. To elucidate the functions of phytomelatonin, we focus on the crosstalk between phytomelatonin and other phytohormones. We propose two models to explain how PMTR1 transmits the phytomelatonin signal through the G protein and MAPK cascade. This review will facilitate the identification of additional signaling molecules that function downstream of the phytomelatonin signaling pathway, thus improving our understanding of phytomelatonin signal transmission.

Functions and prospects of melatonin in plant growth, yield, and quality

Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) is an indole molecule widely found in animals and plants. It is well known that melatonin improves plant resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses due to its potent free radical scavenging ability while being able to modulate plant signaling and response pathways through mostly unknown mechanisms. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have shown that melatonin plays a crucial role in improving crop quality and yield by participating in the regulation of various aspects of plant growth and development. Here, we review the effects of melatonin on plant vegetative growth and reproductive development, and systematically summarize its molecular regulatory network. Moreover, the effective concentrations of exogenously applied melatonin in different crops or at different growth stages of the same crop are analysed. In addition, we compare endogenous phytomelatonin concentrations in various crops and different organs, and evaluate a potential function of phytomelatonin in plant circadian rhythms. The prospects of different approaches in regulating crop yield and quality through exogenous application of appropriate concentrations of melatonin, endogenous modification of phytomelatonin metabolism-related genes, and the use of nanomaterials and other technologies to improve melatonin utilization efficiency are also discussed.

Carex rigescens caffeic acid O-methyltransferase gene CrCOMT confer melatonin-mediated drought tolerance in transgenic tobacco

Melatonin is an important, multifunctional protective agent against a variety of abiotic and biotic stressors in plants. Caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT) catalyzes the last step of melatonin synthesis in plants and reportedly participates in the regulation of stress response and tolerance. However, few studies have reported its function in melatonin-mediated drought resistance. In this study, CrCOMT was identified and was strongly induced by drought stress in Carex rigescens. CrCOMT overexpression in transgenic tobacco increased tolerance to drought stress with high levels of seed germination, relative water content, and survival rates. CrCOMT overexpression in tobacco improved membrane stability, and plants exhibited lower relative electrolytic leakage and malondialdehyde content, as well as higher photochemical efficiency than the wildtype (WT) under drought stress. The transgenic plants also had higher levels of proline accumulation and antioxidant enzyme activity, which decreased oxidative stress damage due to reactive oxygen species (ROS) hyperaccumulation under drought stress. The transcription of drought stress response and ROS scavenging genes was significantly higher in the CrCOMT overexpression plants than in the WT plants. In addition, CrCOMT transgenic tobacco plants exhibited higher melatonin content under drought stress conditions. Exogenous melatonin was applied to C. rigescens under drought stress to confirm the function of melatonin in mediating drought tolerance; the relative water content and proline content were higher, and the relative electrolytic leakage was lower in melatonin-treated C. rigescens than in the untreated plants. In summary, these results show that CrCOMT plays a positive role in plant drought stress tolerance by regulating endogenous melatonin content.

Identification and Functional Analysis of the Caffeic Acid O-Methyltransferase (COMT) Gene Family in Rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT) is one of the core enzymes involved in lignin synthesis. However, there is no systematic study on the rice COMT gene family. We identified 33 COMT genes containing the methyltransferase-2 domain in the rice genome using bioinformatic methods and divided them into Group I (a and b) and Group II. Motifs, conserved domains, gene structure and SNPs density are related to the classification of OsCOMTs. The tandem phenomenon plays a key role in the expansion of OsCOMTs. The expression levels of fourteen and thirteen OsCOMTs increased or decreased under salt stress and drought stress, respectively. OsCOMTs showed higher expression levels in the stem. The lignin content of rice was measured in five stages; combined with the expression analysis of OsCOMTs and multiple sequence alignment, we found that OsCOMT8, OsCOMT9 and OsCOMT15 play a key role in the synthesis of lignin. Targeted miRNAs and gene ontology annotation revealed that OsCOMTs were involved in abiotic stress responses. Our study contributes to the analysis of the biological function of OsCOMTs, which may provide information for future rice breeding and editing of the rice genome.

Overexpression of VvASMT1 from grapevine enhanced salt and osmotic stress tolerance in Nicotiana benthamiana

Salt and drought stresses are major environmental conditions that severely limit grape growth and productivity, while exogenous melatonin can alleviate the drought and salt damage to grapevines. N-acetylserotonin methyltransferase (ASMT) is the key enzyme in melatonin synthesis, which plays a critical role in regulating stress responses. However, the roles of ASMTs from grapevine under drought and salt stresses responses remain largely unclear. In this study, the VvASMT1 gene was isolated from grapevine, and its physiological functions in salt and mimic drought stress tolerance were investigated. Expression pattern analysis revealed that VvASMT1 was significantly induced by different salt and osmotic stresses. Ectopic expression of VvASMT1 in Nicotiana benthamiana significantly enhanced melatonin production in transgenic plants. Compared with wild-type plants, the transgenic lines exhibited a higher germination ratio, longer root length, lower degree of leaf wilting and relative water content (RWC) under salt and osmotic stresses. In addition, under salt and osmotic stresses, overexpression of VvASMT1 improved proline and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents, increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes and decreased the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Taken together, our results demonstrate the explicit role of VvASMT1 in salt and osmotic stress responses, which provides a theoretical foundation for the genetic engineering of grapevine.

OsCOMT, encoding a caffeic acid O-methyltransferase in melatonin biosynthesis, increases rice grain yield through dual regulation of leaf senescence and vascular development

Melatonin, a natural phytohormone in plants, plays multiple critical roles in plant growth and stress responses. Although melatonin biosynthesis-related genes have been suggested to possess diverse biological functions, their roles and functional mechanisms in regulating rice grain yield remain largely unexplored. Here, we uncovered the roles of a caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (OsCOMT) gene in mediating rice grain yield through dual regulation of leaf senescence and vascular development. In vitro and in vivo evidence revealed that OsCOMT is involved in melatonin biosynthesis. Transgenic assays suggested that OsCOMT significantly delays leaf senescence at the grain filling stage by inhibiting degradation of chlorophyll and chloroplast, which, in turn, improves photosynthesis efficiency. In addition, the number and size of vascular bundles in the culms and leaves were significantly increased in the OsCOMT-overexpressing plants, while decreased in the knockout plants, suggesting that OsCOMT plays a positive role in vascular development of rice. Further evidence indicated that OsCOMT-mediated vascular development might owe to the crosstalk between melatonin and cytokinin. More importantly, we found that OsCOMT is a positive regulator of grain yield, and overexpression of OsCOMT increase grain yield per plant even in a high-yield variety background, suggesting that OsCOMT can be used as an important target for enhancing rice yield. Our findings shed novel insights into melatonin-mediated leaf senescence and vascular development and provide a possible strategy for genetic improvement of rice grain yield.

Melatonin Alleviates Copper Toxicity via Improving ROS Metabolism and Antioxidant Defense Response in Tomato Seedlings

The excessive accumulation of copper (Cu2+) has become a threat to worldwide crop production. Recently, it was revealed that melatonin (MT) could play a crucial role against heavy metal (HM) stresses in plants. However, the underlying mechanism of MT function acted upon by Cu2+ stress (CS) has not been substantiated in tomatoes. In the present work, we produced MT-rich tomato plants by foliar usage of MT, and MT-deficient tomato plants by employing a virus-induced gene silencing methodology and exogenous foliar application of MT synthesis inhibitor para-chlorophenylalanine (pCPA). The obtained results indicate that exogenous MT meaningfully alleviated the dwarf phenotype and impeded the reduction in plant growth caused by excess Cu2+. Furthermore, MT effectively restricted the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and habilitated cellular integrity by triggering antioxidant enzyme activities, especially via CAT and APX, but not SOD and POD. In addition, MT increased nonenzymatic antioxidant activity, including FRAP and the GSH/GSSG and ASA/DHA ratios. MT usage improved the expression of several defense genes (CAT, APX, GR and MDHAR) and MT biosynthesis-related genes (TDC, SNAT and COMT). Taken together, our results preliminarily reveal that MT alleviates Cu2+ toxicity via ROS scavenging, enhancing antioxidant capacity when subjected to excessive Cu2+. These results build a solid foundation for developing new insights to solve problems related to CS.

A systems biology study unveils the association between a melatonin biosynthesis gene, O-methyl transferase 1 (OMT1) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) combined drought and salinity stress tolerance

Enhanced levels of endogenous melatonin in the root of wheat, mainly through the OMT1 gene, augment the antioxidant system, reestablish redox homeostasis and are associated with combined stress tolerance. A systems biology approach, including a collection of computational analyses and experimental assays, led us to uncover some aspects of a poorly understood phenomenon, namely wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) combined drought and salinity stress tolerance. Accordingly, a cross-study comparison of stress experiments was performed via a meta-analysis of Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs) data from wheat roots to uncover the overlapping gene network of drought and salinity stresses. Identified differentially expressed genes were functionally annotated by gene ontology enrichment analysis and gene network analysis. Among those genes, O-methyl transferase 1 (OMT1) was highlighted as a more important (hub) gene in the dual-stress response gene network. Afterwards, the potential roles of OMT1 in mediating physiochemical indicators of stress tolerance were investigated in two wheat genotypes differing in abiotic stress tolerance. Regression analysis and correspondence analysis (CA) confirmed that the expression profiles of the OMT1 gene and variations in melatonin content, antioxidant enzyme activities, proline accumulation, H₂O₂ and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents are significantly associated with combined stress tolerance. These results reveal that the OMT1 gene may contribute to wheat combined drought and salinity stress tolerance through augmenting the antioxidant system and re-establishing redox homeostasis, probably via the regulation of melatonin biosynthesis as a master regulator molecule. Our findings provide new insights into the roles of melatonin in wheat combined drought and salinity stress tolerance and suggest a novel plausible regulatory node through the OMT1 gene to improve multiple-stress tolerant crops.

Transcriptomic, proteomic, metabolomic, and functional genomic approaches of Brassica napus L. during salt stress

Environmental abiotic stresses limit plant growth, development, and reproduction. This study aims to reveal the response of Brassica napus to salt stress. Here, transcriptomics, metabolomics, and proteomics analysis were performed on 15 Brassica napus leave samples treated with salt at different times. Through functional enrichment analyzing the differentially expressed genes (DEGs), differential metabolites (DMs) and differentially expressed proteins (DEPs), the key factors that dominate Brassica napus response to salt stress were identified. The results showed that the two key hormones responding to salt stress were Abscisic acid (ABA) and jasmonic acid (JA). Salt stress for 24h is an important milestone. Brassica napus adjusted multiple pathways at 24h to avoid over-response to salt stress and cause energy consumption. The increased expression in BnPP2C is tangible evidence. In response to salt stress, JA and ABA work together to reduce the damage caused by salt stress in Brassica napus. The increased expression of all BnJAZs after salt stress highlighted the function of JA that cannot be ignored responding to salt stress. In addition, some metabolites, such as N-acetyl-5-hydroxytryptamine, L-Cysteine and L-(+)-Arginine, play a critical role in maintaining the balance of ROS. Proteins like catalase-3, cysteine desulfurase, HSP90 and P450_97A3 were the most critical differential proteins in response to salt stress. These findings of this study provide data support for Brassica napus breeding.

Diversification of Chemical Structures of Methoxylated Flavonoids and Genes Encoding Flavonoid-O-Methyltransferases

The O-methylation of specialized metabolites in plants is a unique decoration that provides structural and functional diversity of the metabolites with changes in chemical properties and intracellular localizations. The O-methylation of flavonoids, which is a class of plant specialized metabolites, promotes their antimicrobial activities and liposolubility. Flavonoid O-methyltransferases (FOMTs), which are responsible for the O-methylation process of the flavonoid aglycone, generally accept a broad range of substrates across flavones, flavonols and lignin precursors, with different substrate preferences. Therefore, the characterization of FOMTs with the physiology roles of methoxylated flavonoids is useful for crop improvement and metabolic engineering. In this review, we summarized the chemodiversity and physiology roles of methoxylated flavonoids, which were already reported, and we performed a cross-species comparison to illustrate an overview of diversification and conserved catalytic sites of the flavonoid O-methyltransferases.

Identification of SNAT Family Genes Suggests GhSNAT3D Functional Reponse to Melatonin Synthesis Under Salinity Stress in Cotton

Serotonin N-acetyltransferase (SNAT) is a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of melatonin, and plays an important role in the regulation of melatonin synthesis. The study of SNAT is of great significance to understand the function of melatonin. In this study, we analyzed the structural characteristics, phylogenetic relationship, gene structure, expression pattern, evolutionary relationship and stress response of the members of the SNAT gene family in upland cotton through bioinformatics. A putative Serotonin n-acetyltransferase gene GhSNAT3D was identified, and preliminarily function of GhSNAT3D was verified by virus-induced gene silencing. We identified a total of 52 SNAT genes in the whole genome of G. hirsutum, and part of the GhSNATs were regulated by exogenous melatonin. The content of melatonin, antioxidant enzyme activity and Ca²⁺ content of GhSNAT3D gene silenced plants decreased, and the salt tolerance of GhSNAT3D gene silenced plants was reduced. Exogenous melatonin supplementation restored the salt tolerance of GhSNAT3D gene silenced plants. GhSNAT3D may interact with GhSNAT25D and ASMT to regulate melatonin synthesis. This study provided an important basis for further study on the regulation of melatonin in cotton against abiotic stress.

Integrative Analysis of the Transcriptome and Metabolome Reveals the Mechanism of Saline–Alkali Stress Tolerance in Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch) Bge. var. mongholicus (Bge.) Hsiao

Saline–alkali stress is a major abiotic stress affecting the quality and yield of crops. Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch) Bge. var. mongholicus (Bge.) Hsiao (A. mongholicus) is a well-known medicine food homology species with various pharmacological effects and health benefits that can grow well in saline–alkali soil. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the adaptation of A. mongholicus plants to saline–alkali stress have not yet been clarified. Here, A. mongholicus plants were exposed to long-term saline–alkali stress (200 mmol·L -1 mixed saline–alkali solution), which limited the growth of A. mongholicus. The roots of A. mongholicus could resist long-term saline–alkali stress by increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the content of osmolytes. Transcriptome analysis (via the Illumina platform) and metabolome analysis (via the Nexera UPLC Series QE Liquid Mass Coupling System) revealed that saline–alkali stress altered the activity of various metabolic pathways (e.g., amino acid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, lipid metabolism, and biosynthesis of other secondary metabolites). A total of 3,690 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 997 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) were identified in A. mongholicus roots under saline–alkali stress, and flavonoid-related DEGs and DAMs were significantly up-regulated. Pearson correlation analysis revealed significant correlations between DEGs and DAMs related to flavonoid metabolism. MYB transcription factors might also contribute to the regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis. Overall, the results indicate that A. mongholicus plants adapt to saline–alkali stress by up-regulating the biosynthesis of flavonoids, which enhances the medicinal value of A. mongholicus.

Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of Caffeic Acid O-Methyltransferase Gene Family in Soybean

Soybean is one of the most important legumes, providing high-quality protein for humans. The caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene has previously been demonstrated to be a critical gene that regulates lignin production in plant cell walls and plays an important function in plant growth and development. However, the COMT gene family has not been studied in soybeans. In this study, 55 COMT family genes in soybean were identified by phylogenetic analysis and divided into two groups, I and II. The analysis of conserved domains showed that all GmCOMTs genes contained Methyltransferase-2 domains. Further prediction of cis-acting elements showed that GmCOMTs genes were associated with growth, light, stress, and hormonal responses. Eventually, based on the genomic data of soybean under different stresses, the results showed that the expression of GmCOMTs genes was different under different stresses, such as salt and drought stress. This study has identified and characterized the COMT gene family in soybean, which provides an important theoretical basis for further research on the biological functions of COMT genes and promotes revealing the role of GmCOMTs genes under stress resistance.

Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of GhCOMT Gene Family during Fiber Development and Verticillium Wilt Resistance in Cotton

Caffeic acid O-methyltransferases (COMTs) play an essential role in lignin synthesis procession, especially in the plant’s phenylalanine metabolic pathway. The content of COMT genes in cotton and the relationship between their expression patterns have not been studied clearly in cotton. In this study, we have identified 190 COMT genes in cotton, which were classified into three groups (I, II and III), and mapped on the cotton chromosomes. In addition, we found that 135 of the 190 COMT genes result from dispersed duplication (DSD) and whole-genome duplication (WGD), indicating that DSD and WGD were the main forces driving COMT gene expansion. The Ka/Ks analysis showed that GhCOMT43 and GhCOMT41 evolved from GaCOMT27 and GrCOMT14 through positive selection. The results of qRT-PCR showed that GhCOMT13, GhCOMT28, GhCOMT39 and GhCOMT55 were related to lignin content during the cotton fiber development. GhCOMT28, GhCOMT39, GhCOMT55, GhCOMT56 and GhCOMT57 responded to Verticillium Wilt (VW) and maybe related to VW resistance through lignin synthesis. Conclusively, this study found that GhCOMTs were highly expressed in the secondary wall thickening stage and VW. These results provide a clue for studying the functions of GhCOMTs in the development of cotton fiber and VW resistance and could lay a foundation for breeding cotton cultivates with higher quantity and high resistance to VW.

Sexual and Apogamous Species of Woodferns Show Different Protein and Phytohormone Profiles

The gametophyte of ferns reproduces either by sexual or asexual means. In the latter, apogamy represents a peculiar case of apomixis, in which an embryo is formed from somatic cells. A proteomic and physiological approach was applied to the apogamous fern Dryopteris affinis ssp. affinis and its sexual relative D. oreades. The proteomic analysis compared apogamous vs. female gametophytes, whereas the phytohormone study included, in addition to females, three apogamous stages (filamentous, spatulate, and cordate). The proteomic profiles revealed a total of 879 proteins and, after annotation, different regulation was found in 206 proteins of D. affinis and 166 of its sexual counterpart. The proteins upregulated in D. affinis are mostly associated to protein metabolism (including folding, transport, and proteolysis), ribosome biogenesis, gene expression and translation, while in the sexual counterpart, they account largely for starch and sucrose metabolism, generation of energy and photosynthesis. Likewise, ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was used to assess the levels of indol-3-acetic acid (IAA); the cytokinins: 6-benzylaminopurine (BA), trans-Zeatine (Z), trans-Zeatin riboside (ZR), dyhidrozeatine (DHZ), dyhidrozeatin riboside (DHZR), isopentenyl adenine (iP), isopentenyl adenosine (iPR), abscisic acid (ABA), the gibberellins GA₃ and GA₄, salicylic acid (SA), and the brassinosteroids: brassinolide (BL) and castasterone (CS). IAA, the cytokinins Z, ZR, iPR, the gibberellin GA₄, the brassinosteoids castasterone, and ABA accumulated more in the sexual gametophyte than in the apogamous one. When comparing the three apogamous stages, BA and SA peaked in filamentous, GA₃ and BL in spatulate and DHRZ in cordate gametophytes. The results point to the existence of large metabolic differences between apogamous and sexual gametophytes, and invite to consider the fern gametophyte as a good experimental system to deepen our understanding of plant reproduction.

Genome-wide identification and characteristic analysis of the downstream melatonin metabolism gene GhM2H in Gossypium hirsutum L

Background

Melatonin 2-hydroxylase (M2H) is the first enzyme in the catabolism pathway of melatonin, which catalyzes the production of 2-hydroxymelatonin (2-OHM) from melatonin. The content of 2-hydroxymelatonin in plants is much higher than that of melatonin. So M2H may be a key enzyme in the metabolic pathway of melatonin.

Method

We conducted a systematic analysis of the M2H gene family in Gossypium hirsutum based on the whole genome sequence by integrating the structural characteristics, phylogenetic relationships, expression profile, and biological stress of the members of the Gossypium hirsutum M2H gene family.

Result

We identified 265 M2H genes in the whole genome of Gossypium hirsutum, which were divided into 7 clades (clades I-VII) according to phylogenetic analysis. Most M2H members in each group had similar motif composition and gene structure characteristics. More than half of GhM2H members contain ABA-responsive elements and MeJA-responsive elements. Under different stress conditions, the expression levels of the gene changed, indicating that GhM2H members were involved in the regulation of abiotic stress. Some genes in the GhM2H family were involved in regulating melatonin levels in cotton under salt stress, and some genes were regulated by exogenous melatonin.

Conclusion

This study is helpful to explore the function of GhM2H, the downstream metabolism gene of melatonin in cotton, and lay the foundation for better exploring the molecular mechanism of melatonin improving cotton's response to abiotic stress.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40659-021-00358-y.

The role of watermelon caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (ClCOMT1) in melatonin biosynthesis and abiotic stress tolerance

Melatonin is a pleiotropic signaling molecule that regulates plant growth and responses to various abiotic stresses. The last step of melatonin synthesis in plants can be catalyzed by caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT), a multifunctional enzyme reported to have N-acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase (ASMT) activity; however, the ASMT activity of COMT has not yet been characterized in nonmodel plants such as watermelon (Citrullus lanatus). Here, a total of 16 putative O-methyltransferase (ClOMT) genes were identified in watermelon. Among them, ClOMT03 (Cla97C07G144540) was considered a potential COMT gene (renamed ClCOMT1) based on its high identities (60.00-74.93%) to known COMT genes involved in melatonin biosynthesis, expression in almost all tissues, and upregulation under abiotic stresses. The ClCOMT1 protein was localized in the cytoplasm. Overexpression of ClCOMT1 significantly increased melatonin contents, while ClCOMT1 knockout using the CRISPR/Cas-9 system decreased melatonin contents in watermelon calli. These results suggest that ClCOMT1 plays an essential role in melatonin biosynthesis in watermelon. In addition, ClCOMT1 expression in watermelon was upregulated by cold, drought, and salt stress, accompanied by increases in melatonin contents. Overexpression of ClCOMT1 enhanced transgenic Arabidopsis tolerance against such abiotic stresses, indicating that ClCOMT1 is a positive regulator of plant tolerance to abiotic stresses.

Melatonin synthesis genes N-acetylserotonin methyltransferases evolved into caffeic acid O-methyltransferases and both assisted in plant terrestrialization

Terrestrialization is one of the most momentous events in the history of plant life, which leads to the subsequent evolution of plant diversity. The transition species, in this process, had to acquire a range of adaptive mechanisms to cope with the harsh features of terrestrial environments compared to that of aquatic habitat. As an ancient antioxidant, a leading regulator of ROS signaling or homeostasis, and a presumed plant master regulator, melatonin likely assisted plants transition to land and their adaption to terrestrial ecosystems. N-acetylserotonin methyltransferases (ASMT) and caffeic acid O-methyltransferases (COMT), both in the O-methyltransferase (OMT) family, catalyze the core O-methylation reaction in melatonin biosynthesis. How these two enzymes with close relevance evolved in plant evolutionary history and whether they participated in plant terrestrialization remains unknown. Using combined phylogenetic evidence and protein structure analysis, it is revealed that COMT likely evolved from ASMT by gene duplication and subsequent divergence. Newly emergent COMT gained a significantly higher ASMT activity to produce greater amounts of melatonin for immobile plants to acclimate to the stressful land environments after evolving from the more environmentally-stable aquatic conditions. The COMT genes possess more conserved substrate-binding sites at the amino acid level and more open protein conformation compared to ASMT, and getting a new function to catalyze the lignin biosynthesis. This development directly contributed to the dominance of vascular plants among the Earth's flora and prompted plant colonization of land. Thus, ASMT, together with its descendant COMT, might play key roles in plant transition to land. The current study provides new insights into plant terrestrialization with gene duplication contributing to this process along with well-known horizontal gene transfer.

Melatonin and Phytomelatonin: Chemistry, Biosynthesis, Metabolism, Distribution and Bioactivity in Plants and Animals-An Overview

Melatonin is a ubiquitous indolamine, largely investigated for its key role in the regulation of several physiological processes in both animals and plants. In the last century, it was reported that this molecule may be produced in high concentrations by several species belonging to the plant kingdom and stored in specialized tissues. In this review, the main information related to the chemistry of melatonin and its metabolism has been summarized. Furthermore, the biosynthetic pathway characteristics of animal and plant cells have been compared, and the main differences between the two systems highlighted. Additionally, in order to investigate the distribution of this indolamine in the plant kingdom, distribution cluster analysis was performed using a database composed by 47 previously published articles reporting the content of melatonin in different plant families, species and tissues. Finally, the potential pharmacological and biostimulant benefits derived from the administration of exogenous melatonin on animals or plants via the intake of dietary supplements or the application of biostimulant formulation have been largely discussed.

Metabolite profiling and transcriptome analyses reveal novel regulatory mechanisms of melatonin biosynthesis in hickory

Studies have shown that melatonin regulates the expression of various elements in the biosynthesis and catabolism of plant hormones. In contrast, the effects of these different plant hormones on the biosynthesis and metabolism of melatonin and their underlying molecular mechanisms are still unclear. In this study, the melatonin biosynthesis pathway was proposed from constructed metabolomic and transcriptomic libraries from hickory (Carya cathayensis Sarg.) nuts. The candidate pathway genes were further identified by phylogenetic analysis, amino-acid sequence alignment, and subcellular localization. Notably, most of the transcription factor-related genes coexpressed with melatonin pathway genes were hormone-responsive genes. Furthermore, dual-luciferase and yeast one-hybrid assays revealed that CcEIN3 (response to ethylene) and CcAZF2 (response to abscisic acid) could activate melatonin biosynthesis pathway genes, a tryptophan decarboxylase coding gene (CcTDC1) and an N-acetylserotonin methyltransferase coding gene (CcASMT1), by directly binding to their promoters, respectively. Our results provide a molecular basis for the characterization of novel melatonin biosynthesis regulatory mechanisms and demonstrate for the first time that abscisic acid and ethylene can regulate melatonin biosynthesis.

Genome-wide identification and characterization of genes involved in melatonin biosynthesis in Morus notabilis (wild mulberry)

Melatonin is recognized as an important regulator for human health and widely distributed in many plant species, including mulberry (Morus L.). Previous studies suggested mulberry contains high melatonin content, but the molecular mechanisms underlying melatonin biosynthesis in mulberry remain unclear. Here, 37 genes involved in melatonin biosynthesis were identified in mulberry genome, including a tryptophan decarboxylase gene (MnTDC), seven tryptophan 5-hydroxylase genes (MnT5Hs), six serotonin N-acetyltransferase genes (MnSNATs), 20 N-acetylserotonin methyltransferase genes (MnASMTs) and three caffeic acid 3-O-methyltransferase genes (MnCOMTs). Expression analysis showed that MnTDC, MnT5H2, MnSNAT5, MnASMT12 and MnCOMT1 from these genes had highest expression levels within their corresponding families. In vitro enzymatic assays indicated that MnTDC, MnT5H2, MnSNAT5, MnASMT12 and MnCOMT1 play important roles in melatonin biosynthesis. Multiple different pathways for melatonin biosynthesis in mulberry were discovered. In addition, mulberry ASMT showed distinct roles with those of ASTMs in Arabidopsis and rice. The class I ASMT, MnASMT12, and the class III ASMT, MnASMT20, catalyzed the conversion of N-acetylserotonin to melatonin and serotonin to 5-methoxytryptamine. Furthermore, the class II ASMT, MnASMT16, only catalyzed the conversion of N-acetylserotonin to melatonin. This study improved our knowledge on melatonin biosynthesis in mulberry and expands the repertoire of melatonin biosynthesis pathways in plants.

Combining protein and metabolic engineering strategies for biosynthesis of melatonin in Escherichia coli

BACKGROUND

Melatonin has attracted substantial attention because of its excellent prospects for both medical applications and crop improvement. The microbial production of melatonin is a safer and more promising alternative to chemical synthesis approaches. Researchers have failed to produce high yields of melatonin in common heterologous hosts due to either the insolubility or low enzyme activity of proteins encoded by gene clusters related to melatonin biosynthesis.

RESULTS

Here, a combinatorial gene pathway for melatonin production was successfully established in Escherichia coli by combining the physostigmine biosynthetic genes from Streptomyces albulus and gene encoding phenylalanine 4-hydroxylase (P4H) from Xanthomonas campestris and caffeic acid 3-O-methyltransferase (COMT) from Oryza sativa. A threefold improvement of melatonin production was achieved by balancing the expression of heterologous proteins and adding 3% glycerol. Further protein engineering and metabolic engineering were conducted to improve the conversion of N-acetylserotonin (NAS) to melatonin. Construction of COMT variant containing C303F and V321T mutations increased the production of melatonin by fivefold. Moreover, the deletion of speD gene increased the supply of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), an indispensable cofactor of COMT, which doubled the yield of melatonin. In the final engineered strain EcMEL8, the production of NAS and melatonin reached 879.38 ± 71.42 mg/L and 136.17 ± 1.33 mg/L in a shake flask. Finally, in a 2-L bioreactor, EcMEL8 produced 1.06 ± 0.07 g/L NAS and 0.65 ± 0.11 g/L melatonin with tryptophan supplementation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study established a novel combinatorial pathway for melatonin biosynthesis in E. coli and provided alternative strategies for improvement of melatonin production.

Melatonin in plants: what we know and what we don’t

Melatonin is an endogenous micromolecular compound of indoleamine with multiple physiological functions in various organisms. In plants, melatonin is involved in growth and development, as well as in responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. Furthermore, melatonin functions in phytohormone-mediated signal transduction pathways. There are multiple melatonin biosynthesis pathways, and the melatonin content in plants is greatly affected by intrinsic genetic characteristics and external environmental factors. Although melatonin biosynthesis has been extensively studied in model plants, it remains uncharacterized in most plants. This article focuses on current knowledge on the biosynthesis, regulation and application of melatonin, particularly for fruit quality and preservation. In addition, it highlights the links between melatonin and other hormones, as well as future research directions.