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Zhang Y, Chen Y, Chen C, Zhu Y, Liu M, Chen J. The enhancement mechanisms of mucin and lactoferrin on α-amylase activity in saliva: Exploring the interactions using QCM-D and molecular docking. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 257:128710. [PMID: 38101660 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 11/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
α-Amylase activity differs between individuals and is influenced by dietary behavior and salivary constituents, but limited information is available on the relationship between α-amylase activity and saliva components. This study investigated the impact of salivary proteins on α-amylase activity, their various correlations, the effect of mucin (MUC5B and MUC7) and lactoferrin on the enzymatic kinetics of α-amylase, and the mechanisms of these interactions using the quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) technique and molecular docking. The results showed that α-amylase activity was significantly correlated with the concentrations of MUC5B (R2 = 0.42, p < 0.05), MUC7 (R2 = 0.35, p < 0.05), and lactoferrin (R2 = 0.35, p < 0.05). An in vitro study demonstrated that α-amylase activity could be significantly increased by mucins and lactoferrin by decreasing the Michaelis constant (Km) of α-amylase. Moreover, the results from the QCM-D and molecule docking suggested that mucin and lactoferrin could interact with α-amylase to form stable α-amylase-mucin and α-amylase-lactoferrin complexes through hydrophobic interactions, electrostatic interactions, Van der Waals forces, and hydrogen bonds. In conclusion, these findings indicated that the salivary α-amylase activity depended not only on the α-amylase content, but also could be enhanced by the interactions of mucin/lactoferrin with α-amylase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufeng Zhang
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yong Chen
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Chen Chen
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yang Zhu
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ming Liu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Terahertz Functional Devices and Intelligent Sensing, School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University - Qishan Campus, Fuzhou, Fujian 350108, China
| | - Jianshe Chen
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
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Ma T, Chen J. Capacity of oral emulsification determines the threshold of greasiness sensation. Food Hydrocoll 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.108378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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3
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Effects of the degree of oral processing on the properties of saliva-participating emulsions: using stewed pork with brown sauce as the model. FOOD SCIENCE AND HUMAN WELLNESS 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fshw.2022.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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4
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Flavor release from traditional dry-cured pork during oral processing. FOOD SCIENCE AND HUMAN WELLNESS 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fshw.2022.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Hu X, Ayed C, Chen J, Fisk I, Yang N. The role of capsaicin stimulation on the physicochemical properties of saliva and aroma release in model aqueous and oil systems. Food Chem 2022; 386:132824. [PMID: 35509164 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Capsaicin increases saliva production, but the impact of this additional saliva on the food matrix is unknown. This study aimed to explain the impact of capsaicin on saliva properties and in-vivo release of 14 aroma compounds in aqueous [aqu] and oil systems [oil]. To investigate the physicochemical effect from diverse properties of aroma compounds, one healthy subject participated in all the sessions to minimise large variations between individuals. Capsaicin enhanced saliva flow rate (by 172% [aqu] and 85% [oil]) and salivary protein concentration (by 142% [aqu] and 149% [oil]). Furthermore, capsaicin-in-oil stimulated saliva formed a more stable emulsion in the mouth (17% higher zeta-potential and 15% smaller particle size). In-nose release concentrations measured by APCI-MS for certain esters were reduced by capsaicin (e.g., isoamyl acetate was reduced by 65% [aqu] and 76% [oil]), which suggests that capsaicin may induce stronger oral interactions between specific aroma compounds and salivary proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxue Hu
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Charfedinne Ayed
- Division of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough LE12 5RD, United Kingdom
| | - Jianshe Chen
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Ian Fisk
- Division of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough LE12 5RD, United Kingdom; The University of Adelaide, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Ni Yang
- Division of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough LE12 5RD, United Kingdom.
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Morzel M, Canon F, Guyot S. Interactions between Salivary Proteins and Dietary Polyphenols: Potential Consequences on Gastrointestinal Digestive Events. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:6317-6327. [PMID: 35583948 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c01183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The present review documents the current knowledge and hypotheses on how polyphenols-saliva interactions may modulate the bioaccessibility or bioavailability of nutrients and highlights research prospects in the field. After an updated description of the different classes of dietary polyphenols and their modifications by food processing or digestion, an overview of interactions between salivary proteins and polyphenols (with an emphasis on tannins) is provided. In vitro studies show that the solubility of salivary protein-tannin complexes in gastric conditions depends on the degree of tannin polymerization, while complexes are partly solubilized by bile salts. Salivary proteins-polyphenols interactions may affect digestive processes. For example, polyphenols can bind to and inhibit salivary amylase, with downstream consequences on starch digestion. Some salivary proteins (PRPs) prevent tannin-induced reduced protein digestibility, probably through binding tannins before they interact with digestive proteases. Salivary proteins may also act as scavenger molecules to limit the intestinal uptake of tannins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Francis Canon
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, UMR 1324 INRAE, UMR 6265 CNRS, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-21000 Dijon, France
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Ma T, Wang X, Chen J. In vitro stability study of saliva emulsions: The impact of time, calcium ion and pH. Food Hydrocoll 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Abstract
Food oral processing (FOP) is a fast-emerging research area in the food science discipline. Since its first introduction about a decade ago, a large amount of literature has been published in this area, forming new frontiers and leading to new research opportunities. This review aims to summarize FOP research progress from current perspectives. Food texture, food flavor (aroma and taste), bolus swallowing, and eating behavior are covered in this review. The discussion of each topic is organized into three parts: a short background introduction, reflections on current research findings and achievements, and future directions and implications on food design. Physical, physiological, and psychological principles are the main concerns of discussion for each topic. The last part of the review shares views on the research challenges and outlooks of future FOP research. It is hoped that the review not only helps readers comprehend what has been achieved in the past decade but also, more importantly, identify where the knowledge gaps are and in which direction the FOP research will go.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue He
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China;
| | - Xinmiao Wang
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China;
| | - Jianshe Chen
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China;
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Chong PH, Chen J, Yin D, Qin L. Tea compound-saliva interactions and their correlations with sweet aftertaste. NPJ Sci Food 2022; 6:13. [PMID: 35140228 PMCID: PMC8828886 DOI: 10.1038/s41538-022-00123-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Huigan is an important sensory attribute which is commonly used as a quality indicator evaluation of tea products. Previous studies showed a strong correlation between the lubrication behavior of saliva-tea compound mixture and the sensory perception of Huigan from trained panelists. This work was further designed to investigate how the effect of tea consumption on the rate of saliva secretion and its functional properties including total protein content of saliva (TPC), salivary α-amylase (AMY) and lipase activity (LP). A quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) was applied to reveal the adsorption behavior of human whole saliva and how the salivary film is affected by the presence of tea compounds. Results showed a significant positive correlation among TPC, LP and Huigan intensity for subjects who are Huigan-sensitive. Compared to the desorption of salivary film, the desorption of saliva-EC/EGC (epicatechin/epigallocatechin) mixture from the gold surface by QCM-D observation showed a significant effect on Huigan intensity in sensitive group when comparing to the salivary layer (blank).
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Affiliation(s)
- Pik Han Chong
- Lab of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China
| | - Jianshe Chen
- Lab of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China.
| | - Danting Yin
- Firmenich Aromatics (China) Co., Ltd., No. 3901, Jindu Road, Minhang District, 201108, Shanghai, China
| | - Lanxi Qin
- Lab of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China
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Wang X, Chen J, Wang X. In situ oral lubrication and smoothness sensory perception influenced by tongue surface roughness. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2022; 102:132-138. [PMID: 34057739 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.11339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The human tongue is important in the oral processing of food and in sensory perception. Tongue topography could influence delicate differences in sensory perception. It is hypothesized that tongue surface roughness could alter oral lubrication status and affect perception of smoothness. Fifteen participants with varying levels of tongue surface roughness were recruited and tested. Participants' in situ oral lubrication status without and after consumption of fluid food (milk with varying fat content and maltodextrin solutions with different shear viscosities) was measured. Participants' smoothness sensory scores were also recorded. RESULTS The in situ friction coefficient (0.299-1.505) was significantly positively correlated with tongue-surface roughness (54.6-140.0 μm) in all types of test fluid samples across participants. Oral lubrication was significantly decreased when participants consumed the test fluid samples compared with no liquid food consumption, for all test fluid sample types (P < 0.05). No significant differences in in situ friction coefficient were found after participants consumed different test fluid samples, and this was mainly attributed to the limited quantities of fluid residuals in the oral cavity after expectoration. Participants whose tongue surface roughness differed did not exhibit significant differences in smoothness perception with different test fluid samples. CONCLUSION Tongue surface roughness has a strong impact on in situ oral lubrication, and fluid food intake reduces in situ oral lubrication significantly. Saliva film and tongue surface roughness might play greater roles in oral lubrication and smoothness sensory perception if fluid is expectorated after consumption. The association between oral physiology and texture perception still needs further elucidation. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingqun Wang
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
- Institute of Food Oral Processing and Sensory Science, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jianshe Chen
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
- Institute of Food Oral Processing and Sensory Science, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xinmiao Wang
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
- Institute of Food Oral Processing and Sensory Science, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
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11
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Huang LC, Running CA. OUP accepted manuscript. Chem Senses 2022; 47:6637485. [PMID: 35809054 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjac013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Li-Chu Huang
- Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Cordelia A Running
- Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
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Khramova DS, Popov SV. A secret of salivary secretions: Multimodal effect of saliva in sensory perception of food. Eur J Oral Sci 2021; 130:e12846. [PMID: 34935208 DOI: 10.1111/eos.12846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Saliva plays multifunctional roles in oral cavity. Even though its importance for the maintenance of oral health has long been established, the role of saliva in food perception has attracted increasing attention in recent years. We encourage researchers to discover the peculiarity of this biological fluid and aim to combine the data concerning all aspects of the saliva influence on the sensory perception of food. This review presents saliva as a unique material, which modulates food perception due to constant presence of saliva in the mouth and thanks to its composition. Therefore, we highlight the salivary components that contribute to these effects. Moreover, this review is an attempt to structure the effects of saliva on perception of different food categories, where the mechanisms of salivary impact in perception of liquid, semi-solid, and solid foods are revealed. Finally, we emphasize that the large inter-individual variability in salivary composition and secretion appear to contribute to the fact that everyone experiences food in their own way. Therefore, the design of the sensory studies should consider the properties of volunteers' saliva and also carefully monitor the experimental conditions that affect salivary composition and flow rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria S Khramova
- Department of Molecular Immunology and Biotechnology, Institute of Physiology of Коmi Science Centre of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, FRC Komi SC UB RAS, Syktyvkar, Russia
| | - Sergey V Popov
- Department of Molecular Immunology and Biotechnology, Institute of Physiology of Коmi Science Centre of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, FRC Komi SC UB RAS, Syktyvkar, Russia
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Zhu Y, Bhandari B, Prakash S. Relating the tribo-rheological properties of chocolate flavoured milk to temporal aspects of texture. Int Dairy J 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2020.104794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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14
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Koupa K, Keligianni V, Kalogianni EP, Ritzoulis C. Foam Stability of Mucin – Caseinate Mixtures: Relevance to Oral Processing. FOOD BIOPHYS 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11483-020-09657-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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15
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Affiliation(s)
- Miodrag Glumac
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and BiotechnologyZhejiang Gongshang University Hangzhou China
| | - Jianshe Chen
- Laboratory of Food Oral Processing, School of Food Science and BiotechnologyZhejiang Gongshang University Hangzhou China
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16
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Advances in food emulsions and foams: reflections on research in the neo-Pickering era. Curr Opin Food Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2019.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Upadhyay R, Aktar T, Chen J. Perception of creaminess in foods. J Texture Stud 2020; 51:375-388. [PMID: 32017109 DOI: 10.1111/jtxs.12509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Food texture and mouthfeel play a crucial role in product and consumer acceptability. Creaminess, enjoyed by consumers, is a complex, multimodal sensory perception involving olfactory, gustatory and tactile cues. Oral viscosity and lubrication are the key underlying physical properties that define the mechanism of creaminess perception. Thickness, smoothness, mouth-coating, and dairy flavor can together play roles in the sensation of creaminess. The aim of this review is to present an understanding of the term" creaminess" along with different modalities involved in its perception, and to explore the oral physiological parameters and key physical properties that may be involved in the different oral modalities. An analysis of the previously examined links between food structure and composition and oral physiological parameters is presented. The review also presents a brief summary of previous models describing contributions of taste, aroma, and textural sensations. It emphasizes on the role of oral processing in testing proposed models with experimental evidence supporting those models and the future trends to enhance creaminess.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rituja Upadhyay
- Food Oral Processing Laboratory, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Tugba Aktar
- Department of Food Engineering, Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Jianshe Chen
- Food Oral Processing Laboratory, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
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Chen J. It is important to differentiate sensory property from the material property. Trends Food Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Glumac M, Ritzoulis C, Chen J. Surface properties of adsorbed salivary components at a solid hydrophobic surface using a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM–D). Food Hydrocoll 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Sarkar A, Xu F, Lee S. Human saliva and model saliva at bulk to adsorbed phases - similarities and differences. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2019; 273:102034. [PMID: 31518820 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2019.102034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Human saliva, a seemingly simple aqueous fluid, is, in fact, an extraordinarily complex biocolloid that is not fully understood, despite many decades of study. Salivary lubrication is widely believed to be a signature of good oral health and is also crucial for speech, food oral processing and swallowing. However, saliva has been often neglected in food colloid research, primarily due to its high intra- to inter-individual variability and altering material properties upon collection and storage, when used as an ex vivo research material. In the last few decades, colloid scientists have attempted designing model (i.e. 'saliva mimicking fluid') salivary formulations to understand saliva-food colloid interactions in an in vitro set up and its contribution on microstructural aspects, lubrication properties and sensory perception. In this Review, we critically examine the current state of knowledge on bulk and interfacial properties of model saliva in comparison to real human saliva and highlight how far such model salivary formulations can match the properties of real human saliva. Many, if not most, of these model saliva formulations share similarities with real human saliva in terms of biochemical compositions, including electrolytes, pH and concentrations of salivary proteins, such as α-amylase and highly glycosylated mucins. This, together with similarities between model and real saliva in terms of surface charge, has led to significant advancement in decoding various colloidal interactions (bridging, depletion) of charged emulsion droplets and associated sensory perception in the oral phase. However, model saliva represents significant dissimilarity to real saliva in terms of lubricating properties. Based on in-depth examination of properties of mucins derived from animal sources (e.g. pig gastric mucins (PGM) or bovine submaxillary mucin (BSM)), we can recommend that BSM is currently the most optimal commercially available mucin source when attempting to replicate saliva based on surface adsorption and lubrication properties. Even though purification via dialysis or chromatographic techniques may influence various physicochemical properties of BSM, such as structure and surface adsorption, the lubricating properties of model saliva formulations based on BSM are generally superior and more reliable than the PGM counterpart at orally relevant pH. Comparison of mucin-containing model saliva with ex vivo human salivary conditioning films suggests that mucin alone cannot replicate the lubricity of real human salivary pellicle. Mucin-based multi-layers containing mucin and oppositely charged polyelectrolytes may offer promising avenues in the future for engineering biomimetic salivary pellicle, however, this has not been explored in oral tribology experiments to date. Hence, there is a strong need for systematic studies with employment of model saliva formulations containing mucins with and without polycationic additives before a consensus on a standardized model salivary formulation can be achieved. Overall, this review provides the first comprehensive framework on simulating saliva for a particular bulk or surface property when doing food oral processing experiments.
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