Role of seed germination in adaptation and reproductive isolation in Arabidopsis lyrata

Changes in bud bank and their correlation with plant community composition in degraded alpine meadows

Bud banks are considered a crucial factor in regulating the species composition of grassland communities and maintaining the ecological function of alpine grasslands. However, few studies have paid attention to the dynamic changes of bud banks from undisturbed to severely degraded alpine meadows. Therefore, this study examined the correlations between plant diversity and bud bank traits at different stages of alpine meadows degradation. Grass biomasses and plant diversity were found to be highest in moderately degraded meadows, and sedge biomasses were highest in lightly degraded meadows. Lack of disturbance and moderate disturbance by herbivores increased the bud bank density of alpine meadows. Consistent with the changes in bud bank density, bud bank diversity was highest in undisturbed meadows. The structural equation model indicated that the densities of rhizome and the densities and diversities of tiller buds play crucial roles in facilitating the greater diversity of the plant community. Our findings suggest that the diversities and densities of rhizome and tiller buds in the degradation stages are synchronized with changes in plant diversity, and in the regenerative ability of bud banks, which largely determine the outcome of restoration in degraded meadows. These findings could provide a frame of reference for effectively restoring degraded alpine regions by regenerating bud banks. The potential driving force and renewal capacity of bud banks should be taken into account in restoring the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau's degraded meadow.

The role of hybrid seed inviability in angiosperm speciation

Understanding which reproductive barriers contribute to speciation is essential to understanding the diversity of life on earth. Several contemporary examples of strong hybrid seed inviability (HSI) between recently diverged species suggest that HSI may play a fundamental role in plant speciation. Yet, a broader synthesis of HSI is needed to clarify its role in diversification. Here, I review the incidence and evolution of HSI. Hybrid seed inviability is common and evolves rapidly, suggesting that it may play an important role early in speciation. The developmental mechanisms that underlie HSI involve similar developmental trajectories in endosperm, even between evolutionarily deeply diverged incidents of HSI. In hybrid endosperm, HSI is often accompanied by whole-scale gene misexpression, including misexpression of imprinted genes which have a key role in endosperm development. I explore how an evolutionary perspective can clarify the repeated and rapid evolution of HSI. In particular, I evaluate the evidence for conflict between maternal and paternal interests in resource allocation to offspring (i.e., parental conflict). I highlight that parental conflict theory generates explicit predictions regarding the expected hybrid phenotypes and genes responsible for HSI. While much phenotypic evidence supports a role of parental conflict in the evolution of HSI, an understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms of this barrier is essential to test parental conflict theory. Lastly, I explore what factors may influence the strength of parental conflict in natural plant populations as an explanation for why rates of HSI may differ between plant groups and the consequences of strong HSI in secondary contact.

Geographic Cline and Genetic Introgression Effects on Seed Morphology Variation and Germination Fitness in Two Closely Related Pine Species in Southeast Asia

There is still limited information on how genetic introgression impacts morphological variation and population fitness in long-lived conifer species. Two closely related pine species, Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon and Pinus yunnanensis Franch. are widely distributed over Southeast Asia and Yunnan province of China, with a large spatial scale of asymmetric genetic introgression and hybridization, and form a hybrid lineage, P. kesiya var. langbianensis, where their ranges overlap in southeast Yunnan. We compared seed trait variation and germination performance between hybrids and parental species and characterized environmental gradients to investigate the genetic and ecological evolutionary consequences of genetic introgression. We found that seed width (SW) differed significantly among the three pines, and all the seed traits were significantly negatively correlated with latitude and associated with the mean temperatures of the driest and wettest quarters. A higher germination fitness of hybrids was detected at a low temperature, indicating that they had better adaptability to temperature stress than their parental species during the germination process. Our results suggest that environmental factors shape seed phenotypic variation in the pine species and that genetic introgression significantly affects seed germination fitness. Therefore, assisting gene flow in natural forest populations might facilitate their adaptation to climate change.

Parallel adaptation in autopolyploid Arabidopsis arenosa is dominated by repeated recruitment of shared alleles

Relative contributions of pre-existing vs de novo genomic variation to adaptation are poorly understood, especially in polyploid organisms. We assess this in high resolution using autotetraploid Arabidopsis arenosa, which repeatedly adapted to toxic serpentine soils that exhibit skewed elemental profiles. Leveraging a fivefold replicated serpentine invasion, we assess selection on SNPs and structural variants (TEs) in 78 resequenced individuals and discover significant parallelism in candidate genes involved in ion homeostasis. We further model parallel selection and infer repeated sweeps on a shared pool of variants in nearly all these loci, supporting theoretical expectations. A single striking exception is represented by TWO PORE CHANNEL 1, which exhibits convergent evolution from independent de novo mutations at an identical, otherwise conserved site at the calcium channel selectivity gate. Taken together, this suggests that polyploid populations can rapidly adapt to environmental extremes, calling on both pre-existing variation and novel polymorphisms.

Relative contributions of pre-existing versus de novo genomic variation to adaptation remain unclear. Here, the authors address this problem by examining the adaptation of autotetraploid Arabidopsis arenosa to serpentine soils and find that both types of variations contribute to rapid adaptation.

Early evolution of reproductive isolation: A case of weak inbreeder/strong outbreeder leads to an intraspecific hybridization barrier in Arabidopsis lyrata

Reproductive strategies play a major role in plant speciation. Notably, transitions from outcrossing to selfing may lead to relaxed sexual selection and parental conflict. Shifts in mating systems can affect maternal and paternal interests, and thus parent-specific influence on endosperm development, leading to reproductive isolation: if selfing and outcrossing species hybridize, the resulting seeds may not be viable due to endosperm failure. Nevertheless, it remains unclear how the switch in mating systems can impact reproductive isolation between recently diverged lineages, that is, during the process of speciation. We investigated this question using Arabidopsis lyrata, which recently transitioned to selfing (10,000 years ago) in certain North American populations, where European populations remain outcrossing. We performed reciprocal crosses between selfers and outcrossers, and measured seed viability and endosperm development. We show that parental genomes in the hybrid seed negatively interact, as predicted by parental conflict. This leads to extensive hybrid seed lethality associated with endosperm cellularization disturbance. Our results suggest that this is primarily driven by divergent evolution of the paternal genome between selfers and outcrossers. In addition, we observed other hybrid seed defects, suggesting that sex-specific interests are not the only processes contributing to postzygotic reproductive isolation.

Maintenance of Adaptive Dynamics and No Detectable Load in a Range-Edge Outcrossing Plant Population

During range expansion, edge populations are expected to face increased genetic drift, which in turn can alter and potentially compromise adaptive dynamics, preventing the removal of deleterious mutations and slowing down adaptation. Here, we contrast populations of the European subspecies Arabidopsis lyrata ssp. petraea, which expanded its Northern range after the last glaciation. We document a sharp decline in effective population size in the range-edge population and observe that nonsynonymous variants segregate at higher frequencies. We detect a 4.9% excess of derived nonsynonymous variants per individual in the range-edge population, suggesting an increase of the genomic burden of deleterious mutations. Inference of the fitness effects of mutations and modeling of allele frequencies under the explicit demographic history of each population predicts a depletion of rare deleterious variants in the range-edge population, but an enrichment for fixed ones, consistent with the bottleneck effect. However, the demographic history of the range-edge population predicts a small net decrease in per-individual fitness. Consistent with this prediction, the range-edge population is not impaired in its growth and survival measured in a common garden experiment. We further observe that the allelic diversity at the self-incompatibility locus, which ensures strict outcrossing and evolves under negative frequency-dependent selection, has remained unchanged. Genomic footprints indicative of selective sweeps are broader in the Northern population but not less frequent. We conclude that the outcrossing species A. lyrata ssp. petraea shows a strong resilience to the effect of range expansion.

The genetic architecture and evolution of life-history divergence among perennials in the Mimulus guttatus species complex

Ecological divergence is a fundamental source of phenotypic diversity between closely related species, yet the genetic architecture of most ecologically relevant traits is poorly understood. Differences in elevation can impose substantial divergent selection on both complex, correlated suites of traits (such as life-history), as well as novel adaptations. We use the Mimulus guttatus species complex to assess if the divergence in elevation is accompanied by trait divergence in a group of closely related perennials and determine the genetic architecture of this divergence. We find that divergence in elevation is associated with differences in life-history, as well as a unique trait, the production of rhizomes. The divergence between two perennials is largely explained by few mid-to-large effect quantitative trait loci (QTLs). However, the presence of QTLs with correlated, but opposing effects on multiple traits leads to some hybrids with transgressive trait combinations. Lastly, we find that the genetic architecture of the ability to produce rhizomes changes through development, wherein most hybrids produce rhizomes, but only later in development. Our results suggest that elevational differences may shape life-history divergence between perennials, but aspects of the genetic architecture of divergence may have implications for hybrid fitness in nature.

Asymmetries of reproductive isolation are reflected in directionalities of hybridization: integrative evidence on the complexity of species boundaries

The complex nature of species boundaries has been a central topic in evolutionary biology ever since Darwin. Despite numerous separate studies on reproductive isolation and hybridization, their relationship remains underinvestigated. Are the strengths and asymmetries of reproductive barriers reflected in the extent and directionalities of interspecific genetic exchange? We combined field, experimental, and molecular data to quantify strengths and asymmetries of sympatric reproductive barriers and hybridization between florally heteromorphic primroses. We also assessed whether generalist pollinators discriminate between different floral cues and contribute to reproductive isolation, a long-debated topic. Sympatric reproductive isolation is high but incomplete, and most phenotypic intermediates are genetic F₁ hybrids, whereas backcrosses are rare, revealing low interspecific gene flow. Species integrity rests on multiple barriers, but ethological isolation is among the strongest, demonstrating that even generalist pollinators crucially contribute to the maintenance of species boundaries. Furthermore, reproductive barriers are weaker for Primula veris and short-styled plants, results corroborated by molecular data. Thus, in florally heteromorphic systems, both species- and morph-dependent asymmetries affect permeability of species boundaries. Our study illustrates how the interactions between complex floral syndromes and pollinators shape species boundaries in unique, previously undescribed ways.

Activated sludge treatment for promoting the reuse of a synthetic produced water in irrigation

Large volumes of produced water are generated as a byproduct in activities of oil and gas exploitation, which can be reused in agriculture after a treatment process. Activated sludge treatment has been successfully used to remove oil from wastewater, but systematic studies on the toxicity of this effluent using this treatment are scarce in the literature. In this study, it was investigated the performance of an activated sludge system in the treatment of a synthetic produced water under different initial conditions in terms of salinity and oil and grease concentration. Furthermore, it was evaluated this effluent phytotoxicity in the germination, and seedling and plant growths of sunflower and corn seeds using untreated and treated synthetic produced water. Results revealed the activated sludge effectiveness in oil and grease and salinity removal from produced water, viz. high removal efficiency of 99.01 ± 0.28 and 91.07 ± 0.39%., respectively. Untreated produced water showed considerable toxic effects on the germination (74.67 ± 2.31% and 82.67 ± 2.31 for sunflower and corn seeds, respectively) and growth stages of sunflower and corn seed plants. The germination percentage was approximately 100% for both types of seed. The seedling and plant growth of the two seeds irrigated with treated produced water had similar performance when used tap water. These results highlighted the potential reuse as an unconventional water resource for plant irrigation of the synthetic produced water treated by an activated sludge process, which technology has showed high removal performance of salinity and oil.

The importance of intrinsic postzygotic barriers throughout the speciation process

Intrinsic postzygotic barriers can play an important and multifaceted role in speciation, but their contribution is often thought to be reserved to the final stages of the speciation process. Here, we review how intrinsic postzygotic barriers can contribute to speciation, and how this role may change through time. We outline three major contributions of intrinsic postzygotic barriers to speciation. (i) reduction of gene flow: intrinsic postzygotic barriers can effectively reduce gene exchange between sympatric species pairs. We discuss the factors that influence how effective incompatibilities are in limiting gene flow. (ii) early onset of species boundaries via rapid evolution: intrinsic postzygotic barriers can evolve between recently diverged populations or incipient species, thereby influencing speciation relatively early in the process. We discuss why the early origination of incompatibilities is expected under some biological models, and detail how other (and often less obvious) incompatibilities may also serve as important barriers early on in speciation. (iii) reinforcement: intrinsic postzygotic barriers can promote the evolution of subsequent reproductive isolation through processes such as reinforcement, even between relatively recently diverged species pairs. We incorporate classic and recent empirical and theoretical work to explore these three facets of intrinsic postzygotic barriers, and provide our thoughts on recent challenges and areas in the field in which progress can be made. This article is part of the theme issue 'Towards the completion of speciation: the evolution of reproductive isolation beyond the first barriers'.

Biased Gene Conversion Constrains Adaptation in Arabidopsis thaliana

Reduction of fitness due to deleterious mutations imposes a limit to adaptive evolution. By characterizing features that influence this genetic load we may better understand constraints on responses to both natural and human-mediated selection. Here, using whole-genome, transcriptome, and methylome data from >600 Arabidopsis thaliana individuals, we set out to identify important features influencing selective constraint. Our analyses reveal that multiple factors underlie the accumulation of maladaptive mutations, including gene expression level, gene network connectivity, and gene-body methylation. We then focus on a feature with major effect, nucleotide composition. The ancestral vs. derived status of segregating alleles suggests that GC-biased gene conversion, a recombination-associated process that increases the frequency of G and C nucleotides regardless of their fitness effects, shapes sequence patterns in A. thaliana Through estimation of mutational effects, we present evidence that biased gene conversion hinders the purging of deleterious mutations and contributes to a genome-wide signal of decreased efficacy of selection. By comparing these results to two outcrossing relatives, Arabidopsis lyrata and Capsella grandiflora, we find that protein evolution in A. thaliana is as strongly affected by biased gene conversion as in the outcrossing species. Last, we perform simulations to show that natural levels of outcrossing in A. thaliana are sufficient to facilitate biased gene conversion despite increased homozygosity due to selfing. Together, our results show that even predominantly selfing taxa are susceptible to biased gene conversion, suggesting that it may constitute an important constraint to adaptation among plant species.

Standard Deviations: The Biological Bases of Transmission Ratio Distortion

The rule of Mendelian inheritance is remarkably robust, but deviations from the equal transmission of alternative alleles at a locus [a.k.a. transmission ratio distortion (TRD)] are also commonly observed in genetic mapping populations. Such TRD reveals locus-specific selection acting at some point between the diploid heterozygous parents and progeny genotyping and therefore can provide novel insight into otherwise-hidden genetic and evolutionary processes. Most of the classic selfish genetic elements were discovered through their biasing of transmission, but many unselfish evolutionary and developmental processes can also generate TRD. In this review, we describe methodologies for detecting TRD in mapping populations, detail the arenas and genetic interactions that shape TRD during plant and animal reproduction, and summarize patterns of TRD from across the genetic mapping literature. Finally, we point to new experimental approaches that can accelerate both detection of TRD and characterization of the underlying genetic mechanisms.

Impact of demography on linked selection in two outcrossing Brassicaceae species

Genetic diversity is shaped by mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, recombination, and selection. The dynamics and interactions of these forces shape genetic diversity across different parts of the genome, between populations and species. Here, we have studied the effects of linked selection on nucleotide diversity in outcrossing populations of two Brassicaceae species, Arabidopsis lyrata and Capsella grandiflora, with contrasting demographic history. In agreement with previous estimates, we found evidence for a modest population size expansion thousands of generations ago, as well as efficient purifying selection in C. grandiflora. In contrast, the A. lyrata population exhibited evidence for very recent strong population size decline and weaker efficacy of purifying selection. Using multiple regression analyses with recombination rate and other genomic covariates as explanatory variables, we can explain 47% of the variance in neutral diversity in the C. grandiflora population, while in the A. lyrata population, only 11% of the variance was explained by the model. Recombination rate had a significant positive effect on neutral diversity in both species, suggesting that selection at linked sites has an effect on patterns of neutral variation. In line with this finding, we also found reduced neutral diversity in the vicinity of genes in the C. grandiflora population. However, in A. lyrata no such reduction in diversity was evident, a finding that is consistent with expectations of the impact of a recent bottleneck on patterns of neutral diversity near genes. This study thus empirically demonstrates how differences in demographic history modulate the impact of selection at linked sites in natural populations.

Inflorescence shoot elongation, but not flower primordia formation, is photoperiodically regulated in Arabidopsis lyrata

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Photoperiod contains information about the progress of seasons. Plants use the changing photoperiod as a cue for the correct timing of important life history events, including flowering. Here the effect of photoperiod on flowering in four Arabidopsis lyrata populations originating from different latitudes was studied, as well as expression levels of candidate genes for governing the between-population differences.

METHODS

Flowering of plants from four A. lyrata populations was studied in three different photoperiods after vernalization. Flowering development was separated into three steps: flower primordia formation, inflorescence shoot elongation and opening of the first flower. Circadian expression rhythms of the A. lyrata homologues of GIGANTEA (GI), FLAVIN-BINDING, KELCH REPEAT, F-BOX 1 (FKF1), CONSTANS (CO) and FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) were studied in three of the populations in the intermediate (14 h) photoperiod treatment.

KEY RESULTS

Most plants in all populations formed visible flower primordia during vernalization. Further inflorescence development after vernalization was strongly inhibited by short days in the northern European population (latitude 61°N), only slightly in the central European population (49°N) and not at all in the North American populations (36°N and 42°N). In the 14 h daylength, where all plants from the three southernmost populations but only 60 % of the northernmost population flowered, the circadian expression rhythm of the A. lyrata FT was only detected in the southern populations, suggesting differentiation in the critical daylength for activation of the long-day pathway. However, circadian expression rhythms of A. lyrata GI, FKF1 and CO were similar between populations.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that in A. lyrata, transition to flowering can occur through pathways independent of long days, but elongation of inflorescences is photoperiodically regulated.

Genomic Patterns of Local Adaptation under Gene Flow in Arabidopsis lyrata

Short-scale local adaptation is a complex process involving selection, migration, and drift. The expected effects on the genome are well grounded in theory but examining these on an empirical level has proven difficult, as it requires information about local selection, demographic history, and recombination rate variation. Here, we use locally adapted and phenotypically differentiated Arabidopsis lyrata populations from two altitudinal gradients in Norway to test these expectations at the whole-genome level. Demography modeling indicates that populations within the gradients diverged <2 kya and that the sites are connected by gene flow. The gene flow estimates are, however, highly asymmetric with migration from high to low altitudes being several times more frequent than vice versa. To detect signatures of selection for local adaptation, we estimate patterns of lineage-specific differentiation among these populations. Theory predicts that gene flow leads to concentration of adaptive loci in areas of low recombination; a pattern we observe in both lowland-alpine comparisons. Although most selected loci display patterns of conditional neutrality, we found indications of genetic trade-offs, with one locus particularly showing high differentiation and signs of selection in both populations. Our results further suggest that resistance to solar radiation is an important adaptation to alpine environments, while vegetative growth and bacterial defense are indicated as selected traits in the lowland habitats. These results provide insights into genetic architectures and evolutionary processes driving local adaptation under gene flow. We also contribute to understanding of traits and biological processes underlying alpine adaptation in northern latitudes.

Novel Cytonuclear Combinations Modify Arabidopsis thaliana Seed Physiology and Vigor

Dormancy and germination vigor are complex traits of primary importance for adaptation and agriculture. Intraspecific variation in cytoplasmic genomes and cytonuclear interactions were previously reported to affect germination in Arabidopsis using novel cytonuclear combinations that disrupt co-adaptation between natural variants of nuclear and cytoplasmic genomes. However, specific aspects of dormancy and germination vigor were not thoroughly explored, nor the parental contributions to the genetic effects. Here, we specifically assessed dormancy, germination performance and longevity of seeds from Arabidopsis plants with natural and new genomic compositions. All three traits were modified by cytonuclear reshuffling. Both depth and release rate of dormancy could be modified by a changing of cytoplasm. Significant changes on dormancy and germination performance due to specific cytonuclear interacting combinations mainly occurred in opposite directions, consistent with the idea that a single physiological consequence of the new genetic combination affected both traits oppositely. However, this was not always the case. Interestingly, the ability of parental accessions to contribute to significant cytonuclear interactions modifying the germination phenotype was different depending on whether they provided the nuclear or cytoplasmic genetic compartment. The observed deleterious effects of novel cytonuclear combinations (in comparison with the nuclear parent) were consistent with a contribution of cytonuclear interactions to germination adaptive phenotypes. More surprisingly, we also observed favorable effects of novel cytonuclear combinations, suggesting suboptimal genetic combinations exist in natural populations for these traits. Reduced sensitivity to exogenous ABA and faster endogenous ABA decay during germination were observed in a novel cytonuclear combination that also exhibited enhanced longevity and better germination performance, compared to its natural nuclear parent. Taken together, our results strongly support that cytoplasmic genomes represent an additional resource of natural variation for breeding seed vigor traits.

Bulk pollen sequencing reveals rapid evolution of segregation distortion in the male germline of Arabidopsis hybrids

Genes that do not segregate in heterozygotes at Mendelian ratios are a potentially important evolutionary force in natural populations. Although the impacts of segregation distortion are widely appreciated, we have little quantitative understanding about how often these loci arise and fix within lineages. Here, we develop a statistical approach for detecting segregation distorting genes from the comprehensive comparison of whole genome sequence data obtained from bulk gamete versus somatic tissues. Our approach enables estimation of map positions and confidence intervals, and quantification of effect sizes of segregation distorters. We apply our method to the pollen of two interspecific F1 hybrids of Arabidopsis lyrata and A. halleri and we identify three loci across eight chromosomes showing significant evidence of segregation distortion in both pollen samples. Based on this, we estimate that novel segregation distortion elements evolve and achieve high frequencies within lineages at a rate of approximately one per 244,000 years. Furthermore, we estimate that haploid‐acting segregation distortion may contribute between 10% and 30% of reduced pollen viability in F1 individuals. Our results indicate haploid acting factors evolve rapidly and dramatically influence segregation in F1 hybrid individuals.

Diverse paths to hybrid incompatibility in Arabidopsis

One of the most essential questions of biology is to understand how different species have evolved. Hybrid incompatibility, a phenomenon in which hybrids show reduced fitness in comparison with their parents, can result in reproductive isolation and speciation. Therefore, studying hybrid incompatibility provides an entry point in understanding speciation. Hybrid incompatibilities are known throughout taxa, and the underlying mechanisms have mystified scientists since the theory of evolution by means of natural selection was introduced. In plants, it is only in recent years that the high-throughput genetic and molecular tools have become available for the Arabidopsis genus, thus helping to shed light on the different genes and molecular and evolutionary mechanisms that underlie hybrid incompatibilities. In this review, we highlight the current knowledge of diverse mechanisms that are known to contribute to hybrid incompatibility.

A century of genetic variation inferred from a persistent soil-stored seed bank

Stratigraphic accretion of dormant propagules in soil can result in natural archives useful for studying ecological and evolutionary responses to environmental change. Few attempts have been made, however, to use soil-stored seed banks as natural archives, in part because of concerns over nonrandom attrition and mixed stratification. Here, we examine the persistent seed bank of Schoenoplectus americanus, a foundational brackish marsh sedge, to determine whether it can serve as a resource for reconstructing historical records of demographic and population genetic variation. After assembling profiles of the seed bank from radionuclide-dated soil cores, we germinated seeds to "resurrect" cohorts spanning the 20th century. Using microsatellite markers, we assessed genetic diversity and differentiation among depth cohorts, drawing comparisons to extant plants at the study site and in nearby and more distant marshes. We found that seed density peaked at intermediate soil depths. We also detected genotypic differences among cohorts as well as between cohorts and extant plants. Genetic diversity did not decline with depth, indicating that the observed pattern of differentiation is not due to attrition. Patterns of differentiation within and among extant marshes also suggest that local populations persist as aggregates of small clones, likely reflecting repeated seedling recruitment and low immigration from admixed regional gene pools. These findings indicate that persistent and stratified soil-stored seed banks merit further consideration as resources for reconstructing decadal- to century-long records that can lend insight into the tempo and nature of ecological and evolutionary processes that shape populations over time.

Paternally expressed imprinted genes associate with hybridization barriers in Capsella

Hybrid seed lethality is a widespread type of reproductive barrier among angiosperm taxa^1,2 that contributes to species divergence by preventing gene flow between natural populations^3,4. Besides its ecological importance, it is an important obstacle to plant breeding strategies ⁵ . Hybrid seed lethality is mostly due to a failure of the nourishing endosperm tissue, resulting in embryo arrest^3,6,7. The cause of this failure is a parental dosage imbalance in the endosperm that can be a consequence of either differences in parental ploidy levels or differences in the 'effective ploidy', also known as the endosperm balance number (EBN)^8,9. Hybrid seed defects exhibit a parent-of-origin pattern^3,6,7, suggesting that differences in number or expression strength of parent-of-origin-specific imprinted genes underpin, as the primary or the secondary cause, the molecular basis of the EBN^7,10. Here, we have tested this concept in the genus Capsella and show that the effective ploidy of three Capsella species correlates with the number and expression level of paternally expressed genes (PEGs). Importantly, the number of PEGs and the effective ploidy decrease with the selfing history of a species: the obligate outbreeder Capsella grandiflora had the highest effective ploidy, followed by the recent selfer Capsella rubella and the ancient selfer Capsella orientalis. PEGs were associated with the presence of transposable elements and their silencing mark, DNA methylation in CHH context (where H denotes any base except C). This suggests that transposable elements have driven the imprintome divergence between Capsella species. Together, we propose that variation in transposable element insertions, the resulting differences in PEG number and divergence in their expression level form one component of the effective ploidy variation between species of different breeding system histories, and, as a consequence, allow the establishment of endosperm-based hybridization barriers.

The role of cold cues at different life stages on germination and flowering phenology

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

The timing of major phenological transitions is critical to lifetime fitness, and life history theory predicts differences for annual and perennial plants. To correctly time these transitions, many plants rely on environmental cues such as exposure to extended periods of cold, which may occur at different stages throughout their lifetime.

METHODS

We studied the role of cold at different life stages, by jointly exposing seed (stratification) and rosettes (vernalization) to cold. We used 23 populations of Mimulus guttatus, which vary from annuals to perennials, and investigated how cold at one or both stages affected germination, flowering, growth, and biomass.

KEY RESULTS

We found that stratification and vernalization interact to affect life cycle transitions, and that cold at either stage could synchronize flowering phenology. For perennials, either stratification or vernalization is necessary for maximum flowering. We also found that germination timing covaried with later traits. Moreover, plants from environments with dissimilar climates displayed different phenological responses to stratification or vernalization.

CONCLUSIONS

In general, cold is more important for seed germination in annuals and plants from environments with warm temperatures and variable precipitation. In contrast, cold is more important for flowering in perennials: it accelerates flowering in plants from lower precipitation environments, and it increases flowering proportion in plants from cooler, more stable precipitation environments. We discuss our findings in the context of the variable environments plants experience within a population and the variation encountered across the biogeographic native range of the species.