Sex-biased gene expression, sexual antagonism and levels of genetic diversity in the collared flycatcher (Ficedula albicollis) genome

No evidence for sex-differential transcriptomes driving genome-wide sex-differential natural selection

Sex differences in human transcriptomes have been argued to drive sex-differential selection (SDS). Here, we show that previous evidence supporting this hypothesis has been largely unfounded. We develop a method to test for a genome-wide relationship between sex differences in expression and selection on expression-influencing alleles (expression quantitative trait loci [eQTLs]). We apply it across 34 human tissues and find no evidence for a general relationship. We offer possible explanations for the lack of evidence, including that it is due in part to eQTL ascertainment bias toward sites under weak selection. We conclude that the drivers of ongoing SDS in humans remain to be identified.

Sex-Specific Dominance of Gene Expression in Seed Beetles

When different alleles are favored in different environments, dominance reversal where alternate alleles are dominant in the environment in which they are favored can generate net balancing selection. The sexes represent two distinct genetic environments and sexually antagonistic (SA) selection can maintain genetic variation, especially when the alleles involved show sex-specific dominance. Sexual dimorphism in gene expression is pervasive and has been suggested to result from SA selection. Yet, whether gene-regulatory variation shows sex-specific dominance is poorly understood. We tested for sex-specific dominance in gene expression using three crosses between homozygous lines derived from a population of a seed beetle, where a previous study documented a signal of dominance reversal for fitness between the sexes. Overall, we found that the dominance effects of variants affecting gene expression were positively correlated between the sexes (r = 0.33 to 0.44). Yet, 586 transcripts showed significant differences in dominance between the sexes. Sex-specific dominance was significantly more common in transcripts with more sex-biased expression, in two of three of our crosses. Among transcripts showing sex-specific dominance, lesser sexual dimorphism in gene expression among heterozygotes was somewhat more common than greater. Gene ontology enrichment analyses showed that functional categories associated with known SA phenotypes in Callosobruchus maculatus were overrepresented among transcripts with sex-specific dominance, including genes involved in metabolic processes and the target-of-rapamycin pathway. Our results support the suggestion that sex-specific dominance of regulatory variants contributes to the maintenance of genetic variation in fitness mediated by SA selection in this species.

The battle of the sexes in humans is highly polygenic

Sex-differential selection (SDS), which occurs when the fitness effects of alleles differ between males and females, can have profound impacts on the maintenance of genetic variation, disease risk, and other key aspects of natural populations. Because the sexes mix their autosomal genomes each generation, quantifying SDS is not possible using conventional population genetic approaches. Here, we introduce a method that exploits subtle sex differences in haplotype frequencies resulting from SDS acting in the current generation. Using data from 300K individuals in the UK Biobank, we estimate the strength of SDS throughout the genome. While only a handful of loci under SDS are individually significant, we uncover highly polygenic signals of genome-wide SDS for both viability and fecundity. Selection coefficients of [Formula: see text] may be typical. Despite its ubiquity, SDS may impose a mortality load of less than 1%. An interesting life-history tradeoff emerges: Alleles that increase viability more strongly in females than males tend to increase fecundity more strongly in males than in females. Finally, we find marginal evidence of SDS on fecundity acting on alleles affecting arm fat-free mass. Taken together, our findings connect the long-standing evidence of SDS acting on human phenotypes with its impact on the genome.

Sexually discordant selection is associated with trait-specific morphological changes and a complex genomic response

Sexes often have differing fitness optima, potentially generating intra-locus sexual conflict, as each sex bears a genetic "load" of alleles beneficial to the other sex. One strategy to evaluate conflict in the genome is to artificially select populations discordantly against established sexual dimorphism (SD), reintroducing attenuated conflict. We investigate a long-term artificial selection experiment reversing sexual size dimorphism in Drosophila melanogaster during ~350 generations of sexually discordant selection. We explore morphological and genomic changes to identify loci under selection between the sexes in discordantly and concordantly size-selected treatments. Despite substantial changes to overall size, concordant selection maintained ancestral SD. However, discordant selection altered size dimorphism in a trait-specific manner. We observe multiple possible soft selective sweeps in the genome, with size-related genes showing signs of selection. Patterns of genomic differentiation between the sexes within lineages identified potential sites maintained by sexual conflict. One discordant selected lineage shows a pattern of elevated genomic differentiation between males and females on chromosome 3L, consistent with the maintenance of sexual conflict. Our results suggest visible signs of conflict and differentially segregating alleles between the sexes due to discordant selection.

Evolution of sex-biased genes in Drosophila species with neo-sex chromosomes: Potential contribution to reducing the sexual conflict

An advantage of sex chromosomes may be the potential to reduce sexual conflict because they provide a basis for selection to operate separately on females and males. However, evaluating the relationship between sex chromosomes and sexual conflict is challenging owing to the difficulty in measuring sexual conflict and substantial divergence between species with and without sex chromosomes. We therefore examined sex-biased gene expression as a proxy for sexual conflict in three sets of Drosophila species with and without young sex chromosomes, the so-called neo-sex chromosomes. In all sets, we detected more sex-biased genes in the species with neo-sex chromosomes than in the species without neo-sex chromosomes in larvae, pupae, and adult somatic tissues but not in gonads. In particular, many unbiased genes became either female- or male-biased after linkage to the neo-sex chromosomes in larvae, despite the low sexual dimorphism. For example, genes involved in metabolism, a key determinant for the rate of development in many animals, were enriched in the genes that acquired sex-biased expression on the neo-sex chromosomes at the larval stage. These genes may be targets of sexually antagonistic selection (i.e., large size and rapid development are selected for in females but selected against in males). These results indicate that acquiring neo-sex chromosomes may have contributed to a reduction in sexual conflict, particularly at the larval stage, in Drosophila..

A maternal-to-zygotic-transition gene block on the zebrafish sex chromosome

Wild zebrafish (Danio rerio) have a ZZ/ZW chromosomal sex-determination system with the major sex locus on the right arm of chromosome-4 (Chr4R) near the largest heterochromatic block in the genome, suggesting that Chr4R transcriptomics might differ from the rest of the genome. To test this hypothesis, we conducted an RNA-seq analysis of adult ZW ovaries and ZZ testes in the Nadia strain and identified 4 regions of Chr4 with different gene expression profiles. Unique in the genome, protein-coding genes in a 41.7 Mb section (Region-2) were expressed in testis but silent in ovary. The AB lab strain, which lacks sex chromosomes, verified this result, showing that testis-biased gene expression in Region-2 depends on gonad biology, not on sex-determining mechanism. RNA-seq analyses in female and male brains and livers validated reduced transcripts from Region-2 in somatic cells, but without sex specificity. Region-2 corresponds to the heterochromatic portion of Chr4R and its content of genes and repetitive elements distinguishes it from the rest of the genome. Region-2 lacks protein-coding genes with human orthologs; has zinc finger genes expressed early in zygotic genome activation; has maternal 5S rRNA genes, maternal spliceosome genes, a concentration of tRNA genes, and a distinct set of repetitive elements. The colocalization of (1) genes silenced in ovaries but not in testes that are (2) expressed in embryos briefly at the onset of zygotic genome activation; (3) maternal-specific genes for translation machinery; (4) maternal-specific spliceosome components; and (5) adjacent genes encoding miR-430, which mediates maternal transcript degradation, suggest that this is a maternal-to-zygotic-transition gene regulatory block.

Genetic constraints in genes exhibiting splicing plasticity in facultative diapause

Phenotypic plasticity is produced and maintained by processes regulating the transcriptome. While differential gene expression is among the most important of these processes, relatively little is known about other sources of transcriptional variation. Previous work suggests that alternative splicing plays an extensive and functionally unique role in transcriptional plasticity, though plastically spliced genes may be more constrained than the remainder of expressed genes. In this study, we explore the relationship between expression and splicing plasticity, along with the genetic diversity in those genes, in an ecologically consequential polyphenism: facultative diapause. Using 96 samples spread over two tissues and 10 timepoints, we compare the extent of differential splicing and expression between diapausing and direct developing pupae of the butterfly Pieris napi. Splicing differs strongly between diapausing and direct developing trajectories but alters a smaller and functionally unique set of genes compared to differential expression. We further test the hypothesis that among these expressed loci, plastically spliced genes are likely to experience the strongest purifying selection to maintain seasonally plastic phenotypes. Genes with unique transcriptional changes through diapause consistently had the lowest nucleotide diversity, and this effect was consistently stronger among genes that were differentially spliced compared to those with just differential expression through diapause. Further, the strength of negative selection was higher in the population expressing diapause every generation. Our results suggest that maintenance of the molecular mechanisms involved in diapause progression, including post-transcriptional modifications, are highly conserved and likely to experience genetic constraints, especially in northern populations of P. napi.

A maternal-to-zygotic-transition gene block on the zebrafish sex chromosome

Wild zebrafish (Danio rerio) have a ZZ/ZW chromosomal sex determination system with the major sex locus on the right arm of chromosome-4 (Chr4R) near the largest heterochromatic block in the genome, suggesting the hypothesis that the Chr4R transcriptome might be different from the rest of the genome. We conducted an RNA-seq analysis of adult ZW ovaries and ZZ testes and identified four regions of Chr4 with different gene expression profiles. Unique in the genome, protein-coding genes in a 41.7 Mb section (Region-2) were expressed in testis but silent in ovary. The AB lab strain, which lacks sex chromosomes, verified this result, showing that testis-biased gene expression in Region-2 depends on gonad biology, not on sex-determining mechanism. RNA-seq analyses in female and male brain and liver validated few transcripts from Region-2 in somatic cells, but without sex-specificity. Region-2 corresponds to the heterochromatic portion of Chr4R and its content of genes and repetitive elements distinguishes it from the rest of the genome. In Region-2, protein-coding genes lack human orthologs; it has zinc finger genes expressed early in zygotic genome activation; it has maternal 5S rRNA genes, maternal spliceosome genes, a concentration of tRNA genes, and an distinct set of repetitive elements. The colocalization of 1) genes silenced in ovaries but not in testes that are 2) expressed in embryos briefly at the onset of zygotic genome activation; 3) maternal-specific genes for translation machinery; 4) maternal-specific spliceosome components; and 4) adjacent genes encoding miR-430, which mediates maternal transcript degradation, suggest that this is a Maternal-to-Zygotic-Transition Gene Regulatory Block.

The roles of sexual selection and sexual conflict in shaping patterns of genome and transcriptome variation

Sexual dimorphism is one of the most prevalent, and often the most extreme, examples of phenotypic variation within species, and arises primarily from genomic variation that is shared between females and males. Many sexual dimorphisms arise through sex differences in gene expression, and sex-biased expression is one way that a single, shared genome can generate multiple, distinct phenotypes. Although many sexual dimorphisms are expected to result from sexual selection, and many studies have invoked the possible role of sexual selection to explain sex-specific traits, the role of sexual selection in the evolution of sexually dimorphic gene expression remains difficult to differentiate from other forms of sex-specific selection. In this Review, we propose a holistic framework for the study of sex-specific selection and transcriptome evolution. We advocate for a comparative approach, across tissues, developmental stages and species, which incorporates an understanding of the molecular mechanisms, including genomic variation and structure, governing gene expression. Such an approach is expected to yield substantial insights into the evolution of genetic variation and have important applications in a variety of fields, including ecology, evolution and behaviour.

Recent progress in understanding the genomic architecture of sexual conflict

Genomic conflict between the sexes over shared traits is widely assumed to be resolved through the evolution of sex-biased expression and the subsequent emergence of sexually dimorphic phenotypes. However, while there is support for a broad relationship between genome-wide patterns of expression level and sexual conflict, recent studies suggest that sex differences in the nature and strength of interactions between loci are instead key to conflict resolution. Furthermore, the advent of new technologies for measuring and perturbing expression means we now have much more power to detect genomic signatures of sexual conflict. Here, we review our current understanding of the genomic architecture of sexual conflict in the light of these new studies and highlight the potential for novel approaches to address outstanding knowledge gaps.

Domestication affects sex-biased gene expression evolution in the duck

Genes with sex-biased expression are thought to underlie sexually dimorphic phenotypes and are therefore subject to different selection pressures in males and females. Many authors have proposed that sexual conflict leads to the evolution of sex-biased expression, which allows males and females to reach separate phenotypic and fitness optima. The selection pressures associated with domestication may cause changes in population architectures and mating systems, which in turn can alter their direction and strength. We compared sex-biased expression and genetic signatures in wild and domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos), and observed changes of sexual selection and identified the genomic divergence affected by selection forces. The extent of sex-biased expression in both sexes is positively correlated with the level of both d _N /d _S and nucleotide diversity. This observed changing pattern may mainly be owing to relaxed genetic constraints. We also demonstrate a clear link between domestication and sex-biased evolutionary rate in a comparative framework. Decreased polymorphism and evolutionary rate in domesticated populations generally matched life-history phenotypes known to experience artificial selection. Taken together, our work suggests the important implications of domestication in sex-biased evolution and the roles of artificial selection and sexual selection for shaping the diversity and evolutionary rate of the genome.

Sexually antagonistic selection maintains genetic variance when sexual dimorphism evolves

Genetic variance (VG) in fitness related traits is often unexpectedly high, evoking the question how VG can be maintained in the face of selection. Sexually antagonistic (SA) selection favouring alternative alleles in the sexes is common and predicted to maintain VG, while directional selection should erode it. Both SA and sex-limited directional selection can lead to sex-specific adaptations but how each affect VG when sexual dimorphism evolves remain experimentally untested. Using replicated artificial selection on the seed beetle Callosobruchus maculatus body size we recently demonstrated an increase in size dimorphism under SA and male-limited (ML) selection by 50% and 32%, respectively. Here we test their consequences on genetic variation. We show that SA selection maintained significantly more ancestral, autosomal additive genetic variance than ML selection, while both eroded sex-linked additive variation equally. Ancestral female-specific dominance variance was completely lost under ML, while SA selection consistently sustained it. Further, both forms of selection preserved a high genetic correlation between the sexes (rm,f). These results demonstrate the potential for sexual antagonism to maintain more genetic variance while fuelling sex-specific adaptation in a short evolutionary time scale, and are in line with predicted importance of sex-specific dominance reducing sexual conflict over alternative alleles.

Experimental Life History Evolution Results in Sex-specific Evolution of Gene Expression in Seed Beetles

The patterns of reproductive timing and senescence vary within and across species owing to differences in reproductive strategies, but our understanding of the molecular underpinnings of such variation is incomplete. This is perhaps particularly true for sex differences. We investigated the evolution of sex-specific gene expression associated with life history divergence in replicated populations of the seed beetle Acanthoscelides obtectus, experimentally evolving under (E)arly or (L)ate life reproduction for >200 generations which has resulted in strongly divergent life histories. We detected 1,646 genes that were differentially expressed in E and L lines, consistent with a highly polygenic basis of life history evolution. Only 30% of differentially expressed genes were similarly affected in males and females. The evolution of long life was associated with significantly reduced sex differences in expression, especially in non-reproductive tissues. The expression differences were overall more pronounced in females, in accordance with their greater phenotypic divergence in lifespan. Functional enrichment analysis revealed differences between E and L beetles in gene categories previously implicated in aging, such as mitochondrial function and defense response. The results show that divergent life history evolution can be associated with profound changes in gene expression that alter the transcriptome in a sex-specific way, highlighting the importance of understanding the mechanisms of aging in each sex.

Evolutionary dynamics of pseudoautosomal region 1 in humans and great apes

BACKGROUND

The pseudoautosomal region 1 (PAR1) is a 2.7 Mb telomeric region of human sex chromosomes. PAR1 has a crucial role in ensuring proper segregation of sex chromosomes during male meiosis, exposing it to extreme recombination and mutation processes. We investigate PAR1 evolution using population genomic datasets of extant humans, eight populations of great apes, and two archaic human genome sequences.

RESULTS

We find that PAR1 is fast evolving and closer to evolutionary nucleotide equilibrium than autosomal telomeres. We detect a difference between substitution patterns and extant diversity in PAR1, mainly driven by the conflict between strong mutation and recombination-associated fixation bias at CpG sites. We detect excess C-to-G mutations in PAR1 of all great apes, specific to the mutagenic effect of male recombination. Despite recent evidence for Y chromosome introgression from humans into Neanderthals, we find that the Neanderthal PAR1 retained similarity to the Denisovan sequence. We find differences between substitution spectra of these archaics suggesting rapid evolution of PAR1 in recent hominin history. Frequency analysis of alleles segregating in females and males provided no evidence for recent sexual antagonism in this region. We study repeat content and double-strand break hotspot regions in PAR1 and find that they may play roles in ensuring the obligate X-Y recombination event during male meiosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides an unprecedented quantification of population genetic forces governing PAR1 biology across extant and extinct hominids. PAR1 evolutionary dynamics are predominantly governed by recombination processes with a strong impact on mutation patterns across all species.

Polygenic signals of sex differences in selection in humans from the UK Biobank

Sex differences in the fitness effects of genetic variants can influence the rate of adaptation and the maintenance of genetic variation. For example, "sexually antagonistic" (SA) variants, which are beneficial for one sex and harmful for the other, can both constrain adaptation and increase genetic variability for fitness components such as survival, fertility, and disease susceptibility. However, detecting variants with sex-differential fitness effects is difficult, requiring genome sequences and fitness measurements from large numbers of individuals. Here, we develop new theory for studying sex-differential selection across a complete life cycle and test our models with genotypic and reproductive success data from approximately 250,000 UK Biobank individuals. We uncover polygenic signals of sex-differential selection affecting survival, reproductive success, and overall fitness, with signals of sex-differential reproductive selection reflecting a combination of SA polymorphisms and sexually concordant polymorphisms in which the strength of selection differs between the sexes. Moreover, these signals hold up to rigorous controls that minimise the contributions of potential confounders, including sequence mapping errors, population structure, and ascertainment bias. Functional analyses reveal that sex-differentiated sites are enriched in phenotype-altering genomic regions, including coding regions and loci affecting a range of quantitative traits. Population genetic analyses show that sex-differentiated sites exhibit evolutionary histories dominated by genetic drift and/or transient balancing selection, but not long-term balancing selection, which is consistent with theoretical predictions of effectively weak SA balancing selection in historically small populations. Overall, our results are consistent with polygenic sex-differential-including SA-selection in humans. Evidence for sex-differential selection is particularly strong for variants affecting reproductive success, in which the potential contributions of nonrandom sampling to signals of sex differentiation can be excluded.

Investigating the interaction between inter-locus and intra-locus sexual conflict using hemiclonal analysis in Drosophila melanogaster

Background

Divergence in the evolutionary interests of males and females leads to sexual conflict. Traditionally, sexual conflict has been classified into two types: inter-locus sexual conflict (IeSC) and intra-locus sexual conflict (IaSC). IeSC is modeled as a conflict over outcomes of intersexual reproductive interactions mediated by loci that are sex-limited in their effects. IaSC is thought to be a product of selection acting in opposite directions in males and females on traits with a common underlying genetic basis. While in their canonical formalisms IaSC and IeSC are mutually exclusive, there is growing support for the idea that the two may interact. Empirical evidence for such interactions, however, is limited.

Results

Here, we investigated the interaction between IeSC and IaSC in Drosophila melanogaster. Using hemiclonal analysis, we sampled 39 hemigenomes from a laboratory-adapted population of D. melanogaster. We measured the contribution of each hemigenome to adult male and female fitness at three different intensities of IeSC, obtained by varying the operational sex ratio. Subsequently, we estimated the intensity of IaSC at each sex ratio by calculating the intersexual genetic correlation (r_w,g,mf) for fitness and the proportion of sexually antagonistic fitness-variation. We found that the intersexual genetic correlation for fitness was positive at all three sex ratios. Additionally, at male biased and equal sex ratios the r_w,g,mf was higher, and the proportion of sexually antagonistic fitness variation lower, relative to the female biased sex ratio, although this trend was not statistically significant.

Conclusion

Our results indicate a statistically non-significant trend suggesting that increasing the strength of IeSC ameliorates IaSC in the population.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12862-022-01992-0.

An unbiased test reveals no enrichment of sexually antagonistic polymorphisms on the human X chromosome

Mutations with beneficial effects in one sex can have deleterious effects in the other. Such 'sexually antagonistic' (SA) variants contribute to variation in life-history traits and overall fitness, yet their genomic distribution is poorly resolved. Theory predicts that SA variants could be enriched on the X chromosome or autosomes, yet current empirical tests face two formidable challenges: (i) identifying SA selection in genomic data is difficult; and (ii) metrics of SA variation show persistent biases towards the X, even when SA variants are randomly distributed across the genome. Here, we present an unbiased test of the theory that SA variants are enriched on the X. We first develop models for reproductive FST-a metric for quantifying sex-differential (including SA) effects of genetic variants on lifetime reproductive success-that control for X-linked biases. Comparing data from approximately 250 000 UK Biobank individuals to our models, we find FST elevations consistent with both X-linked and autosomal SA polymorphisms affecting reproductive success in humans. However, the extent of FST elevations does not differ from a model in which SA polymorphisms are randomly distributed across the genome. We argue that the polygenic nature of SA variation, along with sex asymmetries in SA effects, might render X-linked enrichment of SA polymorphisms unlikely.

Gene duplication to the Y chromosome in Trinidadian Guppies

Differences in allele frequencies at autosomal genes between males and females in a population can result from two scenarios. First, unresolved sexual conflict over survival can produce allelic differentiation between the sexes. However, given the substantial mortality costs required to produce allelic differences between males and females at each generation, it remains unclear how many loci within the genome experience significant sexual conflict over survival. Alternatively, recent studies have shown that similarity between autosomal and Y sequences can create perceived allelic differences between the sexes. However, Y duplications are most likely in species with large non-recombining regions, in part because they simply represent larger targets for duplications. We assessed the genomes of 120 wild-caught guppies, which experience extensive predation- and pathogen-induced mortality and have a relatively small ancestral Y chromosome. We identified seven autosomal genes that show allelic differences between male and female adults. Five of these genes show clear evidence of whole or partial gene duplication between the Y chromosome and the autosomes. The remaining two genes show evidence of partial homology to the Y. Overall, our findings suggest that the guppy genome experiences a very low level of unresolved sexual conflict over survival, and instead the Y chromosome, despite its small ancestral size and recent origin, may nonetheless accumulate genes with male-specific functions.

Sex-biased gene expression and recent sex chromosome turnover

Cichlids are well known for their propensity to radiate generating arrays of morphologically and ecologically diverse species in short evolutionary time. Following this rapid evolutionary pace, cichlids show high rates of sex chromosome turnover. We here studied the evolution of sex-biased gene (SBG) expression in 14 recently diverged taxa of the Lake Tanganyika Tropheini cichlids, which show different XY sex chromosomes. Across species, sex chromosome sequence divergence predates divergence in expression between the sexes. Only one sex chromosome, the oldest, showed signs of demasculinization in gene expression and potentially contribution to the resolution of sexual conflict. SBGs in general showed high rates of turnovers and evolved mostly under drift. Sexual selection did not shape the rapid evolutionary changes of SBGs. Male-biased genes evolved faster than female-biased genes, which seem to be under more phylogenetic constraint. We found a relationship between the degree of sex bias and sequence evolution driven by sequence differences among the sexes. Consistent with other species, strong sex bias towards sex-limited expression contributes to resolving sexual conflict in cichlids. This article is part of the theme issue 'Challenging the paradigm in sex chromosome evolution: empirical and theoretical insights with a focus on vertebrates (Part II)'.

Differential gene expression patterns during gametophyte development provide insights into sex differentiation in the dioicous kelp Saccharina japonica

BACKGROUND

In brown algae, dioicy is the prevalent sexual system, and phenotypic differences between male and female gametophytes have been found in many dioicous species. Saccharina japonica show remarkable sexual dimorphism in gametophytes before gametogenesis. A higher level of phenotypic differentiation was also found in female and male gametes after gametogenesis. However, the patterns of differential gene expression throughout gametophyte development and how these changes might relate to sex-specific fitness at the gamete stage in S. japonica are not well known.

RESULTS

In this study, differences in gene expression between male and female gametophytes in different developmental stages were investigated using comparative transcriptome analysis. Among the 20,151 genes expressed in the haploid gametophyte generation, 37.53% were sex-biased. The abundance of sex-biased genes in mature gametophytes was much higher than that in immature gametophytes, and more male-biased than female-biased genes were observed in the mature stage. The predicted functions of most sex-biased genes were closely related to the sex-specific characteristics of gametes, including cell wall biosynthesis, sperm motility, and sperm and egg recognition. In addition, 51 genes were specifically expressed in males in both stages, showing great potential as candidate male sex-determining region (SDR) genes.

CONCLUSIONS

This study describes a thorough investigation into differential gene expression between male and female gametophytes in the dioicous kelp S. japonica. A large number of sex-biased genes in mature gametophytes may be associated with the divergence of phenotypic traits and physiological functions between female gametes (eggs) and male gametes (sperm) during sexual differentiation. These genes may mainly come from new sex-biased genes that have recently evolved in the S. japonica lineage. The duplication of sex-biased genes was detected, which may increase the number of sex-biased genes after gametogenesis in S. japonica to some extent. The excess of male-biased genes over female-biased genes in the mature stage may reflect the different levels of sexual selection across sexes. This study deepens our understanding of the regulation of sex development and differentiation in the dioicous kelp S. japonica.

Experimental evolution supports signatures of sexual selection in genomic divergence

Comparative genomics has contributed to the growing evidence that sexual selection is an important component of evolutionary divergence and speciation. Divergence by sexual selection is implicated in faster rates of divergence of the X chromosome and of genes thought to underlie sexually selected traits, including genes that are sex biased in expression. However, accurately inferring the relative importance of complex and interacting forms of natural selection, demography, and neutral processes that occurred in the evolutionary past is challenging. Experimental evolution provides an opportunity to apply controlled treatments for multiple generations and examine the consequent genomic divergence. Here, we altered sexual selection intensity, elevating sexual selection in polyandrous lines and eliminating it in monogamous lines, and examined patterns of allele frequency divergence in the genome of Drosophila pseudoobscura after more than 160 generations of experimental evolution. Divergence is not uniform across the genome but concentrated in "islands," many of which contain candidate genes implicated in mating behaviors and other sexually selected phenotypes. These are more often seen on the X chromosome, which also shows greater divergence in F ST than neutral expectations. There are characteristic signatures of selection seen in these regions, with lower diversity on the X chromosome than the autosomes, and differences in diversity on the autosomes between selection regimes. Reduced Tajima's D within some of the divergent regions may imply that selective sweeps have occurred, despite considerable recombination. These changes are associated with both differential gene expression between the lines and sex-biased gene expression within the lines. Our results are very similar to those thought to implicate sexual selection in divergence between species and natural populations, and hence provide experimental support for the likely role of sexual selection in driving such types of genetic divergence, but also illustrate how variable outcomes can be for different genomic regions.

The maintenance of polygenic sex determination depends on the dominance of fitness effects which are predictive of the role of sexual antagonism

In species with polygenic sex determination (PSD), multiple male- and female-determining loci on different proto-sex chromosomes segregate as polymorphisms within populations. The extent to which these polymorphisms are at stable equilibria is not yet resolved. Previous work demonstrated that PSD is most likely to be maintained as a stable polymorphism when the proto-sex chromosomes have opposite (sexually antagonistic) fitness effects in males and females. However, these models usually consider PSD systems with only two proto-sex chromosomes, or they do not broadly consider the dominance of the alleles under selection. To address these shortcomings, I used forward population genetic simulations to identify selection pressures that can maintain PSD under different dominance scenarios in a system with more than two proto-sex chromosomes (modeled after the house fly). I found that overdominant fitness effects of male-determining proto-Y chromosomes are more likely to maintain PSD than dominant, recessive, or additive fitness effects. The overdominant fitness effects that maintain PSD tend to have proto-Y chromosomes with sexually antagonistic effects (male-beneficial and female-detrimental). In contrast, dominant fitness effects that maintain PSD tend to have sexually antagonistic multi-chromosomal genotypes, but the individual proto-sex chromosomes do not have sexually antagonistic effects. These results demonstrate that sexual antagonism can be an emergent property of the multi-chromosome genotype without individual sexually antagonistic chromosomes. My results further illustrate how the dominance of fitness effects has consequences for both the likelihood that PSD will be maintained as well as the role sexually antagonistic selection is expected to play in maintaining the polymorphism.

Sex-Biased Gene Expression and Evolution in the Cerebrum and Syrinx of Chinese Hwamei (Garrulax canorus)

It is common that males and females display sexual dimorphisms, which usually result from sex-biased gene expression. Chinese hwamei (Garrulax canorus) is a good model for studying sex-biased gene expression because the song between the sexes is quite different. In this study, we analyze cerebrum and syrinx sex-biased gene expression and evolution using the de novo assembled Chinese hwamei transcriptome. In both the cerebrum and syrinx, our study revealed that most female-biased genes were actively expressed in females only, while most male-biased genes were actively expressed in both sexes. In addition, both male- and female-biased genes were enriched on the putative Z chromosome, suggesting the existence of sexually antagonistic genes and the insufficient dosage compensation of the Z-linked genes. We also identified a 9 Mb sex linkage region on the putative 4A chromosome which enriched more than 20% of female-biased genes. Resultantly, male-biased genes in both tissues had significantly higher Ka/Ks and effective number of codons (ENCs) than unbiased genes, and this suggested that male-biased genes which exhibit accelerated divergence may have resulted from positive selection. Taken together, our results initially revealed the reasons for the differences in singing behavior between males and females of Chinese hwamei.

Positive selection plays a major role in shaping signatures of differentiation across the genomic landscape of two independent Ficedula flycatcher species pairs

A current debate within population genomics surrounds the relevance of patterns of genomic differentiation between closely related species for our understanding of adaptation and speciation. Mounting evidence across many taxa suggests that the same genomic regions repeatedly develop elevated differentiation in independent species pairs. These regions often coincide with high gene density and/or low recombination, leading to the hypothesis that the genomic differentiation landscape mostly reflects a history of background selection, and reveals little about adaptation or speciation. A comparative genomics approach with multiple independent species pairs at a timescale where gene flow and ILS are negligible permits investigating whether different evolutionary processes are responsible for generating lineage-specific versus shared patterns of species differentiation. We use whole-genome resequencing data of 195 individuals from four Ficedula flycatcher species comprising two independent species pairs: collared and pied flycatchers, and red-breasted and taiga flycatchers. We found that both shared and lineage-specific F_ST peaks could partially be explained by selective sweeps, with recurrent selection likely to underlie shared signatures of selection, whereas indirect evidence supports a role of recombination landscape evolution in driving lineage-specific signatures of selection. This work therefore provides evidence for an interplay of positive selection and recombination to genomic landscape evolution.

Evaluating human autosomal loci for sexually antagonistic viability selection in two large biobanks

Sex and sexual differentiation are pervasive across the tree of life. Because females and males often have substantially different functional requirements, we expect selection to differ between the sexes. Recent studies in diverse species, including humans, suggest that sexually antagonistic viability selection creates allele frequency differences between the sexes at many different loci. However, theory and population-level simulations indicate that sex-specific differences in viability would need to be very large to produce and maintain reported levels of between-sex allelic differentiation. We address this contradiction between theoretical predictions and empirical observations by evaluating evidence for sexually antagonistic viability selection on autosomal loci in humans using the largest cohort to date (UK Biobank, n = 487,999) along with a second large, independent cohort (BioVU, n = 93,864). We performed association tests between genetically ascertained sex and autosomal loci. Although we found dozens of genome-wide significant associations, none replicated across cohorts. Moreover, closer inspection revealed that all associations are likely due to cross-hybridization with sex chromosome regions during genotyping. We report loci with potential for mis-hybridization found on commonly used genotyping platforms that should be carefully considered in future genetic studies of sex-specific differences. Despite being well powered to detect allele frequency differences of up to 0.8% between the sexes, we do not detect clear evidence for this signature of sexually antagonistic viability selection on autosomal variation. These findings suggest a lack of strong ongoing sexually antagonistic viability selection acting on single locus autosomal variation in humans.

Is the X chromosome a hot spot for sexually antagonistic polymorphisms? Biases in current empirical tests of classical theory

Females and males carry nearly identical genomes, which can constrain the evolution of sexual dimorphism and generate conditions that are favourable for maintaining sexually antagonistic (SA) polymorphisms, in which alleles beneficial for one sex are deleterious for the other. An influential theoretical prediction, by Rice (Rice 1984 Evolution38, 735-742), is that the X chromosome should be a 'hot spot' (i.e. enriched) for SA polymorphisms. While important caveats to Rice's theoretical prediction have since been highlighted (e.g. by Fry (2010) Evolution64, 1510-1516), several empirical studies appear to support it. Here, we show that current tests of Rice's theory-most of which are based on quantitative genetic measures of fitness (co)variance-are frequently biased towards detecting X-linked effects. We show that X-linked genes tend to contribute disproportionately to quantitative genetic patterns of SA fitness variation whether or not the X is enriched for SA polymorphisms. Population genomic approaches for detecting SA loci, including genome-wide association study of fitness and analyses of intersexual FST, are similarly biased towards detecting X-linked effects. In the light of our models, we critically re-evaluate empirical evidence for Rice's theory and discuss prospects for empirically testing it.

The search for sexually antagonistic genes: Practical insights from studies of local adaptation and statistical genomics

Sexually antagonistic (SA) genetic variation-in which alleles favored in one sex are disfavored in the other-is predicted to be common and has been documented in several animal and plant populations, yet we currently know little about its pervasiveness among species or its population genetic basis. Recent applications of genomics in studies of SA genetic variation have highlighted considerable methodological challenges to the identification and characterization of SA genes, raising questions about the feasibility of genomic approaches for inferring SA selection. The related fields of local adaptation and statistical genomics have previously dealt with similar challenges, and lessons from these disciplines can therefore help overcome current difficulties in applying genomics to study SA genetic variation. Here, we integrate theoretical and analytical concepts from local adaptation and statistical genomics research-including F ST and F IS statistics, genome-wide association studies, pedigree analyses, reciprocal transplant studies, and evolve-and-resequence experiments-to evaluate methods for identifying SA genes and genome-wide signals of SA genetic variation. We begin by developing theoretical models for between-sex F ST and F IS, including explicit null distributions for each statistic, and using them to critically evaluate putative multilocus signals of sex-specific selection in previously published datasets. We then highlight new statistics that address some of the limitations of F ST and F IS, along with applications of more direct approaches for characterizing SA genetic variation, which incorporate explicit fitness measurements. We finish by presenting practical guidelines for the validation and evolutionary analysis of candidate SA genes and discussing promising empirical systems for future work.

Genotype-environment interaction and the maintenance of genetic variation: an empirical study of Lobelia inflata (Campanulaceae)

High levels of genetic variation are often observed in natural populations, suggesting the action of processes such as frequency-dependent selection, heterozygote advantage and variable selection. However, the maintenance of genetic variation in fitness-related traits remains incompletely explained. The extent of genetic variation in obligately self-fertilizing populations of Lobelia inflata (Campanulaceae L.) strongly implies balancing selection. Lobelia inflata thus offers an exceptional opportunity for an empirical test of genotype-environment interaction (G × E) as a variance-maintaining mechanism under fluctuating selection: L. inflata is monocarpic and reproduces only by seed, facilitating assessment of lifetime fitness; genome-wide homozygosity precludes some mechanisms of balancing selection, and microsatellites are, in effect, genotypic lineage markers. Here, we find support for the temporal G × E hypothesis using a manipulated space-for-time approach across four environments: a field environment, an outdoor experimental plot and two differing growth-chamber environments. High genetic variance was confirmed: 83 field-collected individuals consisted of 45 distinct microsatellite lineages with, on average, 4.5 alleles per locus. Rank-order fitness, measured as lifetime fruit production in 16 replicated multilocus genotypes, changed significantly across environments. Phenotypic differences among microsatellite lineages were detected. Results thus support the G × E hypothesis in principle. However, the evaluation of the effect size of this mechanism and fitness effects of life-history traits will require a long-term study of fluctuating selection on labelled genotypes in the field.

Signature of sexual conflict is actually conflict resolved

There has been substantial interest of late in using population genetic methods to study sexual conflict, where an allele increases the fitness of one sex at some cost to the other (Mank, 2017). Population genomic scans for sexual conflict offer an important advance given the difficulties of identifying antagonistic alleles from more traditional methods, and could greatly increase our understanding of the extent and loci of sexual conflict. This is particularly true for studies in natural populations, for which obtaining accurate fitness measurements for each sex can be challenging. In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Bissegger, Laurentino, Roesti, and Berner (2019) present a cautionary tale about how to interpret these population genomic data.

The genomic footprint of sexual conflict

Genes with sex-biased expression show a number of unique properties and this has been seen as evidence for conflicting selection pressures in males and females, forming a genetic ‘tug-of-war’ between the sexes. However, we lack studies of taxa where an understanding of conflicting phenotypic selection in the sexes has been linked with studies of genomic signatures of sexual conflict. Here, we provide such a link. We used an insect where sexual conflict is unusually well understood, the seed beetle Callosobruchus maculatus, to test for molecular genetic signals of sexual conflict across genes with varying degrees of sex-bias in expression. We sequenced, assembled and annotated its genome and performed population resequencing of three divergent populations. Sex-biased genes showed increased levels of genetic diversity and bore a remarkably clear footprint of relaxed purifying selection. Yet, segregating genetic variation was also affected by balancing selection in weakly female-biased genes, while male-biased genes showed signs of overall purifying selection. Female-biased genes contributed disproportionally to shared polymorphism across populations, while male-biased genes, male seminal fluid protein genes and sex-linked genes did not. Genes showing genomic signatures consistent with sexual conflict generally matched life-history phenotypes known to experience sexually antagonistic selection in this species. Our results highlight metabolic and reproductive processes, confirming the key role of general life-history traits in sexual conflict.

Limits to Genomic Divergence Under Sexually Antagonistic Selection

Since the autosomal genome is shared between the sexes, sex-specific fitness optima present an evolutionary challenge. While sexually antagonistic selection might favor different alleles within females and males, segregation randomly reassorts alleles at autosomal loci between sexes each generation. This process of homogenization during transmission thus prevents between-sex allelic divergence generated by sexually antagonistic selection from accumulating across multiple generations. However, recent empirical studies have reported high male-female F_ST statistics. Here, we use a population genetic model to evaluate whether these observations could plausibly be produced by sexually antagonistic selection. To do this, we use both a single-locus model with nonrandom mate choice, and individual-based simulations to study the relationship between strength of selection, degree of between-sex divergence, and the associated genetic load. We show that selection must be exceptionally strong to create measurable divergence between the sexes and that the decrease in population fitness due to this process is correspondingly high. Individual-based simulations with selection genome-wide recapitulate these patterns and indicate that small sample sizes and sampling variance can easily generate substantial male-female divergence. We therefore conclude that caution should be taken when interpreting autosomal allelic differentiation between the sexes.

Sexual antagonism drives the displacement of polymorphism across gene regulatory cascades

Males and females have different reproductive roles and are often subject to contrasting selection pressures. This sexual antagonism can lead, at a given locus, to different alleles being favoured in each sex and, consequently, to genetic variation being maintained in a population. Although the presence of sexually antagonistic (SA) polymorphisms has been documented across a range of species, their evolutionary dynamics remain poorly understood. Here, we study SA selection on gene expression, which is fundamental to sexual dimorphism, via the evolution of regulatory binding sites. We show that for sites longer than 1 nucleotide, expression polymorphism is maintained only when intermediate expression levels are deleterious to both sexes. We then show that, in a regulatory cascade, expression polymorphism tends to become displaced over evolutionary time from the target of SA selection to upstream regulators. Our results have consequences for understanding the evolution of sexual dimorphism, and provide specific empirical predictions for the regulatory architecture of genes under SA selection.

Phenotypic sexual dimorphism is associated with genomic signatures of resolved sexual conflict

Intralocus sexual conflict, where an allele benefits one sex at the expense of the other, has an important role in shaping genetic diversity of populations through balancing selection. However, the potential for mating systems to exert balancing selection through sexual conflict on the genome remains unclear. Furthermore, the nature and potential for resolution of sexual conflict across the genome has been hotly debated. To address this, we analysed de novo transcriptomes from six avian species, chosen to reflect the full range of sexual dimorphism and mating systems. Our analyses combine expression and population genomic statistics across reproductive and somatic tissue, with measures of sperm competition and promiscuity. Our results reveal that balancing selection is weakest in the gonad, consistent with the resolution of sexual conflict and evolutionary theory that phenotypic sex differences are associated with lower levels of ongoing conflict. We also demonstrate a clear link between variation in sexual conflict and levels of genetic variation across phylogenetic space in a comparative framework. Our observations suggest that this conflict is short-lived, and is resolved via the decoupling of male and female gene expression patterns, with important implications for the role of sexual selection in adaptive potential and role of dimorphism in facilitating sex-specific fitness optima.

Genome-wide sexually antagonistic variants reveal long-standing constraints on sexual dimorphism in fruit flies

The evolution of sexual dimorphism is constrained by a shared genome, leading to ‘sexual antagonism’, in which different alleles at given loci are favoured by selection in males and females. Despite its wide taxonomic incidence, we know little about the identity, genomic location, and evolutionary dynamics of antagonistic genetic variants. To address these deficits, we use sex-specific fitness data from 202 fully sequenced hemiclonal Drosophila melanogaster fly lines to perform a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of sexual antagonism. We identify approximately 230 chromosomal clusters of candidate antagonistic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). In contradiction to classic theory, we find no clear evidence that the X chromosome is a hot spot for sexually antagonistic variation. Characterising antagonistic SNPs functionally, we find a large excess of missense variants but little enrichment in terms of gene function. We also assess the evolutionary persistence of antagonistic variants by examining extant polymorphism in wild D. melanogaster populations and closely related species. Remarkably, antagonistic variants are associated with multiple signatures of balancing selection across the D. melanogaster distribution range and in their sister species D. simulans, indicating widespread and evolutionarily persistent (about 1 million years) genomic constraints on the evolution of sexual dimorphism. Based on our results, we propose that antagonistic variation accumulates because of constraints on the resolution of sexual conflict over protein coding sequences, thus contributing to the long-term maintenance of heritable fitness variation.

This study characterises antagonistic loci across the genome of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, finding them to be preferentially associated with variation in coding sequences and to be selectively maintained across worldwide populations of D. melanogaster, and even its sister species D. simulans.

Sexual conflict and the maintenance of genetic variation in natural populations

Understanding the factors that maintain genetic variation in natural populations is a foundational goal of evolutionary biology. To this end, population geneticists have developed a variety of models that can produce stable polymorphisms. In one of the earliest models, Owen () demonstrated that differences in selection pressures acting on males and females could maintain multiple alleles of a gene at a stable equilibrium. If the selection pressures act in opposite directions in males and females, we refer to this as (inter-) sexual conflict or sexual antagonism (Arnqvist & Rowe, ). Testing if sexual conflict maintains genetic variation in natural populations is a tremendous challenge-it requires both identifying loci that harbor sexually antagonistic alleles and determining whether those alleles are maintained as stable polymorphisms (Mank, ). Doing so genome-wide is even harder because it is not tractable to identify sexually antagonistic alleles and test for stable polymorphisms at all loci. Dutoit et al. () confront this challenge in a paper published in this issue of Molecular Ecology. Using gene expression and population genomic data from the collared flycatcher, Dutoit et al. () identify associations and correlations between genomic signatures of balanced polymorphisms and sexual conflict.