Forest mortality due to drought: latest insights, evidence and unresolved questions on physiological pathways and consequences of tree death

Tropical tall forests are more sensitive and vulnerable to drought than short forests

Our limited understanding of the impacts of drought on tropical forests significantly impedes our ability in accurately predicting the impacts of climate change on this biome. Here, we investigated the impact of drought on the dynamics of forest canopies with different heights using time-series records of remotely sensed Ku-band vegetation optical depth (Ku-VOD), a proxy of top-canopy foliar mass and water content, and separated the signal of Ku-VOD changes into drought-induced reductions and subsequent non-drought gains. Both drought-induced reductions and non-drought increases in Ku-VOD varied significantly with canopy height. Taller tropical forests experienced greater relative Ku-VOD reductions during drought and larger non-drought increases than shorter forests, but the net effect of drought was more negative in the taller forests. Meta-analysis of in situ hydraulic traits supports the hypothesis that taller tropical forests are more vulnerable to drought stress due to smaller xylem-transport safety margins. Additionally, Ku-VOD of taller forests showed larger reductions due to increased atmospheric dryness, as assessed by vapor pressure deficit, and showed larger gains in response to enhanced water supply than shorter forests. Including the height-dependent variation of hydraulic transport in ecosystem models will improve the simulated response of tropical forests to drought.

Tree hazards compounded by successive climate extremes after masting in a small endemic tree, Distylium lepidotum, on subtropical islands in Japan

Ongoing global warming increases the frequency and severity of tropical typhoons and prolonged drought, leading to forest degradation. Simultaneous and/or successive masting events and climatic extremes may thus occur frequently in the near future. If these climatic extremes occur immediately after mass seed reproduction, their effects on individual trees are expected to be very severe because mass reproduction decreases carbohydrate reserves. While the effects of either a single climate extreme or masting alone on tree resilience/growth have received past research attention, understanding the cumulative effects of such multiple events remains challenging and is crucial for predicting future forest changes. Here, we report tree hazards compound by two successive climate extremes, a tropical typhoon and prolonged drought, after mass reproduction in an endemic tree species (Distylium lepidotum Nakai) on oceanic islands. Across individual trees, the starch stored within the sapwood of branchlets significantly decreased with reproductive efforts (fruit mass/shoot mass ratio). Typhoon damage significantly decreased not only the total leaf area of apical shoots but also the maximum photosynthetic rates. During the 5-month period after the typhoon, the mortality of large branchlets (8-10-mm diameter) increased with decreasing stored starch when the typhoon hit. During the prolonged summer drought in the next year, the recovery of total leaf area, stored starch, and hydraulic conductivity was negatively correlated with the stored starch at the typhoon. These data indicate that the level of stored starch within branchlets is the driving factor determining tree regrowth or dieback, and the restoration of carbohydrates after mass reproduction is synergistically delayed by such climate extremes. Stored carbohydrates are the major cumulative factor affecting individual tree resilience, resulting in their historical effects. Because of highly variable carbohydrate levels among individual trees, the resultant impacts of such successive events on forest dieback will be fundamentally different among trees.

Unmanned Aerial System and Machine Learning Techniques Help to Detect Dead Woody Components in a Tropical Dry Forest

Background and Objectives: Increased frequency and intensity of drought events are predicted to occur throughout the world because of climate change. These extreme climate events result in higher tree mortality and fraction of dead woody components, phenomena that are currently being reported worldwide as critical indicators of the impacts of climate change on forest diversity and function. In this paper, we assess the accuracy and processing times of ten machine learning (ML) techniques, applied to multispectral unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) data to detect dead canopy woody components. Materials and Methods: This work was conducted on five secondary dry forest plots located at the Santa Rosa National Park Environmental Monitoring Super Site, Costa Rica. Results: The coverage of dead woody components at the selected secondary dry forest plots was estimated to range from 4.8% to 16.1%, with no differences between the successional stages. Of the ten ML techniques, the support vector machine with radial kernel (SVMR) and random forests (RF) provided the highest accuracies (0.982 vs. 0.98, respectively). Of these two ML algorithms, the processing time of SVMR was longer than the processing time of RF (8735.64 s vs. 989 s). Conclusions: Our results demonstrate that it is feasible to detect and quantify dead woody components, such as dead stands and fallen trees, using a combination of high-resolution UAV data and ML algorithms. Using this technology, accuracy values higher than 95% were achieved. However, it is important to account for a series of factors, such as the optimization of the tuning parameters of the ML algorithms, the environmental conditions and the time of the UAV data acquisition.

Hydroclimatic variations reveal differences in carbon capture in two sympatric conifers in northern Mexico

Background

Forest ecosystems are considered among the largest terrestrial carbon sinks. The dynamics of forest carbon depend on where the carbon is stored and its responses to environmental factors, as well as the physiology of the trees. Thus, threatened forest regions with high biodiversity have great scientific importance, such as the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico. A comparative analysis of tree species can expand the knowledge of the carbon cycle dynamics and ecological processes in this region. Here, we examined the growth, wood density, and carbon accumulation of two threatened species (Pseudotsuga menziesii and Cupressus lusitanica) to evaluate their hydroclimatic responsiveness.

Methods

The temporal variations in the carbon accumulation patterns of two co-occurring species (P. menziesii and C. lusitanica) and their sensitivity to the local climate were studied using dendroecological techniques, X-ray densitometry, and allometric equations.

Results

The results show that the annual carbon accumulation in C. lusitanica is positively associated with the temperature during the current fall, while the carbon accumulation in P. menziesii is correlated with the rainfall during the winter of the previous year. The climatic responses are associated with the intra-annual variations of wood density and ring widths for each species. The ring width was strongly correlated with carbon accumulation in C. lusitanica, while the mean wood density was linked to carbon accumulation in P. menziesii.

Discussion

This study has implications for the carbon accumulation rates of both species, revealing differences in the carbon capture patterns in response to climatic variations. Although the species coexist, there are variation in the hydroclimatic sensitivity of the annual carbon sequestered by trunks of trees, which would be associated with tree-ring width and/or wood density, i.e., directly by anatomical features. The results are relevant to analyze the response to the variability of climatic conditions expected in the near future of the tree communities of Sierra Madre Occidental. Therefore, this study provides a basis for modeling the long-term carbon budget projections in terrestrial ecosystems in northern Mexico.

Initial hydraulic failure followed by late-stage carbon starvation leads to drought-induced death in the tree Trema orientalis

Drought-induced tree death has become a serious problem in global forest ecosystems. Two nonexclusive hypotheses, hydraulic failure and carbon starvation, have been proposed to explain tree die-offs. To clarify the mechanisms, we investigated the physiological processes of drought-induced tree death in saplings with contrasting Huber values (sapwood area/total leaf area). First, hydraulic failure and reduced respiration were found in the initial process of tree decline, and in the last stage carbon starvation led to tree death. The carbohydrate reserves at the stem bases, low in healthy trees, accumulated at the beginning of the declining process due to phloem transport failure, and then decreased just before dying. The concentrations of non-structural carbohydrates at the stem bases are a good indicator of tree damage. The physiological processes and carbon sink-source dynamics that occur during lethal drought provide important insights into the adaptive measures underlying forest die-offs under global warming conditions.

Cambial pinning relates wood anatomy to ecophysiology in the African tropical tree Maesopsis eminii

A better understanding and prediction of the impact of changing climate on tree stem growth could greatly benefit from the combination of anatomical and ecophysiological knowledge, yet the majority of studies focus on one research field only. We propose an approach that combines the method of pinning (cambial wounding) to timestamp anatomical X-ray computed microtomography images with continuous measurements of sap flow and stem diameter variations. By pinning the cambium of well-watered and drought-treated young African tropical trees of the species Maesopsis eminii Engl. we could quantify wood formation during a specific period of time and relate it to tree physiology and prevailing microclimate. Integrating continuous plant measurements and high-frequency pinning proved very useful to visualize and quantify the effects on stem growth of drought in M. eminii. Wood formation completely stopped during drought, and was associated with a strong shrinkage in stem diameter. Next, an unexpected increase in stem diameter was observed during drought, probably caused by root pressure, but not accompanied by wood formation. Our proposed approach of combining continuous plant measurements with cambial pinning is very promising to relate ecophysiology to stem anatomy and to understand the mechanisms underlying tree stem growth and bridge the gaps between the two research fields.

The dynamics of carbon stored in xylem sapwood to drought-induced hydraulic stress in mature trees

Climate-induced forest die-off is widespread in multiple biomes, strongly affecting the species composition, function and primary production in forest ecosystems. Hydraulic failure and carbon starvation in xylem sapwood are major hypotheses to explain drought-induced tree mortality. Because it is difficult to obtain enough field observations on drought-induced mortality in adult trees, the current understanding of the physiological mechanisms for tree die-offs is still controversial. However, the simultaneous examination of water and carbon uses throughout dehydration and rehydration processes in adult trees will contribute to clarify the roles of hydraulic failure and carbon starvation in tree wilting. Here we show the processes of the percent loss of hydraulic conductivity (PLC) and the content of nonstructural carbohydrates (NSCs) of distal branches in woody plants with contrasting water use strategy. Starch was converted to soluble sugar during PLC progression under drought, and the hydraulic conductivity recovered following water supply. The conversion of NSCs is strongly associated with PLC variations during dehydration and rehydration processes, indicating that stored carbon contributes to tree survival under drought; further carbon starvation can advance hydraulic failure. We predict that even slow-progressing drought degrades forest ecosystems via carbon starvation, causing more frequent catastrophic forest die-offs than the present projection.

Prolonged experimental drought reduces plant hydraulic conductance and transpiration and increases mortality in a piñon-juniper woodland

Plant hydraulic conductance (k_s) is a critical control on whole-plant water use and carbon uptake and, during drought, influences whether plants survive or die. To assess long-term physiological and hydraulic responses of mature trees to water availability, we manipulated ecosystem-scale water availability from 2007 to 2013 in a piñon pine (Pinus edulis) and juniper (Juniperus monosperma) woodland. We examined the relationship between k_s and subsequent mortality using more than 5 years of physiological observations, and the subsequent impact of reduced hydraulic function and mortality on total woody canopy transpiration (E_C) and conductance (G_C). For both species, we observed significant reductions in plant transpiration (E) and k_s under experimentally imposed drought. Conversely, supplemental water additions increased E and k_s in both species. Interestingly, both species exhibited similar declines in k_s under the imposed drought conditions, despite their differing stomatal responses and mortality patterns during drought. Reduced whole-plant k_s also reduced carbon assimilation in both species, as leaf-level stomatal conductance (g_s) and net photosynthesis (A_n) declined strongly with decreasing k_s. Finally, we observed that chronically low whole-plant k_s was associated with greater canopy dieback and mortality for both piñon and juniper and that subsequent reductions in woody canopy biomass due to mortality had a significant impact on both daily and annual canopy E_C and G_C. Our data indicate that significant reductions in k_s precede drought-related tree mortality events in this system, and the consequence is a significant reduction in canopy gas exchange and carbon fixation. Our results suggest that reductions in productivity and woody plant cover in piñon–juniper woodlands can be expected due to reduced plant hydraulic conductance and increased mortality of both piñon pine and juniper under anticipated future conditions of more frequent and persistent regional drought in the southwestern United States.

Implications of the mesophyll conductance to CO2 for photosynthesis and water-use efficiency during long-term water stress and recovery in two contrasting Eucalyptus species

Water stress (WS) slows growth and photosynthesis (A(n)), but most knowledge comes from short-time studies that do not account for longer term acclimation processes that are especially relevant in tree species. Using two Eucalyptus species that contrast in drought tolerance, we induced moderate and severe water deficits by withholding water until stomatal conductance (g(sw)) decreased to two pre-defined values for 24 d, WS was maintained at the target g(sw) for 29 d and then plants were re-watered. Additionally, we developed new equations to simulate the effect on mesophyll conductance (g(m)) of accounting for the resistance to refixation of CO(2). The diffusive limitations to CO(2), dominated by the stomata, were the most important constraints to A(n). Full recovery of A(n) was reached after re-watering, characterized by quick recovery of gm and even higher biochemical capacity, in contrast to the slower recovery of g(sw). The acclimation to long-term WS led to decreased mesophyll and biochemical limitations, in contrast to studies in which stress was imposed more rapidly. Finally, we provide evidence that higher gm under WS contributes to higher intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE) and reduces the leaf oxidative stress, highlighting the importance of gm as a target for breeding/genetic engineering.

Physiological and molecular responses to drought stress in rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.)

Plant drought stress response and tolerance are complex biological processes. In order to reveal the drought tolerance mechanism in rubber tree, physiological responses and expressions of genes involved in energy biosynthesis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging were systematically analyzed following drought stress treatment. Results showed that relative water content (RWC) in leaves was continuously decreased with the severity of drought stress. Wilting leaves were observed at 7 day without water (dww). Total chlorophyll content was increased at 1 dww, but decreased from 3 dww. However, the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA) and proline were significantly increased under drought stress. Peroxidase (POD) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities were markedly enhanced at 1 and 3 dww, respectively. Meanwhile, the soluble sugar content was constant under drought stress. These indicated that photosynthetic activity and membrane lipid integrity were quickly attenuated by drought stress in rubber tree, and osmoregulation participated in drought tolerance mechanism in rubber tree. Expressions of energy biosynthesis and ROS scavenging systems related genes, including HbCuZnSOD, HbMnSOD, HbAPX, HbCAT, HbCOA, HbATP, and HbACAT demonstrated that these genes were significantly up-regulated by drought stress, and reached a maximum at 3 dww, then followed by a decrease from 5 dww. These results suggested that drought stress adaption in rubber tree was governed by energy biosynthesis, antioxidative enzymes, and osmoregulation.

Shoot desiccation and hydraulic failure in temperate woody angiosperms during an extreme summer drought

Plant water status and hydraulics were measured in six woody angiosperms growing in a karstic woodland, during an extreme summer drought. Our aim was to take advantage of an unusual climatic event to identify key traits related to species-specific drought damage. The damage suffered by different species was assessed in terms of percentage of individuals showing extensive crown desiccation. Stem water potential (Ψstem ) and percent loss of hydraulic conductivity (PLC) were measured in healthy and desiccated individuals. Vulnerability to cavitation was assessed in terms of stem water potential inducing 50% PLC (Ψ50 ). Stem density (ρstem ) was also measured. Species-specific percentage of desiccated individuals was correlated to Ψ50 and ρstem . Crown desiccation was more widespread in species with less negative Ψ50 and lower ρstem . Desiccated individuals had lower Ψstem and higher PLC than healthy ones, suggesting that hydraulic failure was an important mechanism driving shoot dieback. Drought-vulnerable species showed lower safety margins (Ψstem  - Ψ50 ) than resistant ones. The Ψ50 , safety margins and ρstem values emerge as convenient traits to be used for tentative predictions of differential species-specific impact of extreme drought events on a local scale. The possibility that carbohydrate depletion was also involved in induction of desiccation symptoms is discussed.