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Lalica MAK, Tomescu AMF. Plant periderm as a continuum in structural organisation: a tracheophyte-wide survey and hypotheses on evolution. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:1196-1217. [PMID: 38361444 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Periderm is a well-known structural feature with vital roles in protection of inner plant tissues and wound healing. Despite its importance to plant survival, knowledge of periderm occurrences outside the seed plants is limited and the evolutionary origins of periderm remain poorly explored. Here, we review the current knowledge of the taxonomic distribution of periderm in its two main forms - canonical periderm (periderm formed as a typical ontogenetic stage) and wound periderm (periderm produced as a self-repair mechanism) - with a focus on major plant lineages, living and extinct. We supplement the published occurrences with data based on our own observations and experiments. This updated body of data reveals that the distribution of wound periderm is more widespread taxonomically than previously recognized and some living and extinct groups are capable of producing wound periderm, despite canonical periderm being absent from their normal developmental program. A critical review of canonical and wound periderms in extant and fossil lineages indicates that not all periderms are created equal. Their organisation is widely variable and the differences can be characterised in terms of variations in three structural features: (i) the consistency in orientation of periclinal walls within individual files of periderm cells; (ii) the lateral coordination of periclinal walls between adjacent cell files; and (iii) whether a cambial layer and conspicuous layering of inward and outward derivatives can be distinguished. Using a new system of scoring periderm structure based on these criteria, we characterise the level of organisation of canonical and wound periderms in different lineages. Looking at periderms through the lens provided by their level of organisation reveals that the traditional image of periderm as a single generalised feature, is best viewed as a continuum of structural configurations that are all predicated by the same basic process (periclinal divisions), but can fall anywhere between very loosely organized (diffuse periclinal growth) to very tightly coordinated (organized periclinal growth). Overall, wound periderms in both seed plants and seed-free plants have lower degrees of organisation than canonical periderms, which may be due to their initiation in response to inherently disruptive traumatic events. Wound and canonical periderms of seed plants have higher degrees of organisation than those of seed-free plants, possibly due to co-option of the programs responsible for organizing their vascular cambial growth. Given the importance of wound periderm to plant survival, its widespread taxonomic distribution, and its early occurrence in the fossil record, we hypothesise that wound periderm may have had a single origin in euphyllophytes and canonical periderm may have originated separately in different lineages by co-option of the basic regulatory toolkit of wound periderm formation. In one evolutionary scenario, wound periderm regulators activated initially by tissue tearing due to tensional stresses elicited by woody growth underwent heterochronic change that switched their activation trigger from tissue tearing to the tensional stresses that precede it, with corresponding changes in the signalling that triggered the regulatory cascade of periderm development from tearing-induced signals to signalling induced by tension in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madison A K Lalica
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State Polytechnic University Humboldt, Arcata, CA, USA
| | - Alexandru M F Tomescu
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State Polytechnic University Humboldt, Arcata, CA, USA
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2
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Piccinini L, Nirina Ramamonjy F, Ursache R. Imaging plant cell walls using fluorescent stains: The beauty is in the details. J Microsc 2024; 295:102-120. [PMID: 38477035 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Plants continuously face various environmental stressors throughout their lifetime. To be able to grow and adapt in different environments, they developed specialized tissues that allowed them to maintain a protected yet interconnected body. These tissues undergo specific primary and secondary cell wall modifications that are essential to ensure normal plant growth, adaptation and successful land colonization. The composition of cell walls can vary among different plant species, organs and tissues. The ability to remodel their cell walls is fundamental for plants to be able to cope with multiple biotic and abiotic stressors. A better understanding of the changes taking place in plant cell walls may help identify and develop new strategies as well as tools to enhance plants' survival under environmental stresses or prevent pathogen attack. Since the invention of microscopy, numerous imaging techniques have been developed to determine the composition and dynamics of plant cell walls during normal growth and in response to environmental stimuli. In this review, we discuss the main advances in imaging plant cell walls, with a particular focus on fluorescent stains for different cell wall components and their compatibility with tissue clearing techniques. Lay Description: Plants are continuously subjected to various environmental stresses during their lifespan. They evolved specialized tissues that thrive in different environments, enabling them to maintain a protected yet interconnected body. Such tissues undergo distinct primary and secondary cell wall alterations essential to normal plant growth, their adaptability and successful land colonization. Cell wall composition may differ among various plant species, organs and even tissues. To deal with various biotic and abiotic stresses, plants must have the capacity to remodel their cell walls. Gaining insight into changes that take place in plant cell walls will help identify and create novel tools and strategies to improve plants' ability to withstand environmental challenges. Multiple imaging techniques have been developed since the introduction of microscopy to analyse the composition and dynamics of plant cell walls during growth and in response to environmental changes. Advancements in plant tissue cleaning procedures and their compatibility with cell wall stains have significantly enhanced our ability to perform high-resolution cell wall imaging. At the same time, several factors influence the effectiveness of cleaning and staining plant specimens, as well as the time necessary for the process, including the specimen's size, thickness, tissue complexity and the presence of autofluorescence. In this review, we will discuss the major advances in imaging plant cell walls, with a particular emphasis on fluorescent stains for diverse cell wall components and their compatibility with tissue clearing techniques. We hope that this review will assist readers in selecting the most appropriate stain or combination of stains to highlight specific cell wall components of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Piccinini
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG), CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Fabien Nirina Ramamonjy
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG), CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Robertas Ursache
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG), CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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3
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Villarino G, Dahlberg-Wright S, Zhang L, Schaedel M, Wang L, Miller K, Bartlett J, Vu AMD, Busch W. PAT (Periderm Assessment Toolkit): A Quantitative and Large-Scale Screening Method for Periderm Measurements. PLANT PHENOMICS (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2024; 6:0156. [PMID: 38560381 PMCID: PMC10981931 DOI: 10.34133/plantphenomics.0156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
The periderm is a vital protective tissue found in the roots, stems, and woody elements of diverse plant species. It plays an important function in these plants by assuming the role of the epidermis as the outermost layer. Despite its critical role for protecting plants from environmental stresses and pathogens, research on root periderm development has been limited due to its late formation during root development, its presence only in mature root regions, and its impermeability. One of the most straightforward measurements for comparing periderm formation between different genotypes and treatments is periderm (phellem) length. We have developed PAT (Periderm Assessment Toolkit), a high-throughput user-friendly pipeline that integrates an efficient staining protocol, automated imaging, and a deep-learning-based image analysis approach to accurately detect and measure periderm length in the roots of Arabidopsis thaliana. The reliability and reproducibility of our method was evaluated using a diverse set of 20 Arabidopsis natural accessions. Our automated measurements exhibited a strong correlation with human-expert-generated measurements, achieving a 94% efficiency in periderm length quantification. This robust PAT pipeline streamlines large-scale periderm measurements, thereby being able to facilitate comprehensive genetic studies and screens. Although PAT proves highly effective with automated digital microscopes in Arabidopsis roots, its application may pose challenges with nonautomated microscopy. Although the workflow and principles could be adapted for other plant species, additional optimization would be necessary. While we show that periderm length can be used to distinguish a mutant impaired in periderm development from wild type, we also find it is a plastic trait. Therefore, care must be taken to include sufficient repeats and controls, to minimize variation, and to ensure comparability of periderm length measurements between different genotypes and growth conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Villarino
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory,
Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Signe Dahlberg-Wright
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory,
Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Ling Zhang
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory,
Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Marianne Schaedel
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory,
Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Lin Wang
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory,
Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Karyssa Miller
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory,
Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Jack Bartlett
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory,
Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Albert Martin Dang Vu
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory,
Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Wolfgang Busch
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory,
Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Kuznetsova K, Efremova E, Dodueva I, Lebedeva M, Lutova L. Functional Modules in the Meristems: "Tinkering" in Action. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:3661. [PMID: 37896124 PMCID: PMC10610496 DOI: 10.3390/plants12203661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A feature of higher plants is the modular principle of body organisation. One of these conservative morphological modules that regulate plant growth, histogenesis and organogenesis is meristems-structures that contain pools of stem cells and are generally organised according to a common principle. Basic content: The development of meristems is under the regulation of molecular modules that contain conservative interacting components and modulate the expression of target genes depending on the developmental context. In this review, we focus on two molecular modules that act in different types of meristems. The WOX-CLAVATA module, which includes the peptide ligand, its receptor and the target transcription factor, is responsible for the formation and control of the activity of all meristem types studied, but it has its own peculiarities in different meristems. Another regulatory module is the so-called florigen-activated complex, which is responsible for the phase transition in the shoot vegetative meristem (e.g., from the vegetative shoot apical meristem to the inflorescence meristem). CONCLUSIONS The review considers the composition and functions of these two functional modules in different developmental programmes, as well as their appearance, evolution and use in plant breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Irina Dodueva
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, Saint Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya Emb. 7/9, 199034 Saint Petersburg, Russia; (K.K.); (E.E.); (M.L.); (L.L.)
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5
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Wang X, Mäkilä R, Mähönen AP. From procambium patterning to cambium activation and maintenance in the Arabidopsis root. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 75:102404. [PMID: 37352651 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2023.102404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023]
Abstract
In addition to primary growth, which elongates the plant body, many plant species also undergo secondary growth to thicken their body. During primary vascular development, a subset of the vascular cells, called procambium and pericycle, remain undifferentiated to later gain vascular cambium and cork cambium identity, respectively. These two cambia are the lateral meristems providing secondary growth. The vascular cambium produces secondary xylem and phloem, which give plants mechanical support and transport capacity. Cork cambium produces a protective layer called cork. In this review, we focus on recent advances in understanding the formation of procambium and its gradual maturation to active cambium in the Arabidopsis thaliana root.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wang
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Riikka Mäkilä
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ari Pekka Mähönen
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
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6
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Straube J, Suvarna S, Chen YH, Khanal BP, Knoche M, Debener T. Time course of changes in the transcriptome during russet induction in apple fruit. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 23:457. [PMID: 37775771 PMCID: PMC10542230 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-023-04483-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Russeting is a major problem in many fruit crops. Russeting is caused by environmental factors such as wounding or moisture exposure of the fruit surface. Despite extensive research, the molecular sequence that triggers russet initiation remains unclear. Here, we present high-resolution transcriptomic data by controlled russet induction at very early stages of fruit development. During Phase I, a patch of the fruit surface is exposed to surface moisture. For Phase II, moisture exposure is terminated, and the formerly exposed surface remains dry. We targeted differentially expressed transcripts as soon as 24 h after russet induction. RESULTS During moisture exposure (Phase I) of 'Pinova' apple, transcripts associated with the cell cycle, cell wall, and cuticle synthesis (SHN3) decrease, while those related to abiotic stress increase. NAC35 and MYB17 were the earliest induced genes during Phase I. They are therefore linked to the initial processes of cuticle microcracking. After moisture removal (Phase II), the expression of genes related to meristematic activity increased (WOX4 within 24 h, MYB84 within 48 h). Genes related to lignin synthesis (MYB52) and suberin synthesis (MYB93, WRKY56) were upregulated within 3 d after moisture removal. WOX4 and AP2B3 are the earliest differentially expressed genes induced in Phase II. They are therefore linked to early events in periderm formation. The expression profiles were consistent between two different seasons and mirrored differences in russet susceptibility in a comparison of cultivars. Furthermore, expression profiles during Phase II of moisture induction were largely identical to those following wounding. CONCLUSIONS The combination of a unique controlled russet induction technique with high-resolution transcriptomic data allowed for the very first time to analyse the formation of cuticular microcracks and periderm in apple fruit immediately after the onset of triggering factors. This data provides valuable insights into the spatial-temporal dynamics of russeting, including the synthesis of cuticles, dedifferentiation of cells, and impregnation of cell walls with suberin and lignin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannis Straube
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Molecular Plant Breeding Section, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Fruit Science Section, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Shreya Suvarna
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Molecular Plant Breeding Section, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Yun-Hao Chen
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Fruit Science Section, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Bishnu P Khanal
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Fruit Science Section, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Moritz Knoche
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Fruit Science Section, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Thomas Debener
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Molecular Plant Breeding Section, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419, Hannover, Germany.
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7
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Tsai HH, Wang J, Geldner N, Zhou F. Spatiotemporal control of root immune responses during microbial colonization. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 74:102369. [PMID: 37141807 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2023.102369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The entire evolutionary trajectory of plants towards large and complex multi-cellular organisms has been accompanied by incessant interactions with omnipresent unicellular microbes. This led to the evolution of highly complex microbial communities, whose members display the entire spectrum of pathogenic to mutualistic behaviors. Plant roots are dynamic, fractally growing organs and even small Arabidopsis roots harbor millions of individual microbes of diverse taxa. It is evident that microbes at different positions on a root surface could experience fundamentally different environments, which, moreover, rapidly change over time. Differences in spatial scales between microbes and roots compares to humans and the cities they inhabit. Such considerations make it evident that mechanisms of root-microbe interactions can only be understood if analyzed at relevant spatial and temporal scales. This review attempts to provide an overview of the rapid recent progress that has been made in mapping and manipulating plant damage and immune responses at cellular resolution, as well as in visualizing bacterial communities and their transcriptional activities. We further discuss the impact that such approaches will have for a more predictive understanding of root-microbe interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huei-Hsuan Tsai
- Department of Plant Molecular Biology, Biophore, UNIL-Sorge, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jiachang Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Niko Geldner
- Department of Plant Molecular Biology, Biophore, UNIL-Sorge, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Feng Zhou
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China.
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8
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Shtein I, Gričar J, Lev-Yadun S, Oskolski A, Pace MR, Rosell JA, Crivellaro A. Priorities for Bark Anatomical Research: Study Venues and Open Questions. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:1985. [PMID: 37653902 PMCID: PMC10221070 DOI: 10.3390/plants12101985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
The bark fulfils several essential functions in vascular plants and yields a wealth of raw materials, but the understanding of bark structure and function strongly lags behind our knowledge with respect to other plant tissues. The recent technological advances in sampling and preparation of barks for anatomical studies, along with the establishment of an agreed bark terminology, paved the way for more bark anatomical research. Whilst datasets reveal bark's taxonomic and functional diversity in various ecosystems, a better understanding of the bark can advance the understanding of plants' physiological and environmental challenges and solutions. We propose a set of priorities for understanding and further developing bark anatomical studies, including periderm structure in woody plants, phloem phenology, methods in bark anatomy research, bark functional ecology, relationships between bark macroscopic appearance, and its microscopic structure and discuss how to achieve these ambitious goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilana Shtein
- Department of Molecular Biology, Milken Campus, Ariel University, Ariel 40700, Israel
- Eastern R&D Center, Milken Campus, Ariel 40700, Israel
| | - Jožica Gričar
- Department of Forest Physiology and Genetics, Slovenian Forestry Institute, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa-Oranim, Tivon 36006, Israel
| | - Alexei Oskolski
- Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
- Komarov Botanical Institute, Russian Academy of Science, Prof. Popov Str. 2, 197376 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Marcelo R. Pace
- Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
| | - Julieta A. Rosell
- Laboratorio Nacional de Ciencias de la Sostenibilidad, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
| | - Alan Crivellaro
- Forest Biometrics Laboratory, Faculty of Forestry, “Stefan cel Mare” University of Suceava, Str. Universitatii 13, 720229 Suceava, Romania
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9
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Binenbaum J, Wulff N, Camut L, Kiradjiev K, Anfang M, Tal I, Vasuki H, Zhang Y, Sakvarelidze-Achard L, Davière JM, Ripper D, Carrera E, Manasherova E, Ben Yaakov S, Lazary S, Hua C, Novak V, Crocoll C, Weinstain R, Cohen H, Ragni L, Aharoni A, Band LR, Achard P, Nour-Eldin HH, Shani E. Gibberellin and abscisic acid transporters facilitate endodermal suberin formation in Arabidopsis. NATURE PLANTS 2023; 9:785-802. [PMID: 37024660 PMCID: PMC7615257 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-023-01391-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The plant hormone gibberellin (GA) regulates multiple developmental processes. It accumulates in the root elongating endodermis, but how it moves into this cell file and the significance of this accumulation are unclear. Here we identify three NITRATE TRANSPORTER1/PEPTIDE TRANSPORTER (NPF) transporters required for GA and abscisic acid (ABA) translocation. We demonstrate that NPF2.14 is a subcellular GA/ABA transporter, presumably the first to be identified in plants, facilitating GA and ABA accumulation in the root endodermis to regulate suberization. Further, NPF2.12 and NPF2.13, closely related proteins, are plasma membrane-localized GA and ABA importers that facilitate shoot-to-root GA12 translocation, regulating endodermal hormone accumulation. This work reveals that GA is required for root suberization and that GA and ABA can act non-antagonistically. We demonstrate how the clade of transporters mediates hormone flow with cell-file-specific vacuolar storage at the phloem unloading zone, and slow release of hormone to induce suberin formation in the maturation zone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenia Binenbaum
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Nikolai Wulff
- DynaMo Center of Excellence, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Lucie Camut
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Kristian Kiradjiev
- Centre for Mathematical Medicine and Biology, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
- Division of Plant and Crop Sciences, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, UK
| | - Moran Anfang
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Iris Tal
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Himabindu Vasuki
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yuqin Zhang
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Lali Sakvarelidze-Achard
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Jean-Michel Davière
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Dagmar Ripper
- ZMBP-Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Esther Carrera
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas, CSIC-UPV, Valencia, Spain
| | - Ekaterina Manasherova
- Department of Vegetable and Field Crops, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Volcani Center, Rishon Lezion, Israel
| | - Shir Ben Yaakov
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Shani Lazary
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Chengyao Hua
- DynaMo Center of Excellence, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Vlastimil Novak
- Plant Nutrients and Food Quality Research Group, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Christoph Crocoll
- DynaMo Center of Excellence, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Roy Weinstain
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Hagai Cohen
- Department of Vegetable and Field Crops, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Volcani Center, Rishon Lezion, Israel
| | - Laura Ragni
- ZMBP-Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Asaph Aharoni
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Leah R Band
- Centre for Mathematical Medicine and Biology, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.
- Division of Plant and Crop Sciences, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, UK.
| | - Patrick Achard
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.
| | - Hussam Hassan Nour-Eldin
- DynaMo Center of Excellence, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
| | - Eilon Shani
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
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10
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Zakieva A, Cerrone L, Greb T. Deep machine learning for cell segmentation and quantitative analysis of radial plant growth. Cells Dev 2023; 174:203842. [PMID: 37080460 DOI: 10.1016/j.cdev.2023.203842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
Plants produce the major part of terrestrial biomass and are long-term deposits of atmospheric carbon. This capacity is to a large extent due to radial growth of woody species - a process driven by cambium stem cells located in distinct niches of shoot and root axes. In the model species Arabidopsis thaliana, thousands of cells are produced by the cambium in radial orientation generating a complex organ anatomy enabling long-distance transport, mechanical support and protection against biotic and abiotic stressors. These complex organ dynamics make a comprehensive and unbiased analysis of radial growth challenging and asks for tools for automated quantification. Here, we combined the recently developed PlantSeg and MorphographX image analysis tools, to characterize tissue morphogenesis of the Arabidopsis hypocotyl. After sequential training of segmentation models on ovules, shoot apical meristems and adult hypocotyls using deep machine learning, followed by the training of cell type classification models, our pipeline segments complex images of transverse hypocotyl sections with high accuracy and classifies central hypocotyl cell types. By applying our pipeline on both wild type and phloem intercalated with xylem (pxy) mutants, we also show that this strategy faithfully detects major anatomical aberrations. Collectively, we conclude that our established pipeline is a powerful phenotyping tool comprehensively extracting cellular parameters and providing access to tissue topology during radial plant growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Zakieva
- Centre for Organismal Studies (COS), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lorenzo Cerrone
- Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing (IWR), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Thomas Greb
- Centre for Organismal Studies (COS), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.
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11
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Teixeira RT. Cork Development: What Lies Within. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:2671. [PMID: 36297695 PMCID: PMC9611905 DOI: 10.3390/plants11202671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The cork layer present in all dicotyledonous plant species with radial growth is the result of the phellogen activity, a secondary meristem that produces phellem (cork) to the outside and phelloderm inwards. These three different tissues form the periderm, an efficient protective tissue working as a barrier against external factors such as environmental aggressions and pathogen attacks. The protective function offered by cork cells is mainly due to the abundance of suberin in their cell walls. Chemically, suberin is a complex aliphatic network of long chain fatty acids and alcohols with glycerol together with aromatic units. In most woody species growing in temperate climates, the first periderm is replaced by a new functional periderm upon a few years after being formed. One exception to this bark development can be found in cork oak (Quercus suber) which display a single periderm that grows continuously. Quercus suber stands by its thick cork layer development with continuous seasonal growth. Cork raw material has been exploited by man for centuries, especially in Portugal and Spain. Nowadays, its applications have widened vastly, from the most known product, stoppers, to purses or insulating materials used in so many industries, such as construction and car production. Research on how cork develops, and the effect environmental factors on cork oak trees is extremely important to maintain production of good-quality cork, and, by maintaining cork oak stands wealthy, we are preserving a very important ecosystem both by its biodiversity and its vital social and economic role in areas already showing a population declination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Teresa Teixeira
- BioISI-Biosystems & Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
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12
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Wang YZ, Dai MS, Cai DY, Shi ZB. Solving the regulation puzzle of periderm development using advances in fruit skin. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:1006153. [PMID: 36247566 PMCID: PMC9558172 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1006153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Periderm protects enlarged organs of most dicots and gymnosperms as a barrier to water loss and disease invasion during their secondary growth. Its development undergoes a complex process with genetically controlled and environmental stress-induced characters. Different development of periderm makes the full and partial russet of fruit skin, which diverges in inheritance with qualitative and quantitative characters, respectively, in pear pome. In addition to its specific genetics, fruit periderm has similar development and structure as that of stem and other organs, making it an appropriate material for periderm research. Recently, progress in histochemical as well as transcriptome and proteome analyses, and quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping have revealed the regulatory molecular mechanism in the periderm based on the identification of switch genes. In this review, we concentrate on the periderm development, propose the conservation of periderm regulation between fruit and other plant organs based on their morphological and molecular characteristics, and summarize a regulatory network with the elicitors and repressors for the tissue development. Spontaneous programmed-cell death (PCD) or environmental stress produces the original signal that triggers the development of periderm. Spatio-temporal specific PCD produced by PyPPCD1 gene and its homologs can play a key role in the coordinated regulation of cell death related tissue development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ze-bin Shi
- *Correspondence: Yue-zhi Wang, ; Ze-bin Shi,
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13
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Kumar P, Ginzberg I. Potato Periderm Development and Tuber Skin Quality. PLANTS 2022; 11:plants11162099. [PMID: 36015402 PMCID: PMC9415511 DOI: 10.3390/plants11162099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The periderm is a corky tissue that replaces the epidermis when the latter is damaged, and is critical for preventing pathogen invasion and water loss. The periderm is formed through the meristematic activity of phellogen cells (cork cambium). The potato skin (phellem cells) composes the outer layers of the tuber periderm and is a model for studying cork development. Early in tuber development and following tuber expansion, the phellogen becomes active and produces the skin. New skin layers are continuously added by division of the phellogen cells until tuber maturation. Some physiological disorders of the potato tuber are related to abnormal development of the skin, including skinning injuries and russeting of smooth-skinned potatoes. Thus, characterizing the potato periderm contributes to modeling cork development in plants and helps to resolve critical agricultural problems. Here, we summarize the data available on potato periderm formation, highlighting tissue characteristics rather than the suberization processes.
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14
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Serra O, Geldner N. The making of suberin. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 235:848-866. [PMID: 35510799 PMCID: PMC9994434 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Outer protective barriers of animals use a variety of bio-polymers, based on either proteins (e.g. collagens), or modified sugars (e.g. chitin). Plants, however, have come up with a particular solution, based on the polymerisation of lipid-like precursors, giving rise to cutin and suberin. Suberin is a structural lipophilic polyester of fatty acids, glycerol and some aromatics found in cell walls of phellem, endodermis, exodermis, wound tissues, abscission zones, bundle sheath and other tissues. It deposits as a hydrophobic layer between the (ligno)cellulosic primary cell wall and plasma membrane. Suberin is highly protective against biotic and abiotic stresses, shows great developmental plasticity and its chemically recalcitrant nature might assist the sequestration of atmospheric carbon by plants. The aim of this review is to integrate the rapidly accelerating genetic and cell biological discoveries of recent years with the important chemical and structural contributions obtained from very diverse organisms and tissue layers. We critically discuss the order and localisation of the enzymatic machinery synthesising the presumed substrates for export and apoplastic polymerisation. We attempt to explain observed suberin linkages by diverse enzyme activities and discuss the spatiotemporal relationship of suberin with lignin and ferulates, necessary to produce a functional suberised cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Serra
- Laboratori del SuroDepartment of BiologyUniversity of GironaCampus MontiliviGirona17003Spain
| | - Niko Geldner
- Department of Plant Molecular BiologyUniversity of LausanneUNIL‐Sorge, Biophore BuildingLausanne1015Switzerland
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15
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Leal AR, Belo J, Beeckman T, Barros PM, Oliveira MM. The Combined Effect of Heat and Osmotic Stress on Suberization of Arabidopsis Roots. Cells 2022; 11:cells11152341. [PMID: 35954186 PMCID: PMC9367520 DOI: 10.3390/cells11152341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The simultaneous occurrence of heat stress and drought is becoming more regular as a consequence of climate change, causing extensive agricultural losses. The application of either heat or osmotic stress increase cell-wall suberization in different tissues, which may play a role in improving plant resilience. In this work, we studied how the suberization process is affected by the combination of drought and heat stress by following the expression of suberin biosynthesis genes, cell-wall suberization and the chemical composition in Arabidopsis roots. The Arabidopsis plants used in this study were at the onset of secondary root development. At this point, one can observe a developmental gradient in the main root, with primary development closer to the root tip and secondary development, confirmed by the suberized phellem, closer to the shoot. Remarkably, we found a differential response depending on the root zone. The combination of drought and heat stress increased cell wall suberization in main root segments undergoing secondary development and in lateral roots (LRs), while the main root zone, at primary development stage, was not particularly affected. We also found differences in the overall chemical composition of the cell walls in both root zones in response to combined stress. The data gathered showed that, under combined drought and heat stress, Arabidopsis roots undergo differential cell wall remodeling depending on developmental stage, with modifications in the biosynthesis and/or assembly of major cell wall components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Leal
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), GPlantS, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.R.L.); (J.B.)
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Technologiepark 71, 9052 Ghent, Belgium;
- Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Technologiepark 71, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Joana Belo
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), GPlantS, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.R.L.); (J.B.)
| | - Tom Beeckman
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Technologiepark 71, 9052 Ghent, Belgium;
- Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Technologiepark 71, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Pedro M. Barros
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), GPlantS, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.R.L.); (J.B.)
- Correspondence: (P.M.B.); (M.M.O.)
| | - M. Margarida Oliveira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), GPlantS, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.R.L.); (J.B.)
- Correspondence: (P.M.B.); (M.M.O.)
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16
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Conifer Biotechnology: An Overview. FORESTS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/f13071061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
The peculiar characteristics of conifers determine the difficulty of their study and their great importance from various points of view. However, their study faces numerous important scientific, methodological, cultural, economic, social, and legal challenges. This paper presents an approach to several of those challenges and proposes a multidisciplinary scientific perspective that leads to a holistic understanding of conifers from the perspective of the latest technical, computer, and scientific advances. This review highlights the deep connection that all scientific contributions to conifers can have in each other as fully interrelated communicating vessels.
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17
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Leal AR, Sapeta H, Beeckman T, Barros PM, Oliveira MM. Spatiotemporal development of suberized barriers in cork oak taproots. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 42:1269-1285. [PMID: 34970982 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpab176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The longevity and high activity of the cork cambium (or phellogen) from Quercus suber L. (cork oak) are the cornerstones for the sustainable exploitation of a unique raw material. Cork oak is a symbolic model to study cork development and cell wall suberization, yet most genetic and molecular studies on these topics have targeted other model plants. In this study, we explored the potential of taproots as a model system to study phellem development and suberization in cork oak, thereby avoiding the time constraints imposed when studying whole plants. In roots, suberin deposition is found in mature endodermis cells during primary development and in phellem cells during secondary development. By investigating the spatiotemporal characteristics of both endodermis and phellem suberization in young seedling taproots, we demonstrated that secondary growth and phellogen activity are initiated very early in cork oak taproots (approx. 8 days after sowing). We further compared the transcriptomic profile of root segments undergoing primary (PD) and secondary development (SD) and identified multiple candidate genes with predicted roles in cell wall modifications, mainly lignification and suberization, in addition to several regulatory genes, particularly transcription factor- and hormone-related genes. Our results indicate that the molecular regulation of suberization and secondary development in cork oak roots is relatively conserved with other species. The provided morphological characterization creates new opportunities to allow a faster assessment of phellogen activity (as compared with studies using stem tissues) and to tackle fundamental questions regarding its regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Leal
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), GPlantS Unit, Av. da República, Oeiras 2780-157, Portugal
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Technologiepark 71, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
- VIB-UGent Center for Plant Systems Biology, Technologiepark 71, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Helena Sapeta
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), GPlantS Unit, Av. da República, Oeiras 2780-157, Portugal
| | - Tom Beeckman
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Technologiepark 71, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
- VIB-UGent Center for Plant Systems Biology, Technologiepark 71, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Pedro M Barros
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), GPlantS Unit, Av. da República, Oeiras 2780-157, Portugal
| | - M Margarida Oliveira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), GPlantS Unit, Av. da República, Oeiras 2780-157, Portugal
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18
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Serra O, Mähönen AP, Hetherington AJ, Ragni L. The Making of Plant Armor: The Periderm. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 73:405-432. [PMID: 34985930 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-102720-031405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The periderm acts as armor protecting the plant's inner tissues from biotic and abiotic stress. It forms during the radial thickening of plant organs such as stems and roots and replaces the function of primary protective tissues such as the epidermis and the endodermis. A wound periderm also forms to heal and protect injured tissues. The periderm comprises a meristematic tissue called the phellogen, or cork cambium, and its derivatives: the lignosuberized phellem and the phelloderm. Research on the periderm has mainly focused on the chemical composition of the phellem due to its relevance as a raw material for industrial processes. Today, there is increasing interest in the regulatory network underlying periderm development as a novel breeding trait to improve plant resilience and to sequester CO2. Here, we discuss our current understanding of periderm formation, focusing on aspects of periderm evolution, mechanisms of periderm ontogenesis, regulatory networks underlying phellogen initiation and cork differentiation, and future challenges of periderm research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Serra
- University of Girona, Department of Biology, Girona, Spain;
| | - Ari Pekka Mähönen
- Institute of Biotechnology, HiLIFE, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland;
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Program, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, and Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Laura Ragni
- Center for Plant Molecular Biology (ZMBP), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany;
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19
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Leal AR, Barros PM, Parizot B, Sapeta H, Vangheluwe N, Andersen TG, Beeckman T, Oliveira MM. Translational profile of developing phellem cells in Arabidopsis thaliana roots. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 110:899-915. [PMID: 35106861 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The phellem is a specialized boundary tissue providing the first line of defense against abiotic and biotic stresses in organs undergoing secondary growth. Phellem cells undergo several differentiation steps, which include cell wall suberization, cell expansion, and programmed cell death. Yet, the molecular players acting particularly in phellem cell differentiation remain poorly described, particularly in the widely used model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Using specific marker lines we followed the onset and progression of phellem differentiation in A. thaliana roots and further targeted the translatome of newly developed phellem cells using translating ribosome affinity purification followed by mRNA sequencing (TRAP-SEQ). We showed that phellem suberization is initiated early after phellogen (cork cambium) division. The specific translational landscape was organized in three main domains related to energy production, synthesis and transport of cell wall components, and response to stimulus. Novel players in phellem differentiation related to suberin monomer transport and assembly as well as novel transcription regulators were identified. This strategy provided an unprecedented resolution of the translatome of developing phellem cells, giving a detailed and specific view on the molecular mechanisms acting on cell differentiation in periderm tissues of the model plant Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Leal
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), GPlantS, Av. da República, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Technologiepark 71, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, Technologiepark 71, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Pedro Miguel Barros
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), GPlantS, Av. da República, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Boris Parizot
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Technologiepark 71, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, Technologiepark 71, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Helena Sapeta
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), GPlantS, Av. da República, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Nick Vangheluwe
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Technologiepark 71, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, Technologiepark 71, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Tonni Grube Andersen
- Department of Plant Molecular Biology, Biophore, University of Lausanne, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Tom Beeckman
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Technologiepark 71, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, Technologiepark 71, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - M Margarida Oliveira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), GPlantS, Av. da República, 2780-157, Oeiras, Portugal
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20
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Zhang Y, Umeda M, Kakimoto T. Pericycle cell division competence underlies various developmental programs. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY (TOKYO, JAPAN) 2022; 39:29-36. [PMID: 35800961 PMCID: PMC9200087 DOI: 10.5511/plantbiotechnology.21.1202a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Pericycle cells possess proliferative activity long after leaving the root apical meristem. Depending on the developmental stage and external stimuli, pericycle cell division leads to the production of lateral roots, vascular cambium and periderm, and callus. Therefore, pericycle cell division competence underlies root branching and secondary growth, as well as plant regeneration capacity. In this review, we first briefly present an overview of the molecular pathways of the four developmental programs originated, exclusively or partly, from pericycle cells. Then, we provide a review of up-to-date knowledge in the mechanisms determining pericycle cells' competence to undergo cell division. Furthermore, we discuss directions of future research to further our understanding of the pericycle's characteristics and functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Zhang
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Nara 630-0192, Japan
- E-mail: Tel: +81-743-72-5592 Fax: +81-743-72-5599
| | - Masaaki Umeda
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Nara 630-0192, Japan
| | - Tatsuo Kakimoto
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
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21
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Turley EK, Etchells JP. Laying it on thick: a study in secondary growth. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2022; 73:665-679. [PMID: 34655214 PMCID: PMC8793872 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The development of secondary vascular tissue enhances the transport capacity and mechanical strength of plant bodies, while contributing a huge proportion of the world's biomass in the form of wood. Cell divisions in the cambium, which constitutes the vascular meristem, provide progenitors from which conductive xylem and phloem are derived. The cambium is a somewhat unusual stem cell population in two respects, making it an interesting subject for developmental research. Firstly, it arises post-germination, and thus represents a model for understanding stem cell initiation beyond embryogenesis. Secondly, xylem and phloem differentiate on opposing sides of cambial stem cells, making them bifacial in nature. Recent discoveries in Arabidopsis thaliana have provided insight into the molecular mechanisms that regulate the initiation, patterning, and maintenance of the cambium. In this review, the roles of intercellular signalling via mobile transcription factors, peptide-receptor modules, and phytohormones are described. Crosstalk between these regulatory pathways is becoming increasingly apparent, yet the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Future study of the interaction between multiple independently identified regulators, as well as the functions of their orthologues in trees, will deepen our understanding of radial growth in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma K Turley
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - J Peter Etchells
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
- Correspondence:
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22
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Wang Y, Dai M, Wu X, Zhang S, Shi Z, Cai D, Miao L. An ARF1-binding factor triggering programmed cell death and periderm development in pear russet fruit skin. HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2022; 9:uhab061. [PMID: 35043172 PMCID: PMC8947239 DOI: 10.1093/hr/uhab061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Plants have a cuticular membrane (CM) and periderm membrane (PM), which act as barriers to terrestrial stresses. The CM covers primary organs with a continuous hydrophobic layer of waxes embedded in cutin, while the PM stacks with suberized cells outermost to the secondary tissues. The formation of native periderm is regulated by a postembryonic meristem phellogen that produces suberized phellem (cork) outwardly. However, the mechanism controlling phellogen differentiation to phellem remains to be clarified. Here, map-based cloning in a pear F1 population with segregation for periderm development in fruit skin facilitated the identification of an aspartic acid repeat deletion in Pyrus Periderm Programmed Cell Death 1.1 (PyPPCD1.1) that triggers phellogen activity for cork formation in pear russet fruit skin. PyPPCD1.1 showed preferential expression in pear fruit skin, and the encoded protein shares a structural similarity to that of the viral capsid proteins. Asp deletion in PyPPCD1.1 weakened its nuclear localization but increased its accumulation in the chloroplast. Both PyPPCD1.1 and its recessive allele directly interact with ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1). PyPPCD1.1 triggered PCD in an ARF1-dependent manner. Thus, this study identified the switch gene for PCD and periderm development and provided a new molecular regulatory mechanism underlying the development of this trait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuezhi Wang
- Institute of Horticulture, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shiqiao Road No. 139, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310021, China
| | - Meisong Dai
- Institute of Horticulture, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shiqiao Road No. 139, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310021, China
| | - Xinyi Wu
- Institute of Vegetable, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Desheng Middle Road No. 298, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310021, China
| | - Shujun Zhang
- Institute of Horticulture, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shiqiao Road No. 139, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310021, China
| | - Zebin Shi
- Institute of Horticulture, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shiqiao Road No. 139, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310021, China
| | - Danying Cai
- Institute of Horticulture, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shiqiao Road No. 139, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310021, China
| | - Lixiang Miao
- Institute of Horticulture, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shiqiao Road No. 139, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310021, China
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23
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Karlova R, Boer D, Hayes S, Testerink C. Root plasticity under abiotic stress. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 187:1057-1070. [PMID: 34734279 PMCID: PMC8566202 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiab392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Abiotic stresses increasingly threaten existing ecological and agricultural systems across the globe. Plant roots perceive these stresses in the soil and adapt their architecture accordingly. This review provides insights into recent discoveries showing the importance of root system architecture (RSA) and plasticity for the survival and development of plants under heat, cold, drought, salt, and flooding stress. In addition, we review the molecular regulation and hormonal pathways involved in controlling RSA plasticity, main root growth, branching and lateral root growth, root hair development, and formation of adventitious roots. Several stresses affect root anatomy by causing aerenchyma formation, lignin and suberin deposition, and Casparian strip modulation. Roots can also actively grow toward favorable soil conditions and avoid environments detrimental to their development. Recent advances in understanding the cellular mechanisms behind these different root tropisms are discussed. Understanding root plasticity will be instrumental for the development of crops that are resilient in the face of abiotic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rumyana Karlova
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Damian Boer
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Scott Hayes
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Christa Testerink
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Author for communication:
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Root Suberin Plays Important Roles in Reducing Water Loss and Sodium Uptake in Arabidopsis thaliana. Metabolites 2021; 11:metabo11110735. [PMID: 34822393 PMCID: PMC8618449 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11110735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Suberin is a cell-wall-associated hetero-polymer deposited in specific plant tissues. The precise role of its composition and lamellae structure in protecting plants against abiotic stresses is unclear. In Arabidopsis thaliana, we tested the biochemical and physiological responses to water deficiency and NaCl treatment in mutants that are differentially affected in suberin composition and lamellae structure. Chronic drought stress increased suberin and suberin-associated waxes in wild-type plants. Suberin-deficient mutants were not more susceptible than the wild-type to the chronic drought stress imposed in this study. Nonetheless, the cyp86a1-1 cyp86b1-1 mutant, which had a severely altered suberin composition and lamellae structure, exhibited increased water loss through the root periderm. Cyp86a1-1 cyp86b1-1 also recorded lower relative water content in leaves. The abcg2-1 abcg6-1 abcg20-1 mutant, which has altered suberin composition and lamellae, was very sensitive to NaCl treatment. Furthermore, cyp86a1-1 cyp86b1-1 recorded a significant drop in the leaf K/Na ratio, indicating salt sensitivity. The far1-2 far4-1 far5-1 mutant, which did not show structural defects in the suberin lamellae, had similar responses to drought and NaCl treatments as the wild-type. Our results provide evidence that the suberin amount and lamellae structure are key features in the barrier function of suberin in reducing water loss and reducing sodium uptake through roots for better performance under drought and salt stresses.
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Inácio V, Lobato C, Graça J, Morais-Cecílio L. Cork cells in cork oak periderms undergo programmed cell death and proanthocyanidin deposition. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 41:1701-1713. [PMID: 33611604 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpab031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Vascular plants with secondary growth develop a periderm mostly composed of dead suberized cork cells to face environmental hostile conditions. Cork oak has a highly active and long-living phellogen forming a remarkably thick periderm that is periodically debarked for industrial purposes. This wounding originates the quick formation of a new traumatic periderm, making cork oak an exceptional model to study the first periderm differentiation during normal development in young sprigs and traumatic (wound) periderm formation after debarking. Here, we studied the poorly known first periderm differentiation steps that involve cell wall suberization, polyphenolic accumulation and programmed cell death (PCD) by combining transmission electron microscopy, histochemical and molecular methods in periderms from young sprigs. These processes were further compared with traumatic periderms formed after wounding using molecular and histochemical techniques, such as the polyphenolic accumulation. In the first periderms from young sprigs, four distinct differentiation stages were defined according to the presence of PCD morphological features. First young and traumatic periderms showed an upregulation of genes related to suberin biosynthesis, proanthocyanidins biosynthesis and transport, autophagy, and PCD. Traumatic periderms revealed an overall upregulation of these genes, likely resulting from ontogeny differences and distinct phellogen origin associated with a faster metabolism, highlighting the impact of wounding on phellogen activity after debarking. First periderms from young sprigs showed gradual accumulation of proanthocyanidins in the vacuoles throughout PCD stages until total filled lumens, whereas in traumatic periderms, these compounds were found cell wall linked in already empty cells. This work enabled a comprehensive overview of the cork cells differentiation processes contributing to deepening the knowledge of the fundamental ontogenic program of this protective tissue, which is also a unique forest product, constituting the basis of a sustainable and profitable industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera Inácio
- Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Institute of Agronomy, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal
- BioISI-Biosystems and Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande 016, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Carolina Lobato
- Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Institute of Agronomy, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal
- Institute of Environmental Biotechnology (UBT), Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/I, 8010 Graz, Styria, Austria
| | - José Graça
- Forest Research Center (CEF), Institute of Agronomy, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Leonor Morais-Cecílio
- Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Institute of Agronomy, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal
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Macnee N, Hilario E, Tahir J, Currie A, Warren B, Rebstock R, Hallett IC, Chagné D, Schaffer RJ, Bulley SM. Peridermal fruit skin formation in Actinidia sp. (kiwifruit) is associated with genetic loci controlling russeting and cuticle formation. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 21:334. [PMID: 34261431 PMCID: PMC8278711 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-021-03025-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The skin (exocarp) of fleshy fruit is hugely diverse across species. Most fruit types have a live epidermal skin covered by a layer of cuticle made up of cutin while a few create an outermost layer of dead cells (peridermal layer). RESULTS In this study we undertook crosses between epidermal and peridermal skinned kiwifruit, and showed that epidermal skin is a semi-dominant trait. Furthermore, backcrossing these epidermal skinned hybrids to a peridermal skinned fruit created a diverse range of phenotypes ranging from epidermal skinned fruit, through fruit with varying degrees of patches of periderm (russeting), to fruit with a complete periderm. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis of this population suggested that periderm formation was associated with four loci. These QTLs were aligned either to ones associated with russet formation on chromosome 19 and 24, or cuticle integrity and coverage located on chromosomes 3, 11 and 24. CONCLUSION From the segregation of skin type and QTL analysis, it appears that skin development in kiwifruit is controlled by two competing factors, cuticle strength and propensity to russet. A strong cuticle will inhibit russeting while a strong propensity to russet can create a continuous dead skinned periderm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolai Macnee
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd. (PFR), Private Bag 92169, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
- School of Biological Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, 1146, New Zealand
| | - Elena Hilario
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd. (PFR), Private Bag 92169, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | - Jibran Tahir
- PFR, Private Bag 11600, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | | | - Ben Warren
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd. (PFR), Private Bag 92169, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | - Ria Rebstock
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd. (PFR), Private Bag 92169, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | - Ian C Hallett
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd. (PFR), Private Bag 92169, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | - David Chagné
- PFR, Private Bag 11600, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | - Robert J Schaffer
- School of Biological Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, 1146, New Zealand
- PFR, 55 Old Mill Road, RD3, Motueka, 7198, New Zealand
| | - Sean M Bulley
- PFR, 412 No 1 Road RD 2, Te Puke, 3182, New Zealand.
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Krishnamurthy P, Vishal B, Bhal A, Kumar PP. WRKY9 transcription factor regulates cytochrome P450 genes CYP94B3 and CYP86B1, leading to increased root suberin and salt tolerance in Arabidopsis. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2021; 172:1673-1687. [PMID: 33619745 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.13371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Salinity affects crop productivity worldwide and mangroves growing under high salinity exhibit adaptations such as enhanced root apoplastic barrier to survive under such conditions. We have identified two cytochrome P450 family genes, AoCYP94B3 and AoCYP86B1 from the mangrove tree Avicennia officinalis and characterized them using atcyp94b3 and atcyp86b1, which are mutants of their putative Arabidopsis orthologs and the corresponding complemented lines with A. officinalis genes. CYP94B3 and CYP86B1 transcripts were induced upon salt treatment in the roots of both A. officinalis and Arabidopsis. Both AoCYP94B3 and AoCYP86B1 were localized to the endoplasmic reticulum. Heterologous expression of 35S::AoCYP94B3 and 35S::AoCYP86B1 in their respective Arabidopsis mutants (atcyp94b3 and atcyp86b1) increased the salt tolerance of the transgenic seedlings by reducing the amount of Na+ accumulation in the shoots. Moreover, the reduced root suberin phenotype of atcyp94b3 was rescued in the 35S::AoCYP94B3;atcyp94b3 transgenic Arabidopsis seedlings. Gas-chromatography and mass spectrometry analyses showed that the amount of suberin monomers (C-16 ω-hydroxy acids, C-16 α, ω-dicarboxylic acids and C-20 eicosanol) were increased in the roots of 35S::AoCYP94B3;atcyp94b3 Arabidopsis seedlings. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation and electrophoretic mobility shift assays, we identified AtWRKY9 as the upstream regulator of AtCYP94B3 and AtCYP86B1 in Arabidopsis. In addition, atwrky9 showed suppressed expression of AtCYP94B3 and AtCYP86B1 transcripts, and reduced suberin in the roots. These results show that AtWRKY9 controls suberin deposition by regulating AtCYP94B3 and AtCYP86B1, leading to salt tolerance. Our data can be used for generating salt-tolerant crop plants in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pannaga Krishnamurthy
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- NUS Environmental Research Institute (NERI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Bhushan Vishal
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Amrit Bhal
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Prakash P Kumar
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- NUS Environmental Research Institute (NERI), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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28
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Ben-Targem M, Ripper D, Bayer M, Ragni L. Auxin and gibberellin signaling cross-talk promotes hypocotyl xylem expansion and cambium homeostasis. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:3647-3660. [PMID: 33619529 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
During secondary growth, the thickening of plant organs, wood (xylem) and bast (phloem) is continuously produced by the vascular cambium. In Arabidopsis hypocotyl and root, we can distinguish two phases of secondary growth based on cell morphology and production rate. The first phase, in which xylem and phloem are equally produced, precedes the xylem expansion phase in which xylem formation is enhanced and xylem fibers differentiate. It is known that gibberellins (GA) trigger this developmental transition via degradation of DELLA proteins and that the cambium master regulator BREVIPEDICELLUS/KNAT1 (BP/KNAT1) and receptor like kinases ERECTA and ERL1 regulate this process downstream of GA. However, our understanding of the regulatory network underlying GA-mediated secondary growth is still limited. Here, we demonstrate that DELLA-mediated xylem expansion in Arabidopsis hypocotyl is mainly achieved through DELLA family members RGA and GAI, which promote cambium senescence. We further show that AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR 6 (ARF6) and ARF8, which physically interact with DELLAs, specifically repress phloem proliferation and induce cambium senescence during the xylem expansion phase. Moreover, the inactivation of BP in arf6 arf8 background revealed an essential role for ARF6 and ARF8 in cambium establishment and maintenance. Overall, our results shed light on a pivotal hormone cross-talk between GA and auxin in the context of plant secondary growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Ben-Targem
- ZMBP - Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 32, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dagmar Ripper
- ZMBP - Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 32, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Martin Bayer
- Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Max-Planck-Ring 5, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Laura Ragni
- ZMBP - Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 32, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
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29
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Sheldrake AR. The production of auxin by dying cells. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:2288-2300. [PMID: 33460445 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
In this review, I discuss the possibility that dying cells produce much of the auxin in vascular plants. The natural auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), is derived from tryptophan by a two-step pathway via indole pyruvic acid. The first enzymes in the pathway, tryptophan aminotransferases, have a low affinity for tryptophan and break it down only when tryptophan levels rise far above normal intracellular concentrations. Such increases occur when tryptophan is released from proteins by hydrolytic enzymes as cells autolyse and die. Many sites of auxin production are in and around dying cells: in differentiating tracheary elements; in root cap cells; in nutritive tissues that break down in developing flowers and seeds; in senescent leaves; and in wounds. Living cells also produce auxin, such as those transformed genetically by the crown gall pathogen. IAA may first have served as an exogenous indicator of the presence of nutrient-rich decomposing organic matter, stimulating the production of rhizoids in bryophytes. As cell death was internalized in bryophytes and in vascular plants, IAA may have taken on a new role as an endogenous hormone.
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30
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Andersen TG, Molina D, Kilian J, Franke RB, Ragni L, Geldner N. Tissue-Autonomous Phenylpropanoid Production Is Essential for Establishment of Root Barriers. Curr Biol 2021; 31:965-977.e5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.11.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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31
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Eljebbawi A, Guerrero YDCR, Dunand C, Estevez JM. Highlighting reactive oxygen species as multitaskers in root development. iScience 2021; 24:101978. [PMID: 33490891 PMCID: PMC7808913 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are naturally produced by several redox reactions during plant regular metabolism such as photosynthesis and respiration. Due to their chemical properties and high reactivity, ROS were initially described as detrimental for cells during oxidative stress. However, they have been further recognized as key players in numerous developmental and physiological processes throughout the plant life cycle. Recent studies report the important role of ROS as growth regulators during plant root developmental processes such as in meristem maintenance, in root elongation, and in lateral root, root hair, endodermis, and vascular tissue differentiation. All involve multifaceted interplays between steady-state levels of ROS with transcriptional regulators, phytohormones, and nutrients. In this review, we attempt to summarize recent findings about how ROS are involved in multiple stages of plant root development during cell proliferation, elongation, and differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Eljebbawi
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, CNRS, UPS, Université de Toulouse, 31326 Castanet Tolosan, France
| | | | - Christophe Dunand
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, CNRS, UPS, Université de Toulouse, 31326 Castanet Tolosan, France
| | - José Manuel Estevez
- Fundación Instituto Leloir and IIBBA-CONICET, Av. Patricias Argentinas 435, Buenos Aires, CP C1405BWE, Argentina
- Centro de Biotecnología Vegetal (CBV), Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida (FCsV), Universidad Andres Bello and Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBio), Santiago, Chile
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32
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Nenadić M, Vermeer JEM. Dynamic cytokinin signalling landscapes during lateral root formation in Arabidopsis. QUANTITATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 2:e13. [PMID: 37077210 PMCID: PMC10095801 DOI: 10.1017/qpb.2021.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
By forming lateral roots, plants expand their root systems to improve anchorage and absorb more water and nutrients from the soil. Each phase of this developmental process in Arabidopsis is tightly regulated by dynamic and continuous signalling of the phytohormones cytokinin and auxin. While the roles of auxin in lateral root organogenesis and spatial accommodation by overlying cell layers have been well studied, insights on the importance of cytokinin is still somewhat limited. Cytokinin is a negative regulator of lateral root formation with versatile modes of action being activated at different root developmental zones. Here, we review the latest progress made towards our understanding of these spatially separated mechanisms of cytokinin-mediated signalling that shape lateral root initiation, outgrowth and emergence and highlight some of the enticing open questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milica Nenadić
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology & Zurich-Basel Plant Science Centre, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Joop E. M. Vermeer
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology & Zurich-Basel Plant Science Centre, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- Author for correspondence: Joop E. M. Vermeer, E-mail:
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33
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High-order mutants reveal an essential requirement for peroxidases but not laccases in Casparian strip lignification. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:29166-29177. [PMID: 33139576 PMCID: PMC7682338 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2012728117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Lignin is a defining polymer of vascular plants and of great physiological, ecological, and economical importance. Yet, its polymerization in the cell wall is still not understood. Lignin polymerizing enzymes, laccases and peroxidases, exist in vast numbers in plant genomes. By focusing on a specific lignin structure, the ring-like Casparian strips (CSs), we reduced candidate numbers and abolished essentially all laccases with detectable endodermal expression. Yet, not even slight defects in CS formation were detected. By contrast, a quintuple peroxidase mutant displayed a complete absence of CS. Our findings suggest that cells lignify differently depending on whether lignin is localized or ubiquitous and whether cells stay alive during and after lignification, as well as the composition of the cell wall. Lignin has enabled plants to colonize land, grow tall, transport water within their bodies, and protect themselves against various stresses. Consequently, this polyphenolic polymer, impregnating cellulosic plant cell walls, is the second most abundant polymer on Earth. Yet, despite its great physiological, ecological, and economical importance, our knowledge of lignin biosynthesis in vivo, especially the polymerization steps within the cell wall, remains vague—specifically, the respective roles of the two polymerizing enzymes classes, laccases and peroxidases. One reason for this lies in the very high numbers of laccases and peroxidases encoded by 17 and 73 homologous genes, respectively, in Arabidopsis. Here, we have focused on a specific lignin structure, the ring-like Casparian strips (CSs) within the root endodermis. By reducing candidate numbers using cellular resolution expression and localization data and by boosting stacking of mutants using CRISPR-Cas9, we mutated the majority of laccases in Arabidopsis in a nonuple mutant—essentially abolishing laccases with detectable endodermal expression. Yet, we were unable to detect even slight defects in CS formation. By contrast, we were able to induce a complete absence of CS formation in a quintuple peroxidase mutant. Our findings are in stark contrast to the strong requirement of xylem vessels for laccase action and indicate that lignin in different cell types can be polymerized in very distinct ways. We speculate that cells lignify differently depending on whether lignin is localized or ubiquitous and whether cells stay alive during and after lignification, as well as the composition of the cell wall.
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34
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Macnee NC, Rebstock R, Hallett IC, Schaffer RJ, Bulley SM. A review of current knowledge about the formation of native peridermal exocarp in fruit. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2020; 47:1019-1031. [PMID: 32571472 DOI: 10.1071/fp19135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The outer skin layer in any plant is essential in offering a protective barrier against water loss and pathogen attack. Within fleshy fruit, the skin supports internal cell layers and can provide the initial cues in attracting seed-dispersing animals. The skin of a fruit, termed the exocarp, is a key element of consumer preference and a target for many breeding programs. Across fruiting species there is a huge diversity of exocarp types and these range from a simple single living cell layer (epidermis) often covered with a waxy layer, to complex multicellular suberised and dead cell layers (periderm), with various intermediate russet forms in between. Each exocarp can be interspersed with other structures such as hairs or spines. The epidermis has been well characterised and remains pluripotent with the help of the cells immediately under the epidermis. The periderm, in contrast, is the result of secondary meristematic activity, which replaces the epidermal layers, and is not well characterised in fruits. In this review we explore the structure, composition and mechanisms that control the development of a periderm type fruit exocarp. We draw upon literature from non-fleshy fruit species that form periderm tissue, from which a considerable amount of research has been undertaken.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolai C Macnee
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, 120 Mt Albert Road, Mount Albert, Auckland 1025, New Zealand; and School of Biological Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ria Rebstock
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, 120 Mt Albert Road, Mount Albert, Auckland 1025, New Zealand
| | - Ian C Hallett
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, 120 Mt Albert Road, Mount Albert, Auckland 1025, New Zealand
| | - Robert J Schaffer
- School of Biological Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; and The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, 55 Old Mill Road, RD3, Motueka 7198, New Zealand
| | - Sean M Bulley
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, 412 No. 1 Road, RD2, Te Puke 3182, New Zealand; and Corresponding author.
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35
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Xiao W, Molina D, Wunderling A, Ripper D, Vermeer JEM, Ragni L. Pluripotent Pericycle Cells Trigger Different Growth Outputs by Integrating Developmental Cues into Distinct Regulatory Modules. Curr Biol 2020; 30:4384-4398.e5. [PMID: 32916110 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.08.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
During post-embryonic development, the pericycle specifies the stem cells that give rise to both lateral roots (LRs) and the periderm, a suberized barrier that protects the plant against biotic and abiotic stresses. Comparable auxin-mediated signaling hubs regulate meristem establishment in many developmental contexts; however, it is unknown how specific outputs are achieved. Using the Arabidopsis root as a model, we show that while LR formation is the main auxin-induced program after de-etiolation, plants with age become competent to form a periderm in response to auxin. The establishment of the vascular cambium acts as the developmental switch required to trigger auxin-mediated periderm initiation. Moreover, distinct auxin signaling components and targets control LR versus periderm formation. Among the periderm-specific-promoting transcription factors, WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX 4 (WOX4) and KNAT1/BREVIPEDICELLUS (BP) stand out as their specific overexpression in the periderm results in an increased number of periderm layers, a trait of agronomical importance in breeding programs targeting stress tolerance. These findings reveal that specificity in pericycle stem cell fate is achieved by the integration of developmental cues into distinct regulatory modules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Xiao
- ZMBP-Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 32, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - David Molina
- ZMBP-Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 32, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Anna Wunderling
- ZMBP-Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 32, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dagmar Ripper
- ZMBP-Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 32, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Joop E M Vermeer
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Rue Emile-Argand 11, 2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Laura Ragni
- ZMBP-Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 32, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
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36
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Lopes ST, Sobral D, Costa B, Perdiguero P, Chaves I, Costa A, Miguel CM. Phellem versus xylem: genome-wide transcriptomic analysis reveals novel regulators of cork formation in cork oak. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 40:129-141. [PMID: 31860724 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpz118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Cork cambium (or phellogen) is a secondary meristem responsible for the formation of phelloderm and phellem/cork, which together compose the periderm. In Quercus suber L., the phellogen is active throughout the entire life of the tree, producing a continuous and renewable outer bark of cork. To identify specific candidate genes associated with cork cambium activity and phellem differentiation, we performed a comparative transcriptomic study of Q. suber secondary growth tissues (xylem and phellogen/phellem) using RNA-seq. The present work provides a high-resolution map of all the transcripts identified in the phellogen/phellem tissues. A total of 6013 differentially expressed genes were identified, with 2875 of the transcripts being specifically enriched during the cork formation process versus secondary xylem formation. Furthermore, cork samples originating from the original phellogen (`virgin' cork) and from a traumatic phellogen (`amadia' cork) were also compared. Our results point to a shortlist of potentially relevant candidate genes regulating phellogen activity and phellem differentiation, including novel genes involved in the suberization process, as well as genes associated to ethylene and jasmonate signaling and to meristem function. The future functional characterization of some of the identified candidate genes will help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying cork cambium activity and phellem differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana T Lopes
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Avenida da República, Quinta do Marquês, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República, Quinta do Marquês, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
- Biosystems & Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Daniel Sobral
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Bruno Costa
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Avenida da República, Quinta do Marquês, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
- Biosystems & Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Pedro Perdiguero
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Avenida da República, Quinta do Marquês, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Inês Chaves
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Avenida da República, Quinta do Marquês, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República, Quinta do Marquês, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
- Biosystems & Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Augusta Costa
- Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária e Veterinária, Avenida da República, Quinta do Marquês 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Célia M Miguel
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Avenida da República, Quinta do Marquês, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
- Biosystems & Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
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Campilho A, Nieminen K, Ragni L. The development of the periderm: the final frontier between a plant and its environment. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 53:10-14. [PMID: 31593816 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2019.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The periderm acts as the first line of defence for a plant, protecting wood and phloem from abiotic and biotic stresses. During secondary growth, through the increase in girth of plant organs, the periderm replaces the epidermis as the outermost tissue. The phellogen, a bifacial post-embryonic meristem, forms the phelloderm inwards (toward the vasculature) and the suberized phellem outwards (toward the environment). These three tissues are collectively referred to as the periderm. Here, we summarize recent findings on the molecular mechanisms of periderm development by describing periderm formation in connection to the fate of the surrounding tissues, by discussing common regulatory hubs between the vascular cambium and the phellogen, and by highlighting transcription factors (TFs) controlling phellem differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Campilho
- CIBIO-Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, Department of Biology of the Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Portugal
| | - Kaisa Nieminen
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Laura Ragni
- ZMBP-Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
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38
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Wang Y, Dai M, Cai D, Shi Z. Proteome and transcriptome profile analysis reveals regulatory and stress-responsive networks in the russet fruit skin of sand pear. HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2020; 7:16. [PMID: 32025319 PMCID: PMC6994700 DOI: 10.1038/s41438-020-0242-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The epidermal tissues of the cuticular membrane (CM) and periderm membrane (PM) confer first-line protection from environmental stresses in terrestrial plants. Although PM protection is essentially ubiquitous in plants, the protective mechanism, the function of many transcription factors and enzymes, and the genetic control of metabolic signaling pathways are poorly understood. Different microphenotypes and cellular components in russet (PM-covered) and green (CM-covered) fruit skins of pear were revealed by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The two types of fruit skins showed distinct phytohormone accumulation, and different transcriptomic and proteomic profiles. The enriched pathways were detected by differentially expressed genes and proteins from the two omics analyses. A detailed analysis of the suberin biosynthesis pathways identified the regulatory signaling network, highlighting the general mechanisms required for periderm formation in russet fruit skin. The regulation of aquaporins at the protein level should play an important role in the specialized functions of russet fruit skin and PM-covered plant tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuezhi Wang
- Institute of Horticulture, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province China
| | - Meisong Dai
- Institute of Horticulture, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province China
| | - Danying Cai
- Institute of Horticulture, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province China
| | - Zebin Shi
- Institute of Horticulture, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province China
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39
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Holbein J, Franke RB, Marhavý P, Fujita S, Górecka M, Sobczak M, Geldner N, Schreiber L, Grundler FMW, Siddique S. Root endodermal barrier system contributes to defence against plant-parasitic cyst and root-knot nematodes. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 100:221-236. [PMID: 31322300 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2018] [Revised: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs) cause tremendous yield losses worldwide in almost all economically important crops. The agriculturally most important PPNs belong to a small group of root-infecting sedentary endoparasites that includes cyst and root-knot nematodes. Both cyst and root-knot nematodes induce specialized long-term feeding structures in root vasculature from which they obtain their nutrients. A specialized cell layer in roots called the endodermis, which has cell walls reinforced with suberin deposits and a lignin-based Casparian strip (CS), protects the vascular cylinder against abiotic and biotic threats. To date, the role of the endodermis, and especially of suberin and the CS, during plant-nematode interactions was largely unknown. Here, we analyzed the role of suberin and CS during interaction between Arabidopsis plants and two sedentary root-parasitic nematode species, the cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii and the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita. We found that nematode infection damages the endodermis leading to the activation of suberin biosynthesis genes at nematode infection sites. Although feeding sites induced by both cyst and root-knot nematodes are surrounded by endodermis during early stages of infection, the endodermis is degraded during later stages of feeding site development, indicating periderm formation or ectopic suberization of adjacent tissue. Chemical suberin analysis showed a characteristic suberin composition resembling peridermal suberin in nematode-infected tissue. Notably, infection assays using Arabidopsis lines with CS defects and impaired compensatory suberization, revealed that the CS and suberization impact nematode infectivity and feeding site size. Taken together, our work establishes the role of the endodermal barrier system in defence against a soil-borne pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Holbein
- INRES - Molecular Phytomedicine, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-University of Bonn, Karlrobert-Kreiten-Straße 13, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Rochus B Franke
- IZMB - Ecophysiology, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-University of Bonn, Kirschallee 1, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Peter Marhavý
- Department of Plant Molecular Biology, University of Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Satoshi Fujita
- Department of Plant Molecular Biology, University of Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Mirosława Górecka
- Department of Botany, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Nowoursynowska 159, 02-787, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Mirosław Sobczak
- Department of Botany, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Nowoursynowska 159, 02-787, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Niko Geldner
- Department of Plant Molecular Biology, University of Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lukas Schreiber
- IZMB - Ecophysiology, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-University of Bonn, Kirschallee 1, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Florian M W Grundler
- INRES - Molecular Phytomedicine, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-University of Bonn, Karlrobert-Kreiten-Straße 13, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - Shahid Siddique
- INRES - Molecular Phytomedicine, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-University of Bonn, Karlrobert-Kreiten-Straße 13, 53115, Bonn, Germany
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Ave., Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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40
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Lee Y. More than cell wall hydrolysis: orchestration of cellular dynamics for organ separation. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 51:37-43. [PMID: 31030063 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2019.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Plants' ability to cope with the ever-changing environment is one of the hallmarks that distinguishes plants from animals. Plants stationed in one place have evolved to remodel their architecture in response to the environmental factors by continuously creating new organ systems and removing existing organs through abscission. Herein, I provide insights into developmental plasticity of plants, focusing on the exit strategy (abscission). When plants start developing organs, the elimination tactics are also established in the form of abscission zones (AZ), that is, specialized cell layers for organ separation. Herein, recent advances in understanding the spatial regulatory mechanism of AZ in terms of cellular dynamics, coordination, and reconfiguration of the physical barrier of the cell wall to achieve precise abscission are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuree Lee
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea; Plant Genomics and Breeding Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea.
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41
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Vulavala VKR, Fogelman E, Faigenboim A, Shoseyov O, Ginzberg I. The transcriptome of potato tuber phellogen reveals cellular functions of cork cambium and genes involved in periderm formation and maturation. Sci Rep 2019; 9:10216. [PMID: 31308437 PMCID: PMC6629697 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-46681-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The periderm is a protective corky tissue that is formed through the cambial activity of phellogen cells, when the outer epidermis is damaged. Timely periderm formation is critical to prevent pathogen invasion and water loss. The outer layers of the potato periderm, the tuber skin, serves as a model to study cork development. Early in tuber development the phellogen becomes active and produces the skin. During tuber maturation it becomes inactive and the skin adheres to the tuber flesh. The characterization of potato phellogen may contribute to the management of costly agricultural problems related to incomplete skin-set and the resulting skinning injuries, and provide us with new knowledge regarding cork development in planta. A transcriptome of potato tuber phellogen isolated by laser capture microdissection indicated similarity to vascular cambium and the cork from trees. Highly expressed genes and transcription factors indicated that phellogen activation involves cytokinesis and gene reprograming for the establishment of a dedifferentiation state; whereas inactivation is characterized by activity of genes that direct organ identity in meristem and cell-wall modifications. The expression of selected genes was analyzed using qPCR in native and wound periderm at distinct developmental stages. This allowed the identification of genes involved in periderm formation and maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijaya K R Vulavala
- Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center, 68 HaMaccabim Road, P. O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion, 7505101, Israel.,The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Edna Fogelman
- Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center, 68 HaMaccabim Road, P. O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion, 7505101, Israel
| | - Adi Faigenboim
- Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center, 68 HaMaccabim Road, P. O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion, 7505101, Israel
| | - Oded Shoseyov
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Idit Ginzberg
- Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center, 68 HaMaccabim Road, P. O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion, 7505101, Israel.
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42
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Alonso-Serra J, Safronov O, Lim KJ, Fraser-Miller SJ, Blokhina OB, Campilho A, Chong SL, Fagerstedt K, Haavikko R, Helariutta Y, Immanen J, Kangasjärvi J, Kauppila TJ, Lehtonen M, Ragni L, Rajaraman S, Räsänen RM, Safdari P, Tenkanen M, Yli-Kauhaluoma JT, Teeri TH, Strachan CJ, Nieminen K, Salojärvi J. Tissue-specific study across the stem reveals the chemistry and transcriptome dynamics of birch bark. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 222:1816-1831. [PMID: 30724367 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Tree bark is a highly specialized array of tissues that plays important roles in plant protection and development. Bark tissues develop from two lateral meristems; the phellogen (cork cambium) produces the outermost stem-environment barrier called the periderm, while the vascular cambium contributes with phloem tissues. Although bark is diverse in terms of tissues, functions and species, it remains understudied at higher resolution. We dissected the stem of silver birch (Betula pendula) into eight major tissue types, and characterized these by a combined transcriptomics and metabolomics approach. We further analyzed the varying bark types within the Betulaceae family. The two meristems had a distinct contribution to the stem transcriptomic landscape. Furthermore, inter- and intraspecies analyses illustrated the unique molecular profile of the phellem. We identified multiple tissue-specific metabolic pathways, such as the mevalonate/betulin biosynthesis pathway, that displayed differential evolution within the Betulaceae. A detailed analysis of suberin and betulin biosynthesis pathways identified a set of underlying regulators and highlighted the important role of local, small-scale gene duplication events in the evolution of metabolic pathways. This work reveals the transcriptome and metabolic diversity among bark tissues and provides insights to its development and evolution, as well as its biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Alonso-Serra
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Omid Safronov
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kean-Jin Lim
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang A&F University, Lin'an, 311300, Hangzhou, China
| | - Sara J Fraser-Miller
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- The Dodd-Walls Centre for Photonic and Quantum Technologies, Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, 9054, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Olga B Blokhina
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ana Campilho
- Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4485-661, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sun-Li Chong
- State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang A&F University, Lin'an, 311300, Hangzhou, China
- Department of Food and Nutrition, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kurt Fagerstedt
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Raisa Haavikko
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ykä Helariutta
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1LR, UK
| | - Juha Immanen
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), 00710, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jaakko Kangasjärvi
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tiina J Kauppila
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mari Lehtonen
- Laboratory Center, Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Laura Ragni
- ZMBP-Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, D-72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sitaram Rajaraman
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Riikka-Marjaana Räsänen
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pezhman Safdari
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Maija Tenkanen
- Department of Food and Nutrition, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jari T Yli-Kauhaluoma
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Teemu H Teeri
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Clare J Strachan
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kaisa Nieminen
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), 00710, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jarkko Salojärvi
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 637551, Singapore, Singapore
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 637551, Singapore, Singapore
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43
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Tomescu AMF, Groover AT. Mosaic modularity: an updated perspective and research agenda for the evolution of vascular cambial growth. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 222:1719-1735. [PMID: 30552764 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Secondary growth from a vascular cambium, present today only in seed plants and isoetalean lycophytes, has a 400-million-yr evolutionary history that involves considerably broader taxonomic diversity, most of it hidden in the fossil record. Approaching vascular cambial growth as a complex developmental process, we review data from living plants and fossils that reveal diverse modes of secondary growth. These are consistent with a modular nature of secondary growth, when considered as a tracheophyte-wide structural feature. This modular perspective identifies putative constituent developmental modules of cambial growth, for which we review developmental anatomy and regulation. Based on these data, we propose a hypothesis that explains the sources of diversity of secondary growth, considered across the entire tracheophyte clade, and opens up new avenues for exploring the origin of secondary growth. In this hypothesis, various modes of secondary growth reflect a mosaic pattern of expression of different developmental-regulatory modules among different lineages. We outline an approach that queries three information systems (living seed plants, living seed-free plants, and fossils) and integrates data on developmental regulation, anatomy, gene evolution and phylogeny to test the mosaic modularity hypothesis and its implications, and to inform efforts aimed at understanding the evolution of secondary growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandru M F Tomescu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, 95521, USA
| | - Andrew T Groover
- Pacific Southwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Davis, CA, 95618, USA
- Department of Plant Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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44
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Wang N, Bagdassarian KS, Doherty RE, Kroon JT, Connor KA, Wang XY, Wang W, Jermyn IH, Turner SR, Etchells JP. Organ-specific genetic interactions between paralogues of the PXY and ER receptor kinases enforce radial patterning in Arabidopsis vascular tissue. Development 2019; 146:dev.177105. [PMID: 31043420 DOI: 10.1242/dev.177105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In plants, cells do not migrate. Tissues are frequently arranged in concentric rings; thus, expansion of inner layers is coordinated with cell division and/or expansion of cells in outer layers. In Arabidopsis stems, receptor kinases, PXY and ER, genetically interact to coordinate vascular proliferation and organisation via inter-tissue signalling. The contribution of PXY and ER paralogues to stem patterning is not known, nor is their function understood in hypocotyls, which undergo considerable radial expansion. Here, we show that removal of all PXY and ER gene-family members results in profound cell division and organisation defects. In hypocotyls, these plants failed to transition to true radial growth. Gene expression analysis suggested that PXY and ER cross- and inter-family transcriptional regulation occurs, but it differs between stem and hypocotyl. Thus, PXY and ER signalling interact to coordinate development in a distinct manner in different organs. We anticipate that such specialised local regulatory relationships, where tissue growth is controlled via signals moving across tissue layers, may coordinate tissue layer expansion throughout the plant body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Wang
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK.,College of Life Science, Henan Agricultural University, 95 Wenhua Road, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | | | - Rebecca E Doherty
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Johannes T Kroon
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Katherine A Connor
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Xiao Y Wang
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine & Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Wei Wang
- College of Life Science, Henan Agricultural University, 95 Wenhua Road, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Ian H Jermyn
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Simon R Turner
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine & Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - J Peter Etchells
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
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45
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Fischer U, Kucukoglu M, Helariutta Y, Bhalerao RP. The Dynamics of Cambial Stem Cell Activity. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 70:293-319. [PMID: 30822110 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-050718-100402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Stem cell populations in meristematic tissues at distinct locations in the plant body provide the potency of continuous plant growth. Primary meristems, at the apices of the plant body, contribute mainly to the elongation of the main plant axes, whereas secondary meristems in lateral positions are responsible for the thickening of these axes. The stem cells of the vascular cambium-a secondary lateral meristem-produce the secondary phloem (bast) and secondary xylem (wood). The sites of primary and secondary growth are spatially separated, and mobile signals are expected to coordinate growth rates between apical and lateral stem cell populations. Although the underlying mechanisms have not yet been uncovered, it seems likely that hormones, peptides, and mechanical cues orchestrate primary and secondary growth. In this review, we highlight the current knowledge and recent discoveries of how cambial stem cell activity is regulated, with a focus on mobile signals and the response of cambial activity to environmental and stress factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urs Fischer
- KWS SAAT SE, 37555 Einbeck, Germany
- Umeå Plant Science Center, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden;
| | - Melis Kucukoglu
- Institute of Biotechnology, Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ykä Helariutta
- Institute of Biotechnology, Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1LR, United Kingdom
| | - Rishikesh P Bhalerao
- Umeå Plant Science Center, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden;
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Tree Breeding by Molecular Design, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
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46
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High levels of auxin signalling define the stem-cell organizer of the vascular cambium. Nature 2019; 565:485-489. [PMID: 30626967 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-018-0837-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Wood, a type of xylem tissue, originates from cell proliferation of the vascular cambium. Xylem is produced inside, and phloem outside, of the cambium1. Morphogenesis in plants is typically coordinated by organizer cells that direct the adjacent stem cells to undergo programmed cell division and differentiation. The location of the vascular cambium stem cells and whether the organizer concept applies to the cambium are currently unknown2. Here, using lineage-tracing and molecular genetic studies in the roots of Arabidopsis thaliana, we show that cells with a xylem identity direct adjacent vascular cambial cells to divide and function as stem cells. Thus, these xylem-identity cells constitute an organizer. A local maximum of the phytohormone auxin, and consequent expression of CLASS III HOMEODOMAIN-LEUCINE ZIPPER (HD-ZIP III) transcription factors, promotes xylem identity and cellular quiescence of the organizer cells. Additionally, the organizer maintains phloem identity in a non-cell-autonomous fashion. Consistent with this dual function of the organizer cells, xylem and phloem originate from a single, bifacial stem cell in each radial cell file, which confirms the classical theory of a uniseriate vascular cambium3. Clones that display high levels of ectopically activated auxin signalling differentiate as xylem vessels; these clones induce cell divisions and the expression of cambial and phloem markers in the adjacent cells, which suggests that a local auxin-signalling maximum is sufficient to specify a stem-cell organizer. Although vascular cambium has a unique function among plant meristems, the stem-cell organizer of this tissue shares features with the organizers of root and shoot meristems.
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The Casparian strip-one ring to bring cell biology to lignification? Curr Opin Biotechnol 2018; 56:121-129. [PMID: 30502636 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2018.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Revised: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Lignin research has long been motivated by the outstanding importance of wood for human societies. The annual, non-woody Arabidopsis thaliana, has nevertheless contributed greatly to our understanding of lignification, due to its unrivalled genetic resources. Arabidopsis is also great for cell and developmental biology, allowing precise imaging and tracking of cell types. Root endodermis differentiation involves the precise lignification of the Casparian Strip, as an apoplastic barrier; while barrier damage triggers a less localized, compensatory lignification. Transcriptional reprogramming and peptide-induced signalling emerge as promising tools for the study of endodermal lignification. We argue that endodermis lignification is an attractive model complementary to equally powerful, cellular xylem differentiation systems, as it might better represent the restricted - often localized - lignification seen in non-vascular cells.
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Inácio V, Martins MT, Graça J, Morais-Cecílio L. Cork Oak Young and Traumatic Periderms Show PCD Typical Chromatin Patterns but Different Chromatin-Modifying Genes Expression. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:1194. [PMID: 30210513 PMCID: PMC6120546 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Plants are subjected to adverse conditions being outer protective tissues fundamental to their survival. Tree stems are enveloped by a periderm made of cork cells, resulting from the activity of the meristem phellogen. DNA methylation and histone modifications have important roles in the regulation of plant cell differentiation. However, studies on its involvement in cork differentiation are scarce despite periderm importance. Cork oak periderm development was used as a model to study the formation and differentiation of secondary protective tissues, and their behavior after traumatic wounding (traumatic periderm). Nuclei structural changes, dynamics of DNA methylation, and posttranslational histone modifications were assessed in young and traumatic periderms, after cork harvesting. Lenticular phellogen producing atypical non-suberized cells that disaggregate and form pores was also studied, due to high impact for cork industrial uses. Immunolocalization of active and repressive marks, transcription analysis of the corresponding genes, and correlations between gene expression and cork porosity were investigated. During young periderm development, a reduction in nuclei area along with high levels of DNA methylation occurred throughout epidermis disruption. As cork cells became more differentiated, whole nuclei progressive chromatin condensation with accumulation in the nuclear periphery and increasing DNA methylation was observed. Lenticular cells nuclei were highly fragmented with faint 5-mC labeling. Phellogen nuclei were less methylated than in cork cells, and in lenticular phellogen were even lower. No significant differences were detected in H3K4me3 and H3K18ac signals between cork cells layers, although an increase in H3K4me3 signals was found from the phellogen to cork cells. Distinct gene expression patterns in young and traumatic periderms suggest that cork differentiation might be under specific silencing regulatory pathways. Significant correlations were found between QsMET1, QsMET2, and QsSUVH4 gene expression and cork porosity. This work evidences that DNA methylation and histone modifications play a role in cork differentiation and epidermis induced tension-stress. It also provides the first insights into chromatin dynamics during cork and lenticular cells differentiation pointing to a distinct type of remodeling associated with cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera Inácio
- Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Institute of Agronomy, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
- *Correspondence: Vera Inácio,
| | - Madalena T. Martins
- Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Institute of Agronomy, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - José Graça
- Forest Research Center (CEF), Institute of Agronomy, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Leonor Morais-Cecílio
- Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF), Institute of Agronomy, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
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