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Ahsan R, Blanche W, Katz LA. Macronuclear development in ciliates, with a focus on nuclear architecture. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2022; 69:e12898. [PMID: 35178799 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Ciliates are defined by the presence of dimorphic nuclei as they have both a somatic macronucleus and germline micronucleus within each individual cell. The size and structure of both germline micronuclei and somatic macronuclei varies tremendously among ciliates. Except just after conjugation (i.e. the nuclear exchange in sexual cycle), the germline micronucleus is transcriptionally-inactive and contains canonical chromosomes that will be inherited between generations. In contrast, the transcriptionally-active macronucleus contains chromosomes that vary in size in different classes of ciliates, with some lineages having extensively-fragmented gene-sized somatic chromosomes while others contain longer multigene chromosomes. Here, we describe the variation in somatic macronuclear architecture in lineages sampled across the ciliate tree of life, specifically focusing on lineages with extensively fragmented chromosomes (e.g. the classes Phyllopharyngea and Spirotrichea). Further, we synthesize information from the literature on the development of ciliate macronuclei, focusing on changes in nuclear architecture throughout life cycles. These data highlight the tremendous diversity among ciliate nuclear cycles, extend our understanding of patterns of genome evolution, and provide insight into different germline and somatic nuclear features (e.g. nuclear structure and development) among eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ragib Ahsan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts, 01063, USA.,University of Massachusetts Amherst, Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Amherst, Massachusetts, 01003, USA
| | - Wumei Blanche
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts, 01063, USA
| | - Laura A Katz
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts, 01063, USA.,University of Massachusetts Amherst, Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Amherst, Massachusetts, 01003, USA
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Pilling OA, Rogers AJ, Gulla-Devaney B, Katz LA. Insights into transgenerational epigenetics from studies of ciliates. Eur J Protistol 2017; 61:366-375. [PMID: 28689743 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Revised: 05/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Epigenetics, a term with many meanings, can be broadly defined as the study of dynamic states of the genome. Ciliates, a clade of unicellular eukaryotes, can teach us about the intersection of epigenetics and evolution due to the advantages of working with cultivable ciliate lineages, plus their tendency to express extreme phenotypes such as heritable doublet morphology. Moreover, ciliates provide a powerful model for studying epigenetics given the presence of dimorphic nuclei - a somatic macronucleus and germline micronucleus - within each cell. Here, we exemplify the power of studying ciliates to learn about epigenetic phenomena. We highlight "classical" examples from morphology and physiology including cortical inheritance, mating type determination, and serotype expression. In addition, we detail molecular studies of epigenetic phenomena, including: DNA elimination; alternative processing and unscrambling; and copy number determination. Based on the implications of these studies, we discuss epigenetics as a possible functional mechanism for rapid speciation in ciliates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia A Pilling
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063, USA
| | - Anna J Rogers
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063, USA
| | | | - Laura A Katz
- Department of Biological Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063, USA; Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
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Koonin EV. Evolution of RNA- and DNA-guided antivirus defense systems in prokaryotes and eukaryotes: common ancestry vs convergence. Biol Direct 2017; 12:5. [PMID: 28187792 PMCID: PMC5303251 DOI: 10.1186/s13062-017-0177-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract Complementarity between nucleic acid molecules is central to biological information transfer processes. Apart from the basal processes of replication, transcription and translation, complementarity is also employed by multiple defense and regulatory systems. All cellular life forms possess defense systems against viruses and mobile genetic elements, and in most of them some of the defense mechanisms involve small guide RNAs or DNAs that recognize parasite genomes and trigger their inactivation. The nucleic acid-guided defense systems include prokaryotic Argonaute (pAgo)-centered innate immunity and CRISPR-Cas adaptive immunity as well as diverse branches of RNA interference (RNAi) in eukaryotes. The archaeal pAgo machinery is the direct ancestor of eukaryotic RNAi that, however, acquired additional components, such as Dicer, and enormously diversified through multiple duplications. In contrast, eukaryotes lack any heritage of the CRISPR-Cas systems, conceivably, due to the cellular toxicity of some Cas proteins that would get activated as a result of operon disruption in eukaryotes. The adaptive immunity function in eukaryotes is taken over partly by the PIWI RNA branch of RNAi and partly by protein-based immunity. In this review, I briefly discuss the interplay between homology and analogy in the evolution of RNA- and DNA-guided immunity, and attempt to formulate some general evolutionary principles for this ancient class of defense systems. Reviewers This article was reviewed by Mikhail Gelfand and Bojan Zagrovic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene V Koonin
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD, 20894, USA.
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Koonin EV, Starokadomskyy P. Are viruses alive? The replicator paradigm sheds decisive light on an old but misguided question. STUDIES IN HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGICAL AND BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES 2016; 59:125-34. [PMID: 26965225 PMCID: PMC5406846 DOI: 10.1016/j.shpsc.2016.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The question whether or not "viruses are alive" has caused considerable debate over many years. Yet, the question is effectively without substance because the answer depends entirely on the definition of life or the state of "being alive" that is bound to be arbitrary. In contrast, the status of viruses among biological entities is readily defined within the replicator paradigm. All biological replicators form a continuum along the selfishness-cooperativity axis, from the completely selfish to fully cooperative forms. Within this range, typical, lytic viruses represent the selfish extreme whereas temperate viruses and various mobile elements occupy positions closer to the middle of the range. Selfish replicators not only belong to the biological realm but are intrinsic to any evolving system of replicators. No such system can evolve without the emergence of parasites, and moreover, parasites drive the evolution of biological complexity at multiple levels. The history of life is a story of parasite-host coevolution that includes both the incessant arms race and various forms of cooperation. All organisms are communities of interacting, coevolving replicators of different classes. A complete theory of replicator coevolution remains to be developed, but it appears likely that not only the differentiation between selfish and cooperative replicators but the emergence of the entire range of replication strategies, from selfish to cooperative, is intrinsic to biological evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene V Koonin
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA.
| | - Petro Starokadomskyy
- Department of Internal Medicine, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75235, USA
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Smith DR, Keeling PJ. Protists and the Wild, Wild West of Gene Expression: New Frontiers, Lawlessness, and Misfits. Annu Rev Microbiol 2016; 70:161-78. [PMID: 27359218 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-micro-102215-095448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The DNA double helix has been called one of life's most elegant structures, largely because of its universality, simplicity, and symmetry. The expression of information encoded within DNA, however, can be far from simple or symmetric and is sometimes surprisingly variable, convoluted, and wantonly inefficient. Although exceptions to the rules exist in certain model systems, the true extent to which life has stretched the limits of gene expression is made clear by nonmodel systems, particularly protists (microbial eukaryotes). The nuclear and organelle genomes of protists are subject to the most tangled forms of gene expression yet identified. The complicated and extravagant picture of the underlying genetics of eukaryotic microbial life changes how we think about the flow of genetic information and the evolutionary processes shaping it. Here, we discuss the origins, diversity, and growing interest in noncanonical protist gene expression and its relationship to genomic architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Roy Smith
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6A 5B7;
| | - Patrick J Keeling
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4;
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Koonin EV. The meaning of biological information. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2016; 374:rsta.2015.0065. [PMID: 26857678 PMCID: PMC4760125 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2015.0065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Biological information encoded in genomes is fundamentally different from and effectively orthogonal to Shannon entropy. The biologically relevant concept of information has to do with 'meaning', i.e. encoding various biological functions with various degree of evolutionary conservation. Apart from direct experimentation, the meaning, or biological information content, can be extracted and quantified from alignments of homologous nucleotide or amino acid sequences but generally not from a single sequence, using appropriately modified information theoretical formulae. For short, information encoded in genomes is defined vertically but not horizontally. Informally but substantially, biological information density seems to be equivalent to 'meaning' of genomic sequences that spans the entire range from sharply defined, universal meaning to effective meaninglessness. Large fractions of genomes, up to 90% in some plants, belong within the domain of fuzzy meaning. The sequences with fuzzy meaning can be recruited for various functions, with the meaning subsequently fixed, and also could perform generic functional roles that do not require sequence conservation. Biological meaning is continuously transferred between the genomes of selfish elements and hosts in the process of their coevolution. Thus, in order to adequately describe genome function and evolution, the concepts of information theory have to be adapted to incorporate the notion of meaning that is central to biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene V Koonin
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Krupovic M, Koonin EV. Self-synthesizing transposons: unexpected key players in the evolution of viruses and defense systems. Curr Opin Microbiol 2016; 31:25-33. [PMID: 26836982 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2016.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Revised: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Self-synthesizing transposons are the largest known transposable elements that encode their own DNA polymerases (DNAP). The Polinton/Maverick family of self-synthesizing transposons is widespread in eukaryotes and abundant in the genomes of some protists. In addition to the DNAP and a retrovirus-like integrase, most of the polintons encode homologs of the major and minor jelly-roll capsid proteins, DNA-packaging ATPase and capsid maturation protease. Therefore, polintons are predicted to alternate between the transposon and viral lifestyles although virion formation remains to be demonstrated. Polintons are related to a group of eukaryotic viruses known as virophages that parasitize on giant viruses of the family Mimiviridae and another recently identified putative family of polinton-like viruses (PLV) predicted to lead a similar, dual life style. Comparative genomic analysis of polintons, virophages, PLV and the other viruses with double-stranded (ds)DNA genomes infecting eukaryotes and prokaryotes suggests that the polintons evolved from bacterial tectiviruses and could have been the ancestors of a broad range of eukaryotic viruses including adenoviruses and members of the proposed order 'Megavirales' as well as linear cytoplasmic plasmids. Recently, a group of predicted self-synthesizing transposons was discovered also in prokaryotes. These elements, denoted casposons, encode a DNAP and a homolog of the CRISPR-associated Cas1 endonuclease that has an integrase activity but no capsid proteins. Thus, unlike polintons, casposons appear to be limited to the transposon life style although they could have evolved from viruses. The casposons are thought to have played a pivotal role in the origin of the prokaryotic adaptive immunity, giving rise to the adaptation module of the CRISPR-Cas systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mart Krupovic
- Unité Biologie Moléculaire du Gène chez les Extrêmophiles, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
| | - Eugene V Koonin
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA.
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