1
|
Dames H, Li C, Frischkorn GT, Oberauer K. Removing information from working memory with a delay: Effective but not beneficial. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02550-z. [PMID: 39103706 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02550-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 08/07/2024]
Abstract
Ideally, removing outdated information from working memory (WM) should have two consequences: The removed content should be less accessible (removal costs), and other WM content should benefit from the freeing up of WM capacity (removal benefits). Robust removal benefits and removal costs have been demonstrated when people are told to forget items shortly after they were encoded (immediate removal). However, other studies suggest that people might be unable to selectively remove items from an already encoded set of items (delayed removal). In two experiments (n = 219; n = 241), we investigated the effectiveness and consequences of delayed removal by combining a modified version of Ecker's et al. (Journal of Memory and Language, 74, 77-90, 2014) letter updating task with a directed-forgetting in WM paradigm. We found that while delayed removal resulted in reduced memory for the to-be-forgotten item-location relations (removal costs), it failed to enhance performance for existing WM content. This contrasts sharply with immediate removal, where removal benefits can be observed. A fine-grained analysis of removal benefits shows that removal from WM proactively facilitates the subsequent encoding of new information but does not retroactively aid stored WM content.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Dames
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Binzmühlestrasse 14/22, 8050, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Chenyu Li
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Binzmühlestrasse 14/22, 8050, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gidon T Frischkorn
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Binzmühlestrasse 14/22, 8050, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Klaus Oberauer
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Binzmühlestrasse 14/22, 8050, Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Malleret G, Salin P, Mazza S, Plancher G. Working memory forgetting: Bridging gaps between human and animal studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 163:105742. [PMID: 38830561 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
The causes of forgetting in working memory (WM) remain a source of debate in cognitive psychology, partly because it has always been challenging to probe the complex neural mechanisms that govern rapid cognitive processes in humans. In this review, we argue that neural, and more precisely animal models, provide valuable tools for exploring the precise mechanisms of WM forgetting. First, we discuss theoretical perspectives concerning WM forgetting in humans. Then, we present neuronal correlates of WM in animals, starting from the initial evidence of delay activity observed in the prefrontal cortex to the later synaptic theory of WM. In the third part, specific theories of WM are discussed, including the notion that silent versus non-silent activity is more consistent with the processes of refreshing and decay proposed in human cognitive models. The review concludes with an exploration of the relationship between long-term memory and WM, revealing connections between these two forms of memory through the long-term synaptic hypothesis, which suggests that long-term storage of interference can potentially disrupt WM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gaël Malleret
- Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Unité Mixte de Recherche 5292, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1028, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Bron F-69500, France
| | - Paul Salin
- Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Unité Mixte de Recherche 5292, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1028, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Bron F-69500, France
| | - Stéphanie Mazza
- Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Unité Mixte de Recherche 5292, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1028, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Bron F-69500, France
| | - Gaën Plancher
- Université Lumière Lyon 2, Laboratoire d'Etude des Mécanismes Cognitifs, Bron, France; Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), France.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Querella P, Attout L, Fias W, Majerus S. From long-term to short-term: Distinct neural networks underlying semantic knowledge and its recruitment in working memory. Neuropsychologia 2024; 202:108949. [PMID: 38971371 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024]
Abstract
Although numerous studies suggest that working memory (WM) and semantic long-term knowledge interact, the nature and underlying neural mechanisms of this intervention remain poorly understood. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), this study investigated the extent to which neural markers of semantic knowledge in long-term memory (LTM) are activated during the WM maintenance stage in 32 young adults. First, the multivariate neural patterns associated with four semantic categories were determined via an implicit semantic activation task. Next, the participants maintained words - the names of the four semantic categories implicitly activated in the first task - in a verbal WM task. Multi-voxel pattern analyses showed reliable neural decoding of the four semantic categories in the implicit semantic activation and the verbal WM tasks. Critically, however, no between-task classification of semantic categories was observed. Searchlight analyses showed that for the WM task, semantic category information could be decoded in anterior temporal areas associated with abstract semantic category knowledge. In the implicit semantic activation task, semantic category information was decoded in superior temporal, occipital and frontal cortices associated with domain-specific semantic feature representations. These results indicate that item-level semantic activation during verbal WM involves shallow rather than deep semantic information.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Querella
- Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Research Unit, University of Liège, Belgium.
| | - Lucie Attout
- Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Research Unit, University of Liège, Belgium; National Fund for Scientific Research, Belgium, Department of Psychology, Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Research Unit, University of Liège, Place des Orateurs 1 (B33), 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Wim Fias
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Steve Majerus
- Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Research Unit, University of Liège, Belgium; National Fund for Scientific Research, Belgium, Department of Psychology, Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Research Unit, University of Liège, Place des Orateurs 1 (B33), 4000, Liège, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Tsubomi H, Fukuda K, Kikumoto A, Mayr U, Vogel EK. Task Termination Triggers Spontaneous Removal of Information From Visual Working Memory. Psychol Sci 2024:9567976241246709. [PMID: 38913829 DOI: 10.1177/09567976241246709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Working memory (WM) is a goal-directed memory system that actively maintains a limited amount of task-relevant information to serve the current goal. By this definition, WM maintenance should be terminated after the goal is accomplished, spontaneously removing no-longer-relevant information from WM. Past studies have failed to provide direct evidence of spontaneous removal of WM content by allowing participants to engage in a strategic reallocation of WM resources to competing information within WM. By contrast, we provide direct neural and behavioral evidence that visual WM content can be largely removed less than 1 s after it becomes obsolete, in the absence of a strategic allocation of resources (total N = 442 adults). These results demonstrate that visual WM is intrinsically a goal-directed system, and spontaneous removal provides a means for capacity-limited WM to keep up with ever-changing demands in a dynamic environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Keisuke Fukuda
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto
| | - Atsushi Kikumoto
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic & Psychological Sciences, Brown University
| | - Ulrich Mayr
- Department of Psychology, University of Oregon
| | - Edward K Vogel
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago
- Institute for Mind and Biology, University of Chicago
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ji H, Wang K, Kong G, Zhang X, He W, Ding X. The Basic Units of Working Memory Manipulation Are Boolean Maps, Not Objects. Psychol Sci 2024:9567976241257443. [PMID: 38889369 DOI: 10.1177/09567976241257443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Determining the manipulation unit of working memory is one of the fundamental questions in understanding how working memory functions. The prevalent object-based theory in cognitive research predicts that memory manipulation is performed on the level of objects. Here we show instead that the basic units of working memory manipulation are Boolean maps, a data structure describing what can be perceived in an instant. We developed four new manipulation tasks (with data from 80 adults) and showed that manipulation times only increased when the number of Boolean maps manipulated increased. Increasing the number of orientations manipulated did not induce longer manipulation times, consistent with a key prediction of the Boolean map theory. Our results show that Boolean maps are the manipulation unit of working memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huichao Ji
- Department of Psychology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Social Cognitive Neuroscience and Mental Health, Sun Yat-sen University
- Department of Psychology, Yale University
| | - Kaiyue Wang
- Department of Psychology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Social Cognitive Neuroscience and Mental Health, Sun Yat-sen University
| | - Garry Kong
- Waseda Institute of Advanced Study, Waseda University
| | - Xiaodan Zhang
- Department of Psychology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Social Cognitive Neuroscience and Mental Health, Sun Yat-sen University
| | - Wenzhen He
- Department of Psychology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Social Cognitive Neuroscience and Mental Health, Sun Yat-sen University
| | - Xiaowei Ding
- Department of Psychology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Social Cognitive Neuroscience and Mental Health, Sun Yat-sen University
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Yang Y, Su L, Pan Y. Memory-driven capture during focused visual attention. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2024; 88:1389-1398. [PMID: 38478053 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-024-01933-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Attention can be captured by the presence of distractors that match the current content of working memory in the visual field. This memory-driven capture is well established when observers adopt diffused attentional settings prior to the onset of memory-matching distractors. However, it remains unclear whether memory-driven capture can occur when observers are in a state of focused attention. The present study attempted to address this question by examining whether memory-matching distractors can disrupt performance on a focused attention task. Participants were asked to hold a sample word in working memory and then had to name a central color while ignoring an irrelevant distractor word in the visual display. In Experiments 1 and 2, the distractor word was always presented centrally within the focus of attention. In Experiment 3, the distractor word could be presented either at the center or at the periphery (i.e., outside the focus of attention). The results showed that the irrelevant distractor word within the focus of attention interfered with color-naming performance when it matched the sample word held in working memory. However, no interference effect was observed when the distractor word was presented outside the attentional focus. The present findings indicate that working memory-driven capture during a state of focused visual attention depends crucially on whether or not memory-matching distractors are positioned within the focus of attention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yilu Yang
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lixin Su
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yi Pan
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China.
- Zhejiang Philosophy and Social Science Laboratory for Early Child Development and Care, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Mei S, Gao Y, He W, Jarrold C, Wang T. Age-related differences in the removal of information from working memory. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 240:105836. [PMID: 38176257 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
Removal has been assumed to be a core mechanism in working memory. However, it remains unclear whether children can actively remove outdated information from working memory and how this ability develops as children age. The current study aimed to examine age-related differences in removal ability and its relations with cognitive control and working memory capacity. Children aged 7, 9, and 11 years performed a modified working memory updating task assessing removal efficiency. In addition, a battery of cognitive control and working memory capacity tasks was administered. Results indicated that updating response times decreased considerably when a longer time was given for removal, suggesting that children aged 7 to 11 years can actively remove outdated items from working memory prior to encoding the new ones and that removal efficiency increased with age. More important, age-related increases in removal efficiency occurred concurrently with the development of working memory capacity. Proactive control predicted removal efficiency over and beyond age and working memory capacity. The findings shed new light on the mechanisms underlying the development of working memory updating.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Siyuan Mei
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, 310058 Hangzhou, China
| | - Yang Gao
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, 310058 Hangzhou, China
| | - Wanna He
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, 310058 Hangzhou, China
| | | | - Tengfei Wang
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, 310058 Hangzhou, China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
White PA. The perceptual timescape: Perceptual history on the sub-second scale. Cogn Psychol 2024; 149:101643. [PMID: 38452720 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
There is a high-capacity store of brief time span (∼1000 ms) which information enters from perceptual processing, often called iconic memory or sensory memory. It is proposed that a main function of this store is to hold recent perceptual information in a temporally segregated representation, named the perceptual timescape. The perceptual timescape is a continually active representation of change and continuity over time that endows the perceived present with a perceived history. This is accomplished primarily by two kinds of time marking information: time distance information, which marks all items of information in the perceptual timescape according to how far in the past they occurred, and ordinal temporal information, which organises items of information in terms of their temporal order. Added to that is information about connectivity of perceptual objects over time. These kinds of information connect individual items over a brief span of time so as to represent change, persistence, and continuity over time. It is argued that there is a one-way street of information flow from perceptual processing either to the perceived present or directly into the perceptual timescape, and thence to working memory. Consistent with that, the information structure of the perceptual timescape supports postdictive reinterpretations of recent perceptual information. Temporal integration on a time scale of hundreds of milliseconds takes place in perceptual processing and does not draw on information in the perceptual timescape, which is concerned with temporal segregation, not integration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter A White
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Tower Building, Park Place, Cardiff, Wales CF10 3YG, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Şentürk YD, Ünver N, Demircan C, Egner T, Günseli E. The reactivation of task rules triggers the reactivation of task-relevant items. Cortex 2024; 171:465-480. [PMID: 38141571 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2023.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/25/2023]
Abstract
Working memory (WM) describes the temporary storage of task-relevant items and procedural rules to guide action. Despite its central importance for goal-directed behavior, the interplay between WM and long-term memory (LTM) remains poorly understood. Recent studies have shown that repeated use of the same task-relevant item in WM results in a hand-off of the storage of that item to LTM, and switching to a new item reactivates WM. To further elucidate the rules governing WM-LTM interactions, we here planned to probe whether a change in task rules, independent of a switch in task-relevant items, would also lead to WM reactivation of maintained items. To this end, we used scalp-recorded electroencephalogram (EEG) data, specifically the contralateral delay activity (CDA), to track WM item storage while manipulating repetitions and changes in task rules and task-relevant items across trials in a visual WM task. We tested two rival hypotheses: If changes in task rules result in a reactivation of the target item representation, then the CDA should increase when a task change is cued even when the same target has been repeated across trials. However, if the reactivation of a task-relevant item only depends on the mnemonic availability of the item itself instead of the task it is used for, then only the changes in task-relevant items should reactivate the representations. Accordingly, the CDA amplitude should decrease for repeated task-relevant items independently of a task change. We found a larger CDA on task-switch compared to task-repeat trials, suggesting that the reactivation of task rules triggers the reactivation of task-relevant items in WM. By demonstrating that WM reactivation of LTM is interdependent for task rules and task-relevant items, this study informs our understanding of visual WM and its interplay with LTM. PREREGISTERED STAGE 1 PROTOCOL: https://osf.io/zp9e8 (date of in-principle acceptance: 19/12/2021).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yağmur D Şentürk
- Department of Psychology, Sabancı University, Istanbul, Türkiye.
| | - Nursima Ünver
- Department of Psychology, Sabancı University, Istanbul, Türkiye; Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Canada.
| | - Can Demircan
- Department of Psychology, Sabancı University, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Tobias Egner
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Eren Günseli
- Department of Psychology, Sabancı University, Istanbul, Türkiye
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Guo R, Wang J, Fu K, Liu Q. Exploring retro-cue effects on visual working memory: insights from double-cue paradigm. Front Neurosci 2024; 17:1338075. [PMID: 38274505 PMCID: PMC10808400 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1338075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
In the realm of visual working memory research, the retro-cue paradigm helps us study retro-cue effects such as retro-cue benefit (RCB) and retro-cue cost (RCC). RCB reflects better performance with cued items, while RCC indicates poorer performance with uncued items. Despite consistent evidence for RCB, it's still uncertain whether it remains when previously uncued items are cued afterward. Additionally, research findings have been inconsistent. This study combines prior experiments by controlling the proportion of cue types and the number of memory items. Besides, using a CDA index to assess the status of items after the cue appeared. Results showed better performance under the double-cue condition (involving two cues pointing inconsistently with only the second cue being valid) compared to the neutral-cue condition, and better performance under the single-cue condition compared to double-cue. EEG data revealed that after the appearance of the second cue in the double-cue condition, there was a significant increase in CDA wave amplitude compared to the single-cue condition. Behavior results suggests that RCB occurs under double-cue but to a lesser extent than the single-cue. And EEG outcomes indicates that individuals did not remove the uncued item from their visual working memory after the first cue. Instead, they kept it in a passive state and then shifted it to an active state after the appearance of the second cue.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruiqiao Guo
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Science, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China
| | - Junbo Wang
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Kai Fu
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Qiang Liu
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Science, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
DeRosa J, Kim H, Lewis-Peacock J, Banich MT. Neural Systems Underlying the Implementation of Working Memory Removal Operations. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e0283232023. [PMID: 37963765 PMCID: PMC10866188 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0283-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, multi-voxel pattern analysis has verified that information can be removed from working memory (WM) via three distinct operations replacement, suppression, or clearing compared to information being maintained ( Kim et al., 2020). While univariate analyses and classifier importance maps in Kim et al. (2020) identified brain regions that contribute to these operations, they did not elucidate whether these regions represent the operations similarly or uniquely. Using Leiden-community-detection on a sample of 55 humans (17 male), we identified four brain networks, each of which has a unique configuration of multi-voxel activity patterns by which it represents these WM operations. The visual network (VN) shows similar multi-voxel patterns for maintain and replace, which are highly dissimilar from suppress and clear, suggesting this network differentiates whether an item is held in WM or not. The somatomotor network (SMN) shows a distinct multi-voxel pattern for clear relative to the other operations, indicating the uniqueness of this operation. The default mode network (DMN) has distinct patterns for suppress and clear, but these two operations are more similar to each other than to maintain and replace, a pattern intermediate to that of the VN and SMN. The frontoparietal control network (FPCN) displays distinct multi-voxel patterns for each of the four operations, suggesting that this network likely plays an important role in implementing these WM operations. These results indicate that the operations involved in removing information from WM can be performed in parallel by distinct brain networks, each of which has a particular configuration by which they represent these operations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jacob DeRosa
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Hyojeong Kim
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309
| | | | - Marie T Banich
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Fu Y, Guan C, Tam J, O'Donnell RE, Shen M, Wyble B, Chen H. Attention with or without working memory: mnemonic reselection of attended information. Trends Cogn Sci 2023; 27:1111-1122. [PMID: 37689583 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2023.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
Attention has been regarded as the 'gatekeeper' controlling what information gets selected into working memory. However, a new perspective has emerged with the discovery of attribute amnesia, a phenomenon revealing that people are frequently unable to report information they have just attended to moments ago. This report failure is thought to stem from a lack of consolidating the attended information into working memory, indicating a dissociation between attention and working memory. Building on these findings, a new concept called memory reselection is proposed to describe a secondary round of selection among the attended information. These discoveries challenge the conventional view of how attention and working memory are related and shed new light onto modeling attention and memory as dissociable processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yingtao Fu
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Chenxiao Guan
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Joyce Tam
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Ryan E O'Donnell
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Mowei Shen
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Brad Wyble
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Hui Chen
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Forester G, Johnson JS, Reilly EE, Lloyd EC, Johnson E, Schaefer LM. Back to the future: Progressing memory research in eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord 2023; 56:2032-2048. [PMID: 37594119 PMCID: PMC10843822 DOI: 10.1002/eat.24045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Human behaviors, thoughts, and emotions are guided by memories of the past. Thus, there can be little doubt that memory plays a fundamental role in the behaviors (e.g., binging), thoughts (e.g., body-image concerns), and emotions (e.g., guilt) that characterize eating disorders (EDs). Although a growing body of research has begun to investigate the role of memory in EDs, this literature is limited in numerous ways and has yet to be integrated into an overarching framework. METHODS In the present article, we provide an operational framework for characterizing different domains of memory, briefly review existing ED memory research within this framework, and highlight crucial gaps in the literature. RESULTS We distinguish between three domains of memory-episodic, procedural, and working-which differ based on functional attributes and underlying neural systems. Most recent ED memory research has focused on procedural memory broadly defined (e.g., reinforcement learning), and findings within all three memory domains are highly mixed. Further, few studies have attempted to assess these different domains simultaneously, though most behavior is achieved through coordination and competition between memory systems. We, therefore, offer recommendations for how to move ED research forward within each domain of memory and how to study the interactions between memory systems, using illustrative examples from other areas of basic and clinical research. DISCUSSION A stronger and more integrated understanding of the mechanisms that connect memory of past experiences to present ED behavior may yield more comprehensive theoretical models of EDs that guide novel treatment approaches. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE Memories of previous eating-related experiences may contribute to the onset and maintenance of eating disorders (EDs). However, research on the role of memory in EDs is limited, and distinct domains of ED memory research are rarely connected. We, therefore, offer a framework for organizing, progressing, and integrating ED memory research, to provide a better foundation for improving ED treatment and intervention going forward.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Glen Forester
- Center for Biobehavioral Research, Sanford Research, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
| | - Jeffrey S. Johnson
- Center for Biobehavioral Research, Sanford Research, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
- Department of Psychology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
| | - Erin E. Reilly
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - E. Caitlin Lloyd
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York, USA
| | - Emily Johnson
- Department of Psychology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
| | - Lauren M. Schaefer
- Center for Biobehavioral Research, Sanford Research, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, North Dakota, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Wang T, Yang C, Liang B. The removal of distractors in a multidistractor complex span task. Memory 2023; 31:1185-1196. [PMID: 37608681 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2023.2240056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
Forgetting is an important phenomenon in working memory. Understanding forgetting could offer a window into the very core of cognition. According to the removal hypothesis, forgetting occurs because distractors interfere with memory traces, and this interference can be actively removed. In the decay refresh hypothesis, forgetting occurs because the memory trace decays with time and can be recovered by refreshment. In the present study, a multidistractor complex span task was designed to directly test the cause of forgetting. The free time after a particular distractor and the total free time were manipulated, with the priming effect of the repeated distractor as a detector. The results showed that a longer free time after the first distractor weakened the priming effect, but a longer total free time had no influence. These results supported the removal hypothesis. The forgetting of distractors was not due to decay but due to removal. The trace of a distractor would be removed when it stops being processed. The removal of a distractor occurs when individuals have free time directly after it, whereas the free time after another distractor is not beneficial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tianze Wang
- Faculty of Education, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, People's Republic of China
- Guangxi Colleges and Universities Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Applied Psychology, Guilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengfan Yang
- Guangdong Business and Technology University, Zhaoqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Liang
- Medical College of Jiaying University, Meizhou, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Lidström A. Serial dependence in facial identity perception and visual working memory. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:2226-2241. [PMID: 37794301 PMCID: PMC10584723 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02799-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
Serial dependence (SD) refers to the effect in which a person's current perceptual judgment is attracted toward recent stimulus history. Perceptual and memory processes, as well as response and decisional biases, are thought to contribute to SD effects. The current study examined the processing stages of SD facial identity effects in the context of task-related decision processes and how such effects may differ from visual working memory (VWM) interactions. In two experiments, participants were shown a series of two sequentially presented face images. In Experiment 1, the two faces were separated by an interstimulus interval (ISI) of 1, 3, 6, or 10 s, and participants were instructed to reproduce the second face after a varying response delay of 0, 1, 3, 6, or 10 s. Results showed that SD effects occurred most consistently at ISI of 1 s and response delays of 1 and 6 s consistent with early and late stages of processing. In Experiment 2, the ISI was held constant at 1 s, and to separate SD from VWM interactions participants were post-cued to reproduce either the first or the second face. When the second face was the target, SD effects again occurred at response delays of 1 and 6 s, but not when the first face was the target. Together, the results demonstrates that SD facial identity effects occur independently of task-related processes in a distinct temporal fashion and suggest that SD and VWM interactions may rely on separate underlying mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anette Lidström
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Allhelgona kyrkogata 16A, 223 50, Lund, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Boo YJ, Kim DW, Park JY, Kim BS, Chang JW, Kang JI, Kim SJ. Altered prefrontal beta oscillatory activity during removal of information from working memory in obsessive-compulsive disorder. BMC Psychiatry 2023; 23:645. [PMID: 37667294 PMCID: PMC10478376 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-023-05149-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is related to working memory impairment. Since patients with OCD have difficulty controlling their obsessive thoughts, removal of irrelevant information might be important in the pathophysiology of OCD. However, little is known about brain activity during the removal of information from working memory in patients with OCD. Our goal was to explore potential deficits in inhibitory function related to working memory processes in patients with OCD. METHODS Sixteen OCD patients and 20 healthy controls (HCs) were recruited. We compared in prefrontal alpha and beta band activity derived from magnetoencephalography (MEG) between patients with OCD and HCs during multiple phases of information processing associated with working memory, especially in post-trial period of the visuospatial working memory task (the delayed matching-to-sample task), which is presumed to be related to the information removal process of working memory. RESULTS Prefrontal post-trial beta power change (presumed to occur at high levels during the post-trial period) exhibited significant reductions in patients with OCD compared to HCs. In addition, the post-trial beta power change was negatively correlated with Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised total scores in patients with OCD. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that impairment in the removal of information from working memory might be a key mechanism underlying the inability of OCD patients to rid themselves of their obsessions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Young Jun Boo
- Department of Psychiatry, Graduate School, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Do-Won Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering Sciences, Chonnam National University, 50 Daehak-ro, Yeosu, Republic of Korea
- School of Healthcare and Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering Sciences, Chonnam National University, 50 Daehak-ro, Yeosu, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Young Park
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Behavioral Science in Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Psychiatry, Yongin Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Yongin, Republic of Korea
| | - Bong Soo Kim
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Research Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Woo Chang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Research Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jee In Kang
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Behavioral Science in Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Se Joo Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Behavioral Science in Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Sasin E, Markov Y, Fougnie D. Meaningful objects avoid attribute amnesia due to incidental long-term memories. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14464. [PMID: 37660090 PMCID: PMC10475071 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41642-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Attribute amnesia describes the failure to unexpectedly report the attribute of an attended stimulus, likely reflecting a lack of working memory consolidation. Previous studies have shown that unique meaningful objects are immune to attribute amnesia. However, these studies used highly dissimilar foils to test memory, raising the possibility that good performance at the surprise test was based on an imprecise (gist-like) form of long-term memory. In Experiment 1, we explored whether a more sensitive memory test would reveal attribute amnesia in meaningful objects. We used a four-alternative-forced-choice test with foils having mis-matched exemplar (e.g., apple pie/pumpkin pie) and/or state (e.g., cut/full) information. Errors indicated intact exemplar, but not state information. Thus, meaningful objects are vulnerable to attribute amnesia under the right conditions. In Experiments 2A-2D, we manipulated the familiarity signals of test items by introducing a critical object as a pre-surprise target. In the surprise trial, this critical item matched one of the foil choices. Participants selected the critical object more often than other items. By demonstrating that familiarity influences responses in this paradigm, we suggest that meaningful objects are not immune to attribute amnesia but instead side-step the effects of attribute amnesia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edyta Sasin
- Department of Psychology, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
| | - Yuri Markov
- Department of Psychology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Daryl Fougnie
- Department of Psychology, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Chen J, Golomb JD. Dynamic neural reconstructions of attended object location and features using EEG. J Neurophysiol 2023; 130:139-154. [PMID: 37283457 PMCID: PMC10393364 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00180.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Attention allows us to select relevant and ignore irrelevant information from our complex environments. What happens when attention shifts from one item to another? To answer this question, it is critical to have tools that accurately recover neural representations of both feature and location information with high temporal resolution. In the present study, we used human electroencephalography (EEG) and machine learning to explore how neural representations of object features and locations update across dynamic shifts of attention. We demonstrate that EEG can be used to create simultaneous time courses of neural representations of attended features (time point-by-time point inverted encoding model reconstructions) and attended location (time point-by-time point decoding) during both stable periods and across dynamic shifts of attention. Each trial presented two oriented gratings that flickered at the same frequency but had different orientations; participants were cued to attend one of them and on half of trials received a shift cue midtrial. We trained models on a stable period from Hold attention trials and then reconstructed/decoded the attended orientation/location at each time point on Shift attention trials. Our results showed that both feature reconstruction and location decoding dynamically track the shift of attention and that there may be time points during the shifting of attention when 1) feature and location representations become uncoupled and 2) both the previously attended and currently attended orientations are represented with roughly equal strength. The results offer insight into our understanding of attentional shifts, and the noninvasive techniques developed in the present study lend themselves well to a wide variety of future applications.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We used human EEG and machine learning to reconstruct neural response profiles during dynamic shifts of attention. Specifically, we demonstrated that we could simultaneously read out both location and feature information from an attended item in a multistimulus display. Moreover, we examined how that readout evolves over time during the dynamic process of attentional shifts. These results provide insight into our understanding of attention, and this technique carries substantial potential for versatile extensions and applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiageng Chen
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States
| | - Julie D Golomb
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Bruning AL, Mallya MM, Lewis-Peacock JA. Rumination burdens the updating of working memory. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:1452-1460. [PMID: 36653522 PMCID: PMC11122689 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-022-02649-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Working memory is a vital, but capacity-limited, cognitive instrument that requires frequent updating as our goals and environment change. Individuals diagnosed with depression have a reduced capacity compared with the general population, as they have a propensity to fixate on negative information, even when it is not relevant for the task at hand. Here we investigated how characteristics of psychiatric illnesses, such as rumination, affect a person's ability to efficiently update emotional information in mind. We used both neutral and negative pictures of scenes in a working memory updating task that required participants to occasionally replace items held in mind during a brief delay period. Participants were presented with a probe item at the end of each trial and asked to report whether that item was in their current memory set. Responses were slowest and least accurate for images that had been replaced (i.e., "lures"), indicating there was some difficulty in successfully updating working memory in this paradigm. Participants who have both a high propensity to ruminate and a low working memory capacity were significantly more likely to false alarm to these lures. While emotional valence did not impact accuracy for these participants, their false alarms were faster for negative stimuli compared with neutral stimuli, indicating that task-irrelevant emotional information was more difficult to remove from working memory. These results demonstrate how rumination impairs goal-directed behavior by obscuring the boundary between relevant and irrelevant information in working memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Allison L Bruning
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, 108 E Dean Keeton St, Stop A8000, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Meghan M Mallya
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, 108 E Dean Keeton St, Stop A8000, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Jarrod A Lewis-Peacock
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, 108 E Dean Keeton St, Stop A8000, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Rhilinger JP, Xu C, Rose NS. Are irrelevant items actively deleted from visual working memory?: No evidence from repulsion and attraction effects in dual-retrocue tasks. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023:10.3758/s13414-023-02724-2. [PMID: 37226042 PMCID: PMC10208559 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02724-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Some theories propose that working memory (WM) involves the active deletion of irrelevant information, including items that were retained in WM, but are no longer relevant for ongoing cognition. Considerable evidence suggests that active-deletion occurs for categorical representations, but whether it also occurs for recall of features that are typically bound together in an object, such as line orientations, is unclear. In two experiments, with or without binding instructions, healthy young adults maintained two orientations, focused attention to recall the orientation cued first, and then switched attention to recall the orientation cued second, at which point the uncued orientation was no longer relevant on the trial. In contrast to the active-deletion hypothesis, the results showed that the no-longer-relevant items exerted the strongest bias on participants' recall, which was either repulsive or attractive depending on both the degree of difference between the target and nontarget orientations and the proximity to cardinal axes. We suggest that visual WM can bind features like line orientations into chunked representations, and an irrelevant feature of a chunked object cannot be actively deleted - it biases recall of the target feature. Models of WM need to be updated to explain this and related dynamic phenomena.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua P Rhilinger
- University of Notre Dame, 390 Corbett Family Hall, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
| | - Chenlingxi Xu
- University of Notre Dame, 390 Corbett Family Hall, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
| | - Nathan S Rose
- University of Notre Dame, 390 Corbett Family Hall, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Liu R, Guo L, Sun HJ, Parviainen T, Zhou Z, Cheng Y, Liu Q, Ye C. Sustained attention required for effective dimension-based retro-cue benefit in visual working memory. J Vis 2023; 23:13. [PMID: 37191630 DOI: 10.1167/jov.23.5.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In visual working memory (VWM) tasks, participants' performances can be improved through the use of dimension-based retro-cues, which direct internal attention to prioritize a particular dimension (e.g., color or orientation) of VWM representations even after the stimuli disappear. This phenomenon is known as the dimension-based retro-cue benefit (RCB). The present study investigates whether sustained attention is required for the dimension-based RCB by inserting interference or interruption between the retro-cue and the test array to distract attention. We tested the effects of perceptual interference or cognitive interruption on dimension-based RCB when the interference (Experiments 1 and 2 with masks) or interruption (Experiments 3 and 4 with an odd-even task) occurred concurrently with the stages for the maintenance of prioritized information (long cue-and-interference/interruption interstimulus interval, e.g., Experiments 1 and 3) or the deployment of attention (short cue-and-interference/interruption interstimulus interval, e.g., Experiments 2 and 4). Our results demonstrate that perceptual interference or cognitive interruption attenuates the dimension-based RCB. These findings suggest that sustained attention is necessary for the effective prioritization of a specific dimension of VWM representations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruyi Liu
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China
- https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3416-6159
| | - Lijing Guo
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
- https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2106-0198
| | - Hong-Jin Sun
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Tiina Parviainen
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
- https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6992-5157
| | - Zifang Zhou
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuxin Cheng
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qiang Liu
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China
| | - Chaoxiong Ye
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behaviour, McMaster University ,Hamilton, Canada
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
- https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8301-7582
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Jeanneret S, Bartsch LM, Vergauwe E. To be or not to be relevant: Comparing short- and long-term consequences across working memory prioritization procedures. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023:10.3758/s13414-023-02706-4. [PMID: 37127814 PMCID: PMC10151114 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02706-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Priority-based allocation of attentional resources has shown robust effects in working memory (WM) with both cue-based and reward-based prioritization. However, direct comparisons between these effects in WM are needed. Additionally, the consequences of WM prioritization for remembering in the long term remain unclear for both prioritization procedures. Here, we tested and compared the immediate and long-term memory (LTM) effects of cue-based versus reward-based retrospective prioritization of WM content. Participants encoded four memory items and were then indicated to prioritize one of the items through the presentation of either a retro-cue or a reward pattern. We then tested their immediate and delayed memory. The results of the first experiment showed better memory for prioritized than for unprioritized information in WM and LTM, but the WM effect was driven solely by the retro-cue, making it difficult to interpret any reward-based effects in LTM. In the second experiment, using a more explicit and meaningful reward-based manipulation, the results showed a prioritization benefit in WM for both prioritization procedures. In LTM, however, the prioritization effect was predominantly driven by the retro-cue manipulation. Taken together, we found that (1) the way in which attention is directed in WM impacts the size of the prioritization benefit in WM, (2) WM prioritization generally results in a prioritization effect in LTM, and (3) that the effect in LTM is more robust for cue-based prioritization. Exploratory analyses indicated that the LTM effect of cue-based prioritization reflected a cost in performance for noncued items rather than a benefit for cued items.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Jeanneret
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Lea M Bartsch
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Evie Vergauwe
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Simeon D, Knutelska M. Depersonalization Disorder: Directed Forgetting as a Function of Emotionality. J Trauma Dissociation 2023; 24:241-251. [PMID: 36271703 DOI: 10.1080/15299732.2022.2136328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
There exists some evidence for a link between dissociation and emotionally avoidant information processing, yet studies to date have been contradictory. Our goal was to investigate emotionally avoidant processing in Depersonalization Disorder (DDD) using a directed forgetting (DF) paradigm. Thirty-two participants with DSM-IV DDD and 40 healthy controls performed an item-method DF task using positive, negative, and neutral words. Participants were also administered the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). The DDD group demonstrated significantly lower directed forgetting for negative, but not positive or neutral, words compared to controls. In the combined sample, DES total, depersonalization/derealization, and amnesia scores significantly inversely predicted explicit cued recall for to-be-forgotten negative words (higher dissociation, lower forgetting), while the CTQ was not predictive. The findings do not support emotionally avoidant processing in this paradigm; rather, DDD may be characterized by a diminished capacity to actively control attention and direct it away from emotionally disturbing material when instructed to do so.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daphne Simeon
- From the Department of Psychiatry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, N.y, USA
| | - Margaret Knutelska
- From the Department of Psychiatry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, N.y, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Interference between items stored for distinct tasks in visual working memory. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023:10.3758/s13414-023-02657-w. [PMID: 36720779 PMCID: PMC10372107 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02657-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The action perspective on working memory suggests that memory representations are coded according to their specific temporal and behavioral task demands. This stands in contrast to theories that assume representations are stored in a task-agnostic format within a "common workspace". Here, we tested whether visual items that are memorized for different tasks are stored separately from one another or show evidence of inter-item interference during concurrent maintenance, indicating a common storage. In two experiments, we combined a framing memory task (memorize a motion direction for continuous direction report) with an embedded memory task (memorize a motion direction for a binary direction discrimination) that was placed within the retention period of the framing task. Even though the temporal and action demands were item specific, we observed two types of interference effects between the items: The embedded motion direction was (1) repulsed away and (2) degraded in precision by the motion direction of the item in the framing task. Repulsion and precision degradation increased with item similarity when both items were concurrently held in working memory. In contrast, perceptual and iconic memory control conditions revealed weaker repulsion overall and no interference effect on precision during the stimulus processing stages prior to working memory consolidation. Thus, additional inter-item interference arose uniquely within working memory. Together, our results present evidence that items that are stored for distinct tasks to be performed at distinct points in time, reside in a common workspace in working memory.
Collapse
|
25
|
Kenderla P, Kibbe MM. Explore versus store: Children strategically trade off reliance on exploration versus working memory during a complex task. J Exp Child Psychol 2023; 225:105535. [PMID: 36041236 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
During complex tasks, we use working memory to actively maintain goal sets and direct attention toward goal-relevant information in the environment. However, working memory is severely limited, and storing information in working memory is cognitively effortful. Previous work by Kibbe and Kowler [2011, Journal of Vision, 11(3), Article 14] showed that adults strategically modulate reliance on working memory during complex, goal-oriented tasks, varying the amount of information they store in working memory depending both on the cognitive demands of the task and on the ease with which task-relevant information can be accessed from the environment. We asked whether children, whose working memory and executive functions are undergoing significant developmental change, also use working memory strategically during complex tasks. Forty-six 8-10-year-old children searched through arrays of hidden objects to find three that belonged to a given category defined over the objects' features. We manipulated the cognitive demands of the task by increasing the complexity of the category. We manipulated the exploration costs of the task by varying the rate at which task-relevant information could be accessed. We measured children's search patterns to gain insights into how the children used working memory during the task. We found that as the cognitive demands of the task increased, children stored less information in working memory, relying more on exploration. When exploration was costlier, children explored less, storing more in working memory. These results suggest that developing children, like adults, make strategic decisions about when to explore versus when to store during a complex, goal-oriented task.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Praveen Kenderla
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Melissa M Kibbe
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA; Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Updating, Fast and Slow: Items, but Not Item-Context Bindings, are Quickly Updated Into Working Memory as Part of Response Selection. J Cogn 2023; 6:11. [PMID: 36721798 PMCID: PMC9854283 DOI: 10.5334/joc.257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
It is commonly held that attending to items facilitates their encoding into working memory (WM). This implies that the content of WM is updated with new input as a consequence of directing attention to it. On the other hand, abundant research shows that WM updating is rather slow and effortful, suggesting that shielding WM representation against incoming input, rather than its updating, is the default. To resolve this discrepancy, we suggest that while updating item-to-context associations is costly, updating a single item is fast and is automatically carried out as part of directing attention to items, for example as part of response selection. Participants performed a choice-RT task, in which stimuli appeared within frames, and needed to update their WM with the most recent red item that appeared in each frame. The need for updating was manipulated, so that some trials required updating and others did not. Experiment 1 (N = 25) showed that updating was slower than not updating with a set-size of two items, that required item-context binding, but faster when the set-size only involved one item. Experiment 2 (N = 28) replicated this finding. Experiment 3 (N = 20) showed that the slower no-update RTs are due to the removal of erroneously updated information. In contrast to previous findings, these results suggest that updating can be effortless and obligatory.
Collapse
|
27
|
Zhang Y, Boemo T, Qiao Z, Tan Y, Li X. Distinct Effects of Anxiety and Depression on Updating Emotional Information in Working Memory. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 20:544. [PMID: 36612866 PMCID: PMC9819093 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20010544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Anxiety and depression have been shown to negatively influence the processing of emotional information in working memory. However, most studies have examined anxiety-related or depression-related working memory deficits independently, without considering their high co-morbidity. We tested the effects of emotional valence on working memory performance among healthy young adults with varying levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms. Ninety young adults aged between 18-24 (51 female) completed an emotional 2-back task in which positive, negative, and neutral images were presented. Multi-level modeling was used to examine anxiety and depressive symptoms as predictors of response accuracy and latency across the three emotional valence conditions. The results showed that participants responded to negative images with the highest accuracy and to positive images with the lowest accuracy. Both negative and positive images elicited slower responses than neutral images. Importantly, we found that more severe anxiety symptoms predicted a smaller difference in response accuracy between negative and neutral stimuli, whereas more severe depressive symptoms predicted a larger updating reaction time difference between positive and neutral stimuli. These findings demonstrated the uniquely anxiety-related deficits in processing negative contents and the uniquely depression-related deficits in updating positive contents in working memory, thus highlighting the necessity of novel cognitive bias modification interventions targeting the anxiety-specific and depression-specific deficits in working memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
- Key Laboratory of Human Development and Mental Health of Hubei Province, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Teresa Boemo
- Faculty of Psychology, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Zhiling Qiao
- Department of Neuroscience, Research Group Psychiatry, Center for Clinical Psychiatry, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Yafei Tan
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
- Key Laboratory of Human Development and Mental Health of Hubei Province, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Xu Li
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430070, China
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
- Key Laboratory of Human Development and Mental Health of Hubei Province, Wuhan 430079, China
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Li Y, Cowan N. Constraints of attention, stimulus modality, and feature similarity in working memory. Atten Percept Psychophys 2022; 84:2519-2539. [PMID: 36123501 PMCID: PMC10039417 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-022-02549-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Two of the most important concepts in working memory that differentiate many theories are the role of attention and similarity between items. Investigators have debated whether there is a central, general resource of attention, and whether interference between items depends mostly on their modality and type of code (i.e., verbal/acoustic versus visual/spatial coding) or upon multiple dimensions of feature similarity even within a modality. Here, we examine results from three experiments in which the features of items to be remembered differed for visual objects in color or orientation, or for acoustic objects in noise duration or tone pitch. There were one or two of these sets on a trial and, when there were two sets, the similarity between their features varied: there were sets in different modalities, sets with different feature types within a modality, or sets of the same feature type. One-set trials consistently produced superior performance. For two-set trials, dissimilarity of the sets mattered only when both sets had to be attended, compared with attention to only one set. Feature differences within a modality mattered at least as much as between-modality differences. The findings conflict with what would be expected if modality were the sole organizing principle and support a working memory model in which a capacity-limited attention is constrained by the feature similarity of task-relevant items.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Li
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA.
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, McAlester Hall, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.
| | - Nelson Cowan
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, McAlester Hall, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Working memory is updated by reallocation of resources from obsolete to new items. Atten Percept Psychophys 2022:10.3758/s13414-022-02584-2. [PMID: 36253588 PMCID: PMC7614821 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-022-02584-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Visual working memory (VWM) resources are limited, placing constraints on how much visual information can be simultaneously retained. During visually guided activity, stored information can quickly become outdated, so updating mechanisms are needed to ensure the contents of memory remain relevant to current task goals. In particular, successful deallocation of resources from items that become obsolete is likely to be critical for maintaining the precision of those representations still in memory. The experiments in this study involved presenting two memory arrays of coloured disks in sequence. The appearance of the second array was a cue to replace, rehearse, or add a new colour to the colours in memory. We predicted that successful resource reallocation should result in comparable recall precision when an item was replaced or rehearsed, owing to the removal of pre-replacement features. In contrast, a failure to update WM should lead to comparable precision with a condition in which a new colour was added to memory. We identified a very small proportion (∼5%) of trials in which participants incorrectly reported a feature from the first array in place of its replacement in the second, which we interpreted as a failure to incorporate the information from the second display into memory. Once these trials were discounted, precision estimates were consistent with complete redistribution of resources in the case of updating a single item. We conclude that working memory can be efficiently updated when previous information becomes obsolete, but that this is a demanding active process that occasionally fails.
Collapse
|
30
|
Task cues are quickly updated into working memory as part of their processing: The multiple-cue task-switching paradigm. Psychon Bull Rev 2022; 30:643-651. [PMID: 36138283 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-022-02186-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Goal-directed behavior requires maintaining the relevant goal in working memory (WM) and using it to guide behavior. The contents of WM should be regulated, so only relevant goals, but not irrelevant ones, are maintained. Computational models suggest that a gate, which is closed by default, separates WM from perceptual input. Transient opening of the gate enables WM updating. Indeed, previous studies show that updating WM with relevant information is controlled, effortful, and slow. In contrast to the above, here we show that WM updating with goal information is faster and more accurate than not updating. A multiple-cue task-switching paradigm is introduced. Participants were presented with a sequence of task cues, followed by a single probe. They needed to respond to each cue using its corresponding key. The cues were presented in red or blue. When the probe appeared, participants had to judge it using the task cued by the most recent red (but not blue) cue. Accordingly, they had to update their WM when the cue appeared in red, but not when it was blue (the color mapping was counterbalanced in Experiment 2). In two experiments, we show that performance in update trials was faster and more accurate than in no-update trials, suggesting that updating, rather than not-updating, is the default mode of operation.
Collapse
|
31
|
No evidence that the retro-cue benefit requires reallocation of memory resources. Cognition 2022; 229:105230. [PMID: 36007468 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Selective mechanisms allow us to prioritize items held in working memory. Does this reflect reallocation of working memory resources? We examined a critical prediction of this account-that reallocating more resources from one item to another should provide a greater benefit. We used a reward manipulation to create variable allocation of resources. Subsequently, a retro-cue instructed participants to drop a memory item. This retro-cue improved performance for the prioritized items relative to a neutral baseline. However, in contrast to the prevailing reallocation account, we found no difference between dropping a higher versus lower reward item. Importantly, removal of high versus low reward items led to better encoding of subsequently presented items, demonstrating that our reward manipulation was successful. While allocation of resources can influence the encoding and storage of new information into working memory, reallocation does not appear to be essential for selection effects in working memory.
Collapse
|
32
|
The Influence of Active Removal from Working Memory on Serial Dependence. J Cogn 2022; 5:31. [PMID: 36072093 PMCID: PMC9400626 DOI: 10.5334/joc.222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Flexible control of the contents of working memory (WM) includes removing no-longer-relevant information. Although simply withdrawing attention offers a “passive” mechanism, empirical findings suggest that it is also possible to actively remove information from WM. In this Registered Report we tested evidence that the bias (serial dependence) that an item exerts on the subsequent trial will be opposite in sign—attraction vs. repulsion — depending on whether it was passively or actively removed, respectively. A repulsive bias would be consistent with a specific mechanism for active removal: a rapid adaptation-like modification of perceptual circuitry. In a preliminary study, trials of two types were administered in pairs, multi-item WM followed by 1-item delayed recall, and we evaluated serial dependence of the latter on items from the former. In the first trial of each pair, two memoranda were presented, then one was designated irrelevant, then a third memorandum was presented. The critical manipulation was whether the third item was presented at the same location as the now “irrelevant memory item” (IMI). Overlap between the two should prompt the active removal of the IMI, whereas nonoverlap might prompt just the withdrawal of attention. Whereas the IMI exerted the expected attractive bias on 1-item recall in the no-overlap condition, we found an (unexpected) repulsive bias in the overlap condition. Because repulsive biases have been attributed to the adaptation-like modification of perceptual circuitry, replication of this result in this Registered Report would provide independent evidence for this mechanism for active removal from WM. Interpretation of the Stage 2 results are complicated by the fact that the approved Registered Report, carried out online, generated data that failed to meet a basic sanity check, and were therefore uninterpretable. Consequently, a follow-up lab-based experiment using procedures similar to the Registered Report generated results consistent with the hypothesis of principal theoretical interest: The IMI in the overlap condition exerted a repulsive bias on the subsequent trial.
Collapse
|
33
|
Liang W, Brown CA, Shinn-Cunningham BG. Cat-astrophic effects of sudden interruptions on spatial auditory attention. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2022; 151:3219. [PMID: 35649920 PMCID: PMC9113758 DOI: 10.1121/10.0010453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Salient interruptions draw attention involuntarily. Here, we explored whether this effect depends on the spatial and temporal relationships between a target stream and interrupter. In a series of online experiments, listeners focused spatial attention on a target stream of spoken syllables in the presence of an otherwise identical distractor stream from the opposite hemifield. On some random trials, an interrupter (a cat "MEOW") occurred. Experiment 1 established that the interrupter, which occurred randomly in 25% of the trials in the hemifield opposite the target, degraded target recall. Moreover, a majority of participants exhibited this degradation for the first target syllable, which finished before the interrupter began. Experiment 2 showed that the effect of an interrupter was similar whether it occurred in the opposite or the same hemifield as the target. Experiment 3 found that the interrupter degraded performance slightly if it occurred before the target stream began but had no effect if it began after the target stream ended. Experiment 4 showed decreased interruption effects when the interruption frequency increased (50% of the trials). These results demonstrate that a salient interrupter disrupts recall of a target stream, regardless of its direction, especially if it occurs during a target stream.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wusheng Liang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
| | - Christopher A Brown
- Department of Communication Science and Disorders, The University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
González-Palau F, Medrano LA. A Mini-Review of Work Stress and Mindfulness: A Neuropsychological Point of View. Front Psychol 2022; 13:854204. [PMID: 35496192 PMCID: PMC9051328 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.854204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Work stress is consistently linked with the deterioration of cognitive and mental health, limitations in everyday workplace performance, and an increased risk of developing diseases. A common thread binding these consequences appears to be stress-associated alterations in neuropsychological functions and affective domains, especially those reliant on hippocampal, prefrontal, and amygdala brain area. Although research broadly supports the claim that the practice of mindfulness meditation for the reduction of the consequences of stress and the promotion of health exert positive effects on workplaces, the precise neuropsychological benefits of Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) in the context of organizations remain elusive. In this review, we will analyze the impairments imposed by stress on the brain areas and functions and the benefits of MBIs from a neuropsychological point of view. This is significant since there is a centrality of cognitive functions in core processes necessary for work achievements, such as emotion regulation, problem-solving, and learning. The promotion of wellbeing is a responsibility shared between workers and organizations. Developing healthy environments allows workers to exercise greater control over their work, face work challenges, work productively and develop their talent.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fátima González-Palau
- Instituto de Organizaciones Saludables, Universidad Siglo 21, Córdoba, Argentina
- Neurorehabilitation Unit, Neurology Service, Sanatorio Allende Cerro Hospital, Córdoba, Argentina
- *Correspondence: Fátima González-Palau,
| | - Leonardo Adrián Medrano
- Instituto de Organizaciones Saludables, Universidad Siglo 21, Córdoba, Argentina
- Vicerrectoria de Investigación, Pontifica Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
The presence of a distractor matching the content of working memory induces delayed quitting in visual search. Atten Percept Psychophys 2022; 84:760-770. [PMID: 35359229 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-022-02477-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has shown that the presence of a distractor object matching the current content of working memory interacts with visual search. Because finding a target and quitting a search without finding a target may be implemented by qualitatively different processes, it is possible that the effects of a memory-matching distractor on target-present trials and on target-absent trials reveal different mechanisms by which the memory-matching distractor interacts with visual search. Although previous studies have well established the effect of attentional capture by a memory-matching distractor when the target object is found in the search display, there remains an open question about whether the presence of a memory-matching distractor can affect the process of search termination when no target is found. In the present study, we showed that search termination times on target-absent trials were delayed by the presence of a distractor matching the content of visual working memory. This delayed quitting effect cannot be conceived of as a more general influence of visual short-term memory, because the presence of a distractor matching the content of passive visual short-term memory (i.e., visual priming) did not influence quitting behavior in visual search. These findings offer a novel perspective that distractors matching the information maintained in visual working memory can cause observers to delay search termination when no target has been found.
Collapse
|
36
|
Tracking attentional states: Assessing the relationship between sustained and selective focused attention in visual working memory. Atten Percept Psychophys 2022; 84:715-738. [PMID: 35297019 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-021-02394-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Attention has multiple influences on visual working memory (VWM). Fluctuations in sustained attention predict VWM performance. Furthermore, focusing selective attention in VWM by retro-cuing the to-be-tested item during maintenance boosts retrieval. So far, we lack knowledge how the ability to focus selective attention relates to the state of sustained attention during the VWM trial. Here, we combined a retro-cue task and a self-rated attention protocol to test whether focusing selective attention via retro-cues: (1) mitigates spontaneous attention fluctuations, in which case retro-cues should be more helpful under low levels of self-rated attention; (2) depends on an optimal state of sustained attention, in which case retro-cue benefits should be largest under high levels of self-rated attention; or (3) is independent of sustained attention, in which case retro-cue benefits and self-rated attention effects should be additive. Our data supported the additive hypothesis. Across four experiments, self-rated attention levels predicted continuous reproduction of colors. Retro-cue trials produced better recall and higher rated attention. Critically, retro-cues improved recall to a similar extent across all levels of self-rated attention. This indicates that attention has multi-faceted and independent contributions to VWM.
Collapse
|
37
|
Lei H, Haney S, Jernigan CM, Guo X, Cook CN, Bazhenov M, Smith BH. Novelty detection in early olfactory processing of the honey bee, Apis mellifera. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0265009. [PMID: 35353837 PMCID: PMC8967009 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals are constantly bombarded with stimuli, which presents a fundamental problem of sorting among pervasive uninformative stimuli and novel, possibly meaningful stimuli. We evaluated novelty detection behaviorally in honey bees as they position their antennae differentially in an air stream carrying familiar or novel odors. We then characterized neuronal responses to familiar and novel odors in the first synaptic integration center in the brain-the antennal lobes. We found that the neurons that exhibited stronger initial responses to the odor that was to be familiarized are the same units that later distinguish familiar and novel odors, independently of chemical identities. These units, including both tentative projection neurons and local neurons, showed a decreased response to the familiar odor but an increased response to the novel odor. Our results suggest that the antennal lobe may represent familiarity or novelty to an odor stimulus in addition to its chemical identity code. Therefore, the mechanisms for novelty detection may be present in early sensory processing, either as a result of local synaptic interaction or via feedback from higher brain centers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Lei
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States of America
| | - Seth Haney
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA, United States of America
| | | | - Xiaojiao Guo
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States of America
| | - Chelsea N. Cook
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States of America
| | - Maxim Bazhenov
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA, United States of America
| | - Brian H. Smith
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Hartmann EM, Gade M, Steinhauser M. Adaptive control of working memory. Cognition 2022; 224:105053. [PMID: 35217261 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The present study investigated mechanisms of adaptive cognitive control in working memory (WM). WM is conceived as a system for short-term maintenance, updating and manipulation of representations required for goal-directed action. Adaptive control refers to the finding of flexible adjustments of control processes based on conflict. For instance, a higher frequency of incongruent stimuli, that is, stimuli evoking conflicting response tendencies, leads to a higher level of cognitive control as reflected by smaller congruency effects (i.e., the difference between congruent and incongruent items). Likewise, conflict on the previous trial leads to a higher level of cognitive control on the current trial. To investigate adaptive control in WM, we used a modified Sternberg paradigm. Participants memorized two differently colored lists of four digits (i.e., 2 5 7 1), in which corresponding positions in both lists contained the same digits (congruent items) or different digits (incongruent items). Participants were required to make a match/mismatch judgement (Experiment 1 and 2) or to recollect the correct digit at a probed position in one of the two lists (Experiment 3). In all experiments, we could replicate both hallmark effects of adaptive control, the proportion congruency effect, and the congruency sequence effect. Our results strongly support the assumption that WM representations can be dynamically adapted based on the amount of conflict, and that adaptive control of WM follows the same principles that have previously been shown for selective attention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva-Maria Hartmann
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Germany.
| | - Miriam Gade
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Germany; Department of Sciences, Medical School Berlin, Germany
| | - Marco Steinhauser
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Zhang M, McNab F, Smallwood J, Jefferies E. OUP accepted manuscript. Cereb Cortex 2022; 32:3959-3974. [PMID: 35088083 PMCID: PMC9476615 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Working memory (WM) allows goal-relevant information to be encoded and maintained in mind, even when the contents of WM are incongruent with the immediate environment. While regions of heteromodal cortex are important for WM, the neural mechanisms that relate to individual differences in the encoding and maintenance of goal-relevant information remain unclear. Here, we used behavioral correlates of two large-scale heteromodal networks at rest, the default mode (DMN) and frontoparietal (FPN) networks, to understand their contributions to distinct features of WM. We assessed each individual’s ability to resist distracting information during the encoding and maintenance phases of a visuospatial WM task. Individuals with stronger connectivity of DMN with medial visual and retrosplenial cortex were less affected by encoding distraction. Conversely, weaker connectivity of both DMN and FPN with visual regions was associated with better WM performance when target information was no longer in the environment and distractors were presented in the maintenance phase. Our study suggests that stronger coupling between heteromodal cortex and visual–spatial regions supports WM encoding by reducing the influence of concurrently presented distractors, while weaker visual coupling is associated with better maintenance of goal-relevant information because it relates to the capacity to ignore task-irrelevant changes in the environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meichao Zhang
- Address correspondence to M. Zhang, Department of Psychology, The University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK. ; E. Jefferies, Department of Psychology, The University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK.
| | - Fiona McNab
- Department of Psychology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Jonathan Smallwood
- Department of Psychology, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Jefferies
- Address correspondence to M. Zhang, Department of Psychology, The University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK. ; E. Jefferies, Department of Psychology, The University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Fu Y, Zhou Y, Zhou J, Shen M, Chen H. More attention with less working memory: The active inhibition of attended but outdated information. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabj4985. [PMID: 34797712 PMCID: PMC8604409 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abj4985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Attention has traditionally been regarded as a gateway to working memory, and almost all theoretical frameworks of attention and working memory assume that individuals always have a better memory for information that has received more attention. Here, we provide a series of counterintuitive demonstrations that show that paying more attention to a piece of information impedes, rather than enhances, the selection of this information into working memory. Experiments 1 to 5 provide converging evidence for an even weaker working memory trace of fully attended but outdated features, compared with baseline irrelevant features that were completely ignored. This indicates that the brain actively inhibits attended but outdated information to prevent it from entering working memory. Experiment 6 demonstrates that this inhibition processing is subject to executive control. These findings lead to a substantial reinterpretation of the relationship between attention and working memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jifan Zhou
- Corresponding author. (H.C.); (J.Z.); (M.S.)
| | - Mowei Shen
- Corresponding author. (H.C.); (J.Z.); (M.S.)
| | - Hui Chen
- Corresponding author. (H.C.); (J.Z.); (M.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
White PA. The extended present: an informational context for perception. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2021; 220:103403. [PMID: 34454251 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Several previous authors have proposed a kind of specious or subjective present moment that covers a few seconds of recent information. This article proposes a new hypothesis about the subjective present, renamed the extended present, defined not in terms of time covered but as a thematically connected information structure held in working memory and in transiently accessible form in long-term memory. The three key features of the extended present are that information in it is thematically connected, both internally and to current attended perceptual input, it is organised in a hierarchical structure, and all information in it is marked with temporal information, specifically ordinal and duration information. Temporal boundaries to the information structure are determined by hierarchical structure processing and by limits on processing and storage capacity. Supporting evidence for the importance of hierarchical structure analysis is found in the domains of music perception, speech and language processing, perception and production of goal-directed action, and exact arithmetical calculation. Temporal information marking is also discussed and a possible mechanism for representing ordinal and duration information on the time scale of the extended present is proposed. It is hypothesised that the extended present functions primarily as an informational context for making sense of current perceptual input, and as an enabler for perception and generation of complex structures and operations in language, action, music, exact calculation, and other domains.
Collapse
|
42
|
Roberts H, Mostazir M, Moberly NJ, Watkins ER, Adlam AL. Working memory updating training reduces state repetitive negative thinking: Proof-of-concept for a novel cognitive control training. Behav Res Ther 2021; 142:103871. [PMID: 34004447 PMCID: PMC8214071 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2021.103871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Repetitive negative thinking (RNT) is a proximal risk factor implicated in the onset and maintenance of common mental health problems such as depression and anxiety. Adolescence may be a key developmental window in which to target RNT and prevent the emergence of such disorders. Impairments in updating the contents of working memory are hypothesised to causally contribute to RNT, and some theorists have suggested these difficulties may be specific to the manipulation of negative information. The present study compared the effects of computerised adaptive working memory updating training (in which the task becomes more difficult as performance improves) to a non-adaptive control task in reducing levels of RNT. 124 healthy young people were randomised to 20 sessions of (i) working memory updating training using neutral stimuli, (ii) working memory updating training using negative stimuli, or (iii) non-adaptive working memory updating training. Adaptive working memory updating training using neutral, but not negative, stimuli resulted in significant improvements to working memory updating for negative material, as assessed using an unpractised task, and significant reductions in susceptibility to state RNT. These findings demonstrate proof-of-concept that working memory updating training has the potential to reduce susceptibility to episodes of state RNT.
Collapse
|
43
|
Rac-Lubashevsky R, Frank MJ. Analogous computations in working memory input, output and motor gating: Electrophysiological and computational modeling evidence. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1008971. [PMID: 34097689 PMCID: PMC8211210 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Adaptive cognitive-control involves a hierarchical cortico-striatal gating system that supports selective updating, maintenance, and retrieval of useful cognitive and motor information. Here, we developed a task that independently manipulates selective gating operations into working-memory (input gating), from working-memory (output gating), and of responses (motor gating) and tested the neural dynamics and computational principles that support them. Increases in gating demands, captured by gate switches, were expressed by distinct EEG correlates at each gating level that evolved dynamically in partially overlapping time windows. Further, categorical representations of specific maintained items and of motor responses could be decoded from EEG when the corresponding gate was switching, thereby linking gating operations to prioritization. Finally, gate switching at all levels was related to increases in the motor decision threshold as quantified by the drift diffusion model. Together these results support the notion that cognitive gating operations scaffold on top of mechanisms involved in motor gating.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Rac-Lubashevsky
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic & Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
- Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Michael J. Frank
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic & Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
- Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Trutti AC, Verschooren S, Forstmann BU, Boag RJ. Understanding subprocesses of working memory through the lens of model-based cognitive neuroscience. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
45
|
Lintz EN, Johnson MR. Refreshing and removing items in working memory: Different approaches to equivalent processes? Cognition 2021; 211:104655. [PMID: 33756245 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Researchers have investigated "refreshing" of items in working memory (WM) as a means of preserving them, while concurrently, other studies have examined "removal" of items from WM that are irrelevant. However, it is unclear whether refreshing and removal in WM truly represent different processes, or if participants, in an effort to avoid the to-be-removed items, simply refresh alternative items. We conducted two experiments to test whether these putative processes can be distinguished from one another. Participants were presented with sets of three words and then cued to either refresh one item or remove two items from WM, followed by a lexical decision probe containing either one of the just-seen words or a non-word. In Experiment 1, all probes were valid and in Experiment 2, probes were occasionally invalid (the probed word was one of the removed/non-refreshed items). In both experiments, participants also received a subsequent surprise long-term memory test. Results from both experiments suggested the expected advantages for refreshed (or non-removed) items in both short-term response time and long-term recognition, but no differences between refresh and remove instructions that would suggest a fundamental difference in processes. Thus, we argue that a functional distinction between refreshing and removal may not be necessary and propose that both of these putative processes could potentially be subsumed under an overarching conceptual perspective based on the flexible reallocation of mental or reflective attention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Evan N Lintz
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, United States of America.
| | - Matthew R Johnson
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Lorenc ES, Mallett R, Lewis-Peacock JA. Distraction in Visual Working Memory: Resistance is Not Futile. Trends Cogn Sci 2021; 25:228-239. [PMID: 33397602 PMCID: PMC7878345 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2020.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Over half a century of research focused on understanding how working memory is capacity constrained has overshadowed the fact that it is also remarkably resistant to interference. Protecting goal-relevant information from distraction is a cornerstone of cognitive function that involves a multifaceted collection of control processes and storage mechanisms. Here, we discuss recent advances in cognitive psychology and neuroscience that have produced new insights into the nature of visual working memory and its ability to resist distraction. We propose that distraction resistance should be an explicit component in any model of working memory and that understanding its behavioral and neural correlates is essential for building a comprehensive understanding of real-world memory function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth S Lorenc
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
| | - Remington Mallett
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Kim H, Smolker HR, Smith LL, Banich MT, Lewis-Peacock JA. Changes to information in working memory depend on distinct removal operations. Nat Commun 2020; 11:6239. [PMID: 33288756 PMCID: PMC7721711 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20085-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Holding information in working memory is essential for cognition, but removing unwanted thoughts is equally important. Here we use multivariate pattern analyses of brain activity to demonstrate the successful manipulation and removal of information from working memory using different strategies including suppressing a specific thought, replacing a thought with a different one, and clearing the mind of all thought. These strategies are supported by distinct brain regions and have differential consequences for allowing new information to be encoded.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyojeong Kim
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78701, USA
| | - Harry R Smolker
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Louisa L Smith
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Marie T Banich
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Festini SB. Directed forgetting instructions decrease proactive interference within working memory below that of a baseline encode-only condition. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2020.1822850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara B. Festini
- Department of Psychology, University of Tampa, Tampa, FL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Nir-Cohen G, Kessler Y, Egner T. Neural Substrates of Working Memory Updating. J Cogn Neurosci 2020; 32:2285-2302. [PMID: 32897122 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Working memory (WM) needs to protect current content from interference and simultaneously be amenable to rapid updating with newly relevant information. An influential model suggests these opposing requirements are met via a BG-thalamus gating mechanism that allows for selective updating of PFC WM representations. A large neuroimaging literature supports the general involvement of PFC, BG, and thalamus, as well as posterior parietal cortex, in WM. However, the specific functional contributions of these regions to key subprocesses of WM updating, namely, gate opening, content substitution, and gate closing, are still unknown, as common WM tasks conflate these processes. We therefore combined fMRI with the reference-back task, specifically designed to tease apart these subprocesses. Participants compared externally presented face stimuli to a reference face held in WM, while alternating between updating and maintaining this reference, resulting in opening versus closing the gate to WM. Gate opening and substitution processes were associated with strong BG, thalamic, and frontoparietal activation, but intriguingly, the same activity profile was observed for sensory cortex supporting task stimulus processing (i.e., the fusiform face area). In contrast, gate closing was not reliably associated with any of these regions. These findings provide new support for the involvement of the BG in gate opening, as suggested by the gating model, but qualify the model's assumptions by demonstrating that gate closing does not seem to depend on the BG and that gate opening also involves task-relevant sensory cortex.
Collapse
|
50
|
Klatt LI, Getzmann S, Begau A, Schneider D. A dual mechanism underlying retroactive shifts of auditory spatial attention: dissociating target- and distractor-related modulations of alpha lateralization. Sci Rep 2020; 10:13860. [PMID: 32807850 PMCID: PMC7431585 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70004-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Attention can be allocated to mental representations to select information from working memory. To date, it remains ambiguous whether such retroactive shifts of attention involve the inhibition of irrelevant information or the prioritization of relevant information. Investigating asymmetries in posterior alpha-band oscillations during an auditory retroactive cueing task, we aimed at differentiating those mechanisms. Participants were cued to attend two out of three sounds in an upcoming sound array. Importantly, the resulting working memory representation contained one laterally and one centrally presented item. A centrally presented retro-cue then indicated the lateral, the central, or both items as further relevant for the task (comparing the cued item(s) to a memory probe). Time–frequency analysis revealed opposing patterns of alpha lateralization depending on target eccentricity: A contralateral decrease in alpha power in target lateral trials indicated the involvement of target prioritization. A contralateral increase in alpha power when the central item remained relevant (distractor lateral trials) suggested the de-prioritization of irrelevant information. No lateralization was observed when both items remained relevant, supporting the notion that auditory alpha lateralization is restricted to situations in which spatial information is task-relevant. Altogether, the data demonstrate that retroactive attentional deployment involves excitatory and inhibitory control mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura-Isabelle Klatt
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Ardeystraße 67, 44139, Dortmund, Germany.
| | - Stephan Getzmann
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Ardeystraße 67, 44139, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Alexandra Begau
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Ardeystraße 67, 44139, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Daniel Schneider
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Ardeystraße 67, 44139, Dortmund, Germany
| |
Collapse
|