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Caputo V, Libera M, Sisti S, Giuliani B, Diotti RA, Criscuolo E. The initial interplay between HIV and mucosal innate immunity. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1104423. [PMID: 36798134 PMCID: PMC9927018 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1104423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is still one of the major global health issues, and despite significant efforts that have been put into studying the pathogenesis of HIV infection, several aspects need to be clarified, including how innate immunity acts in different anatomical compartments. Given the nature of HIV as a sexually transmitted disease, one of the aspects that demands particular attention is the mucosal innate immune response. Given this scenario, we focused our attention on the interplay between HIV and mucosal innate response: the different mucosae act as a physical barrier, whose integrity can be compromised by the infection, and the virus-cell interaction induces the innate immune response. In addition, we explored the role of the mucosal microbiota in facilitating or preventing HIV infection and highlighted how its changes could influence the development of several opportunistic infections. Although recent progress, a proper characterization of mucosal innate immune response and microbiota is still missing, and further studies are needed to understand how they can be helpful for the formulation of an effective vaccine.
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Stage II and stage III periodontitis clinical burdens of HIV-1 undergoing antiretroviral therapy. Clin Oral Investig 2021; 26:2187-2195. [PMID: 34601633 PMCID: PMC8487450 DOI: 10.1007/s00784-021-04201-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Objectives The aim of this retrospective cross-sectional study was to estimate the association of HIV-1 infection under highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) on the clinical parameters of periodontitis. Materials and methods A total of 205 patients were divided in two groups: 74 HIV + and 131 HIV − . Periodontal probing depth (PPD), clinical attachment loss (CAL), bleeding on probing (BOP), and visible supragingival biofilm (VSB) were recorded. The association of HIV-1 infection with the presence of at least 3 sites with PPD ≥ 5 mm and/or CAL ≥ 4 mm in non-adjacent teeth was estimated using binary logistic regression models. Results The variables HIV-1 infection (OR = 5.53, p < 0.0001, 95% CI: 2.45–13.64), age [range 35–50 years old (OR = 5.73, p < 0.0001, 95% CI: 2.49–13.20); > 50 years old (OR = 6.29, p = 0.002, 95% CI: 1.94–20.42)], and VSB (OR = 23.68, p < 0.0001, 95% CI: 8.07–69.53) showed a significant direct association with BOP outcome. Conclusions HIV-1 infection under HAART did not have association with the presence of at least 3 sites with PPD ≥ 5 mm and/or CAL ≥ 4 mm. However, HIV patients on HAART had direct association of HIV-1 infection with BOP and an inverse association with PPD. Clinical relevance These results support that monitoring gingival bleeding associated with oral prophylaxis would be beneficial in the prevention and management of periodontitis in HIV-1 patients on HAART.
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Alvarez X, Sestak K, Byrareddy SN, Mohan M. Long Term Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol Administration Inhibits Proinflammatory Responses in Minor Salivary Glands of Chronically Simian Immunodeficieny Virus Infected Rhesus Macaques. Viruses 2020; 12:v12070713. [PMID: 32630206 PMCID: PMC7412369 DOI: 10.3390/v12070713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV/SIV-associated oral mucosal disease/dysfunction (HAOMD) (gingivitis/periodontitis/salivary adenitis) represents a major comorbidity affecting HIV patients on anti-retroviral therapy. Using a systems biology approach, we investigated molecular changes (mRNA/microRNA) underlying HAOMD and its modulation by phytocannabinoids (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆9-THC)) in uninfected (n = 5) and SIV-infected rhesus macaques untreated (VEH-untreated/SIV; n = 7) or treated with vehicle (VEH/SIV; n = 3) or ∆9-THC (THC/SIV; n = 3). Relative to controls, fewer mRNAs were upregulated in THC/SIV compared to VEH-untreated/SIV macaques. Gene enrichment analysis showed differential enrichment of biological functions involved in anti-viral defense, Type-I interferon, Toll-like receptor, RIG-1 and IL1R signaling in VEH-untreated/SIV macaques. We focused on the anti-ER-stress anterior gradient-2 (AGR2), epithelial barrier protecting and anti-dysbiotic WAP Four-Disulfide Core Domain-2 (WFDC2) and glucocorticoid-induced anti-inflammatory TSC22D3 (TSC22-domain family member-3) that were significantly downregulated in oropharyngeal mucosa (OPM) of VEH-untreated/SIV macaques. All three proteins localized to minor salivary gland acini and secretory ducts and showed enhanced and reduced expression in OPM of THC/SIV and VEH/SIV macaques, respectively. Additionally, inflammation associated miR-21, miR-142-3p and miR-29b showed significantly higher expression in OPM of VEH-untreated/SIV macaques. TSC22D3 was validated as a target of miR-29b. These preliminary translational findings suggest that phytocannabinoids may safely and effectively reduce oral inflammatory responses in HIV/SIV and other (autoimmune) diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Alvarez
- Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA;
| | - Karol Sestak
- PreCliniTria, LLC., Mandeville, LA 70471, USA;
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433, USA
| | - Siddappa N. Byrareddy
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
- Correspondence: (S.N.B.); (M.M.)
| | - Mahesh Mohan
- Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA;
- Correspondence: (S.N.B.); (M.M.)
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Ryder MI, Shiboski C, Yao TJ, Moscicki AB. Current trends and new developments in HIV research and periodontal diseases. Periodontol 2000 2020; 82:65-77. [PMID: 31850628 DOI: 10.1111/prd.12321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
With the advent of combined antiretroviral therapies, the face of HIV infection has changed dramatically from a disease with almost certain mortality from serious comorbidities, to a manageable chronic condition with an extended lifespan. In this paper we present the more recent investigations into the epidemiology, microbiology, and pathogenesis of periodontal diseases in patients with HIV, and the effects of combined antiretroviral therapies on the incidence and progression of these diseases both in adults and perinatally infected children. In addition, comparisons and potential interactions between the HIV-associated microbiome, host responses, and pathogenesis in the oral cavity with the gastrointestinal tract and other areas of the body are presented. Also, the effects of HIV and combined antiretroviral therapies on comorbidities such as hyposalivation, dementia, and osteoporosis on periodontal disease progression are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark I Ryder
- Department of Orofacial Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Caroline Shiboski
- Department of Orofacial Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Tzy-Jyun Yao
- Center for Biostatistics in AIDS Research (CBAR), Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Anna-Barbara Moscicki
- Division of Adolescent Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Rocco JM, York Z, Shen C, Shiboski C, Cyriaque-Webster J, McLaughlin J, Borowski L, Chen H, Aberg JA, Dittmer DP, Ghannoum M, Rinaldo CR, Macatangay B. Oral Cytokine Levels Are More Linked to Levels of Plasma and Oral HIV-1 RNA Than to CD4 + T-Cell Counts in People With HIV. Open Forum Infect Dis 2020; 7:ofaa047. [PMID: 32158775 PMCID: PMC7051037 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofaa047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background We determined the levels of 11 soluble immune mediators in oral washings of AIDS Clinical Trials Group A5254 participants with varying degrees of plasma viremia and CD4 T-cell counts to characterize the mucosal immune response at different stages of HIV-1 infection. Methods A5254 was a multicenter, cross-sectional study in people with HIV (PWH) recruited into 4 strata based on CD4 count and levels of plasma viremia: stratum (St) A: CD4 ≤200 cells/mm3, HIV-1 RNA (viral load [VL]) >1000 cps/mL; St B: CD4 ≤200, VL ≤1000; St C: CD4 >200, VL >1000; St D: CD4 >200, VL ≤1000. Oral/throat washings were obtained from all participants. Soluble markers were tested in oral/throat washings using a multibead fluorescent platform and were compared across strata. Linear regression was used to determine the associations between cytokines and HIV-1 in plasma and oral fluid. Results St A participants had higher levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-17, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), and interferon gamma (IFNγ) compared with St B and D (P = .02; P < .0001) but were not different from St C. IL-8, IL-10, and IL-12 were elevated in St A compared with the other 3 strata (P = .046; P < .0001). Linear regression demonstrated that oral HIV-1 levels were associated with IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNFα production (R > .40; P < .001) when controlling for CD4 count and opportunistic infections. Conclusions Our results show that high levels of oral HIV-1, rather than low CD4 counts, were linked to the production of oral immune mediators. Participants with AIDS and uncontrolled viremia demonstrated higher levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory soluble immune mediators compared with participants with lower HIV-1 RNA. The interplay of HIV-1 and these immune mediators could be important in the oral health of PWH.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zachary York
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Chengli Shen
- University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Caroline Shiboski
- University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | | | | | | | - Huichao Chen
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Judith A Aberg
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Dirk P Dittmer
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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Oral and Gut Microbial Diversity and Immune Regulation in Patients with HIV on Antiretroviral Therapy. mSphere 2020; 5:5/1/e00798-19. [PMID: 32024712 PMCID: PMC7002309 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00798-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A feedback loop between dysbiotic gut microbiota, increased translocation of microbial products such as lipopolysaccharide, and inflammation has been hypothesized to cause immune system dysfunction in early HIV infection. However, despite evidence of a chronic inflammatory phenotype in patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART), the role of oral microbiota in systemic immune activation and the relationship between oral and gut bacterial and fungal diversity have not been explored. Our study suggests a crucial role for oral bacterial and fungal communities in long-term systemic immune activation in patients on ART, expanding the current paradigm focused on gut bacteria. Our results indicate that interventions targeting both inflammation and microbial diversity are needed to mitigate oral inflammation-related comorbidities, particularly in HIV-positive patients. More broadly, these findings can bolster general models of microbiome-mediated chronic systemic immune activation and aid the development of precise microbiota-targeted interventions to reverse chronic inflammation. Despite evidence of a chronic inflammatory phenotype in people living with HIV (PLWH) on antiretroviral therapy (ART), the role of oral microbiota in chronic immune activation has not been fully explored. We aimed to determine the relationship between oral and gut microbiome diversity and chronic systemic inflammation in ART-treated PLWH with prevalent severe periodontitis, an inflammatory condition commonly associated with HIV infection. We assessed bacterial and fungal communities at oral and gastrointestinal sites in a cohort (n = 52) of primarily postmenopausal women on ART using 16S rRNA and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing and measured cellular and soluble markers of inflammation and immune dysfunction. Linear mixed-effect regression and differential abundance analyses were used to associate clinical characteristics and immunological markers with bacterial and fungal diversity and community composition. Bacterial α-diversity in plaque, saliva, and gut was associated with different immunological markers, while mycobial diversity was not associated with soluble or cellular biomarkers of immune stimulation or T cell dysfunction. Furthermore, lipopolysaccharide-positive (LPS+) bacteria previously linked to inflammatory outcomes were enriched at oral sites in patients with severe periodontitis. Fungal α-diversity was reduced in plaque from teeth with higher clinical attachment loss, a marker of periodontitis, and in saliva and plaque from patients with a history of AIDS. Our results show that both bacterial and fungal oral microbiome communities likely play a role in chronic systemic immune activation in PLWH. Thus, interventions targeting both inflammation and the microbiome, particularly in the oral cavity, may be necessary to reduce chronic immune dysregulation in patients with HIV. IMPORTANCE A feedback loop between dysbiotic gut microbiota, increased translocation of microbial products such as lipopolysaccharide, and inflammation has been hypothesized to cause immune system dysfunction in early HIV infection. However, despite evidence of a chronic inflammatory phenotype in patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART), the role of oral microbiota in systemic immune activation and the relationship between oral and gut bacterial and fungal diversity have not been explored. Our study suggests a crucial role for oral bacterial and fungal communities in long-term systemic immune activation in patients on ART, expanding the current paradigm focused on gut bacteria. Our results indicate that interventions targeting both inflammation and microbial diversity are needed to mitigate oral inflammation-related comorbidities, particularly in HIV-positive patients. More broadly, these findings can bolster general models of microbiome-mediated chronic systemic immune activation and aid the development of precise microbiota-targeted interventions to reverse chronic inflammation.
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Elizondo JE, Rocha-Pizaña MDR, Treviño AC, Violant D, Álvarez MM, Rivas-Estilla AM. Potential gingival crevicular fluid and serum biomarkers by stage of HIV infection. Cytokine 2016; 91:96-103. [PMID: 28043030 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2016.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study evaluates the potential of gingival crevicular fluid and serum cytokines as HIV stage biomarkers. METHODS Gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) and serum samples from 78 HIV-positive adult male subjects (cases) and 39 HIV-negative male subjects (controls) from Mexico were examined for 17 cytokines using multiplex ELISA. Participants were divided into five subgroups by HIV stage of infection on age-specific CD4+ T-lymphocyte count and antiretroviral therapy (ART), and further correlated to the cytokine levels. RESULTS GCF concentrations of IL-6, IL-7, IL-10, IL-12, G-CSF and MCP-1, as well as serum concentrations of IL-1β, IL-2 and IL-6 showed a statistically significant difference among subgroups. We found a significant effect size correlation on cytokines expression levels. Subjects who were not in ART showed significantly higher levels of some of the analyzed cytokines compared to the rest. We found that GCF IL-8 was a significant predictor for the Non-ART HIV status (p<0.05). We observed the same result for GCF G-CSF in the ART Short-term group and serum GM-CSF in the ART Long-term subgroup. CONCLUSION Results indicate a high variability of GCF and serum cytokines concentrations and low frequency of their detection in different HIV/ART stages. However, within the limits of the present study, some GCF and serum cytokine concentrations correlate positively. Oral and periodontal innate immunity is affected by HIV viremia and ART. GCF IL-8, G-CSF, as well as serum IL-8, MCP-1 and GM-CSF may be useful biomarkers for the detection of disease presence and/or its severity due to HIV infection and ART use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Eduardo Elizondo
- Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology, Department of Biopharmaceuticals and Biopharmaceutical Engineering, FEMSA Biotechnology Center, National Graduate School of Science, Engineering and Technology, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico; Postgraduate Program in Dentistry, Doctorate School, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain; Medical and Health Sciences Program, Department of Basic Sciences, National School of Medicine, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico.
| | - María Del Refugio Rocha-Pizaña
- Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology, Department of Biopharmaceuticals and Biopharmaceutical Engineering, FEMSA Biotechnology Center, National Graduate School of Science, Engineering and Technology, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Ana Cecilia Treviño
- Medical and Surgical Dentist Program, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Deborah Violant
- Postgraduate Program in Dentistry, Doctorate School, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mario Moisés Álvarez
- Postgraduate Program in Biotechnology, Department of Biopharmaceuticals and Biopharmaceutical Engineering, FEMSA Biotechnology Center, National Graduate School of Science, Engineering and Technology, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico; Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Division of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02139, MA, USA
| | - Ana María Rivas-Estilla
- Postgraduate Program in Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, Department of Virology, Laboratory of Molecular Infectology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Mexico
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Taylor GH, Williams AA, Garzino-Demo A. Highly active antiretroviral therapy reduces pulmonary IL-8 in HIV-positive women smokers. Pathog Dis 2015; 74:ftv115. [PMID: 26656889 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftv115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased levels of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-8 are detected in the sputum of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and during the pathological pulmonary manifestations of HIV infection : To explore a potential interrelationship between smoking, highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and HIV immune status, we collected sputum samples, along with complete pulmonary function tests from groups of HIV-infected women smokers who were either on or off HAART. Analysis of the patient's sputum for cell count along with quantitative measures of IL-8 was performed and correlated with concurrent assessment of pulmonary function test (PFT). We found that HIV-positive smokers had decreased measurements on PFT of the diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide (D(LCO)) compared to standard reference values that did not differ with HAART usage. HAART, when controlled for CD4, showed a suppressive effect on the levels of pro inflammatory cytokine IL-8 in sputum. We conclude that in the era of HAART, HIV along with concurrent tobacco smoking is associated with declines in PFT in HIV-infected women. The use of HAART in patients appears to mitigate the increases in IL-8 levels in relation to immune status based on CD4 count.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory H Taylor
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Adrienne A Williams
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Department of Family Medicine Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Alfredo Garzino-Demo
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padova, Italy
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Ferreira DC, Gonçalves LS, Siqueira JF, Carmo FL, Santos HF, Feres M, Figueiredo LC, Soares GM, Rosado AS, dos Santos KRN, Colombo APV. Subgingival bacterial community profiles in HIV-infected Brazilian adults with chronic periodontitis. J Periodontal Res 2015; 51:95-102. [PMID: 26040412 DOI: 10.1111/jre.12287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE To compare the subgingival microbial diversity between non-HIV-infected and HIV-infected individuals with chronic periodontitis using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). MATERIAL AND METHODS Thirty-two patients were selected: 11 were HIV-infected and 21 were non-HIV-infected, and all had chronic periodontitis. Periodontal measurements included probing depth, clinical attachment level, visible supragingival biofilm and bleeding on probing. Subgingival biofilm samples were collected from periodontal sites (50% with probing depth ≤ 4 mm and 50% with probing depth ≥ 5 mm) and whole-genomic-amplified DNA was obtained. The DNA samples were subjected to amplification of a 16S rRNA gene fragment using universal bacterial primers, followed by DGGE analysis of the amplified gene sequences. RESULTS The non-HIV-infected group presented higher mean full-mouth visible supragingival biofilm (p = 0.004), bleeding on probing (p = 0.006), probing depth (p < 0.001) and clinical attachment level (p = 0.001) in comparison with the HIV-infected group. DGGE analysis revealed 81 distinct bands from all 33 individuals. Banding profiles revealed a higher diversity of the bacterial communities in the subgingival biofilm of HIV-infected patients with chronic periodontitis. Moreover, cluster and principal component analyses demonstrated that the bacterial community profiles differed between these two conditions. High interindividual and intra-individual variability in banding profiles were observed for both groups. CONCLUSION HIV-infected patients with chronic periodontitis present greater subgingival microbial diversity. In addition, the bacterial communities associated with HIV-infected and non-HIV-infected individuals are different in structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- D C Ferreira
- Department of Endodontics and Molecular Microbiology Laboratory, Estácio de Sá University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - L S Gonçalves
- Department of Endodontics and Molecular Microbiology Laboratory, Estácio de Sá University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - J F Siqueira
- Department of Endodontics and Molecular Microbiology Laboratory, Estácio de Sá University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - F L Carmo
- Institute of Microbiology Prof. Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - H F Santos
- Institute of Microbiology Prof. Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - M Feres
- Dental Research Division, Department of Periodontology, Guarulhos University, Guarulhos, Brazil
| | - L C Figueiredo
- Dental Research Division, Department of Periodontology, Guarulhos University, Guarulhos, Brazil
| | - G M Soares
- Dental Research Division, Department of Periodontology, Guarulhos University, Guarulhos, Brazil
| | - A S Rosado
- Institute of Microbiology Prof. Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - K R N dos Santos
- Institute of Microbiology Prof. Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - A P V Colombo
- Institute of Microbiology Prof. Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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