Self-compassion and emotional regulation as predictors of social anxiety

Self-Compassion, Stressor Exposure, and Negative Affect: A Daily Diary Study of Older Adults

OBJECTIVES

Self-compassion has been identified as a psychological resource for aging well. To date, self-compassion among older adults has typically been conceptualized as a trait variable. This study examined whether day-to-day (state) variability in self-compassion was associated with negative affective reactivity to daily stressors.

METHODS

Daily diary assessment methods were used to examine the potential moderating role of between- and within-person self-compassion on the relationship between daily stressors and negative affect. A community-based sample of 107 older adults aged 65+ completed questionnaires once daily over 14 days.

RESULTS

Multilevel modeling revealed that 37% of the variance in self-compassion occurred within persons. Daily self-compassion moderated the relationship between daily stressor exposure and daily negative affect. On days with greater stressor exposure than usual, older adults showed less negative affective reactivity on days when self-compassion was higher, compared with days when self-compassion was lower. No moderating effects were observed for between-person (trait) self-compassion.

DISCUSSION

These findings suggest that self-compassion in older adults should be conceptualized as both state and trait variables and that state self-compassion may be protective in the stress-reactivity pathway. Future research should investigate whether brief self-compassion interventions might help older adults to avoid or downregulate negative emotions in response to stressors.

Linear and curvilinear association of pain tolerance and social anxiety symptoms among youth with different subgroups of childhood trauma

BACKGROUND

Social anxiety is a common symptom that occurs after exposure to childhood trauma (CT), and pain tolerance is a protective factor against social anxiety in generic populations with CT. However, few studies have investigated whether and how this association varies across different CT subgroups. Thus, this study aimed to investigate (1) the effects of pain tolerance on social anxiety symptoms among youth with different subgroups of CT; (2) the nonlinear relationship between pain tolerance and social anxiety symptoms among different CT categories.

METHODS

In this study, 15,682 college or university students with experiences of CT were identified in a large sample and divided into five CT subgroups. Linear and quadratic regression models were conducted to explore the association between pain tolerance and social anxiety symptoms among youth with different CT subgroups.

RESULTS

The results of model revealed a linear relationship between pain tolerance and social anxiety symptoms among youth with most CT subgroups. Notably, an inverted U-shaped curve was found between pain tolerance and social anxiety symptoms in youth with emotional abuse. Social anxiety symptoms increased gradually with pain tolerance scores between 0 and 16, and then sharply decreased when scores reached above 16.

LIMITATIONS

Limited by self-report measurements, the results of this study focused only on perceived pain tolerance and ignored behavioral pain tolerance.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight the importance of assessing pain tolerance thresholds in youth with emotional abuse and improving pain tolerance to prevent social anxiety symptoms in youth with different subgroups of CT.

The Effect of Negative Physical Self on Social Anxiety in College Students: The Bidirectional Chain Mediation Roles of Fear of Negative Evaluation and Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy

Purpose

The detrimental effects of social anxiety on college students require urgent mitigation. To explore the influencing factors and underlying mechanisms of social anxiety among college students, this study aims to examine the relationship between negative physical self and social anxiety, and the mediating effects of fear of negative evaluation and regulatory emotional self-efficacy.

Methods

The Negative Physical Self Scale, Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale, Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy Scale, and Interaction Anxiousness Scale were administered to 924 Chinese college students. SPSS 26.0 was used for analysis, and the Bootstrap method was used to test the significance level of the mediating effect.

Results

Negative physical self was significantly and positively related to social anxiety in college students. Fear of negative evaluation and regulatory negative emotional self-efficacy played independent mediating roles between negative physical self and social anxiety. Fear of negative evaluation and regulatory negative emotional self-efficacy showed a bidirectional chain mediating effect between negative physical self and social anxiety.

Conclusion

This study elucidates the mechanistic pathways between negative physical self and social anxiety. The relationship between negative physical self and social anxiety is influenced by the mediating effects of fear of negative evaluation, regulatory negative emotional self-efficacy, and the bidirectional chain mediating effect of fear of negative evaluation and regulatory negative emotional self-efficacy. This finding provides a reference for policy makers and educators to develop interventions for social anxiety in college students.

Feasibility and effectiveness study of applying a hallucinogen harm reduction and integration model to a mindfulness thinking intervention using virtual reality: A randomized controlled trial

Objective

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a virtual reality (VR) program designed and developed based on the hallucinogenic harm reduction and integration (PHRI) clinical model could be more effective in guiding positive thinking training, improving positive thinking awareness and ability, and, to some extent, facilitating personal efficacy and emotional state compared to a traditional VR program that places users in a virtual natural ecological environment to guide positive thinking training. We also sought to understand the factors that may influence the effectiveness of VR interventions and user experience.

Method

Seventy-six randomly recruited participants were divided into a control group and an experimental group of 38 participants, each according to a random number table, and were trained in VR meditation for eight weeks. The experimental group used a PHRI-based mindfulness program, while the control group used a traditional mindfulness meditation program. We used The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale and the PAD emotional three-dimensional scale to assess the level of state mindfulness and changes in the emotional state before and at the end of the experiment. The Immersive Tendencies Questionnaire measured the user's sense of presence and immersion in the virtual environment. The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaires and the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21) were used at the baseline assessment stage before and at the 4-week follow-up after the experiment to assess the change in trait mindfulness levels due to the mindfulness training. The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaires and the DASS-21 were used to assess changes in mindfulness and mental health trait levels.

Results

At the end of the experiment, the MMSQ score was significantly lower in the control group than in the experimental group, while the ITQ score was significantly higher than in the experimental group, and both scores were statistically significant (p < 0.05). In the follow-up assessment four weeks after the end of the experiment, the FFMQ-15 score and the DASS-21 were significantly and statistically higher in the experimental group than in the control group (p < 0.05). Since the scores of the PAD scale did not obey a normal distribution, we used the Wilcoxon signed-rank test to assess the results, which proved that the experimental group had higher levels of emotional activation and arousal.

Conclusion

The VR positive thinking program developed based on PHRI can significantly increase the positive thinking state and emotional arousal and activation of the general population participants but does not directly lead to the growth of positive emotions. Moreover, this detached psychedelic scene brings users a weaker sense of presence and presence than traditional natural space scenes. Furthermore, it does not bring any intense simulator motion sickness symptoms. These findings suggest that VR programs developed based on PHRI have a more positive facilitation effect on the positive state and that this increase lasts longer than conventional VR-positive programs.

Examining the Relationship Between Maladaptive Perfectionism and Social Anxiety: The Mediating Role of Self-Compassion

Previous studies have indicated a relationship between perfectionism and social anxiety symptoms, but the mechanisms between these concepts are not well-defined yet. This study focused on the mediator role of self-compassion in the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and social anxiety symptoms controlling self-esteem. It is hypothesized that maladaptive perfectionism would be related to lower levels of self-compassion and lower levels of self-compassion related to greater social anxiety symptoms controlling self-esteem. The sample consisted of 389 university students who completed a battery of instruments, including measures of The Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS), The Big Three Perfectionism Scale (BTPS), The Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), and The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). Simple mediation analyses with bootstrapping demonstrated that self-compassion has a significant mediator role in the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and social anxiety when self-esteem is not included in the model. However, results also revealed that the indirect effect of self-compassion is no longer significant when self-esteem is included in the model as a covariate. Findings suggest that self-compassion has no mediator role independent from self-esteem in the context of perfectionism and social anxiety.

A Cross-Sectional Association Between Screen-Based Sedentary Behavior and Anxiety in Academic College Students: Mediating Role of Negative Emotions and Moderating Role of Emotion Regulation

Purpose

The study aims to explore the relationship and potential mechanisms between screen time and anxiety and have a clear understanding of the role of negative emotions and emotion regulation, thus providing guidance for Chinese college students to improve mental health.

Methods

We conducted a questionnaire survey by selecting 1721 academic college students from 6 colleges and universities in 5 provinces in China, and the data were analyzed through the Process program of SPSS for mediating effect and moderating effect.

Results

There is a significant positive relationship between screen time and anxiety, negative emotions play a mediating role between the two (indirect effect = 0.32, p < 0.001), mediating effect accounts for 59.88% of the total effect, and emotion regulation regulates the direct relationship between screen time and anxiety (interaction effect = 0.027, p < 0.001).

Conclusion

This study sheds light on the potential mechanisms by which screen time affects anxiety in academic college students, providing a fresh perspective on anxiety reduction. Screen time positively affects anxiety levels, where negative emotions have a mediating role and emotion regulation has a moderating role. In the future, we can control screen ++time, increase physical activities, reduce negative emotions, and improve the emotional regulation ability to relieve anxiety, so as to improve the mental health of academic college students, and expect to have a positive impact on future learning, life, and planning.

A pilot study of an online self-compassion intervention for adults who stutter

PURPOSE

The primary aim of this pilot study was to determine the preliminary effectiveness of an online self-compassion intervention for improving self-compassion and quality of life in adults who stutter. A secondary aim was to determine intervention acceptability and participant satisfaction.

METHOD

Participants included adults who stutter who completed an online self-compassion module once a week for six consecutive weeks. Pre- and post-intervention measures included the Self-Compassion Scale-Trait and the Overall Assessment of the Speaker's Experience of Stuttering. Participants also completed acceptability questionnaires weekly and post-intervention via quantitative and qualitative reports.

RESULT

Ten participants completed all six intervention modules, as well as pre- and post-intervention measures. Participants reported increased self-compassion and improved quality of life at post-intervention, as well as high intervention acceptability with regard to delivery format, content, duration, and relevance to stuttering and daily life. Individual variation was also observed across acceptability domains.

CONCLUSION

The present study provides pilot data supporting the use of online modules to increase self-compassion and decrease the negative impact of stuttering on the quality of life among adults who stutter. Future studies should employ larger sample sizes, compare outcomes to a control group, and determine if gains are maintained over time.

Association of Emotional Self-Regulation with Psychological Distress and Positive Functioning Dimensions in Brazilian University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Emotional self-regulation is a relevant factor for human development capable of minimizing emotional difficulties in the face of adverse events, as was particularly useful during the COVID-19 pandemic. The present study aimed to evaluate emotional self-regulation in Brazilian health science university students and its relationship with positive psychology constructs (subjective well-being, hope, optimism, spirituality, self-compassion, and self-efficacy) and psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and stress). This was a prospective, cross-sectional, observational, analytic study of 1062 Brazilian undergraduate students with data collected using self-administered online questionnaires. Students in the first years of their undergraduate degree programs had significantly higher dysregulation scores than those in the final years. Multiple linear regression yielded a model that explained 71.8% of the variation in emotion dysregulation. The correlations of emotion dysregulation were significant and strong, scoring negatively with self-compassion, optimism, and subjective well-being and positively with psychological distress.

Effects of Self-Compassion Interventions on Reducing Depressive Symptoms, Anxiety, and Stress: A Meta-Analysis

Objectives

A growing body of evidence shows self-compassion can play a key role in alleviating depressive symptoms, anxiety, and stress in various populations. Interventions fostering self-compassion have recently received increased attention. This meta-analysis aimed to identify studies that measured effects of self-compassion focused interventions on reducing depressive symptoms, anxiety, and stress.

Methods

A comprehensive search was conducted within four databases to identify relevant randomized controlled trials (RCTs). The quality of the included RCTs was assessed using the Cochrane Collaboration risk-of-bias tool. Either a random-effects model or fixed-effects model was used. Subgroup analyses were conducted according to types of control groups, intervention delivery modes, and the involvement of directly targeted populations with psychological distress symptoms.

Results

Fifty-six RCTs met the eligibility criteria. Meta-analyses showed self-compassion focused interventions had small to medium effects on reducing depressive symptoms, anxiety, and stress at the immediate posttest and small effects on reducing depressive symptoms and stress at follow-up compared to control conditions. The overall risk of bias across included RCTs was high.

Conclusions

Fewer studies were conducted to compare effects of self-compassion interventions to active control conditions. Also, fewer studies involved online self-compassion interventions than in-person interventions and directly targeted people with distress symptoms. Further high-quality studies are needed to verify effects of self-compassion interventions on depressive symptoms, anxiety, and stress. As more studies are implemented, future meta-analyses of self-compassion interventions may consider conducting subgroup analyses according to intervention doses, specific self-compassion intervention techniques involved, and specific comparison or control groups.

Preregistration

This study is not preregistered.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12671-023-02148-x.

Emotions in social anxiety disorder: A review

Extant cognitive behavioral models of social anxiety disorder (SAD) have primarily focused on cognitions and behaviors that maintain the disorder. Emotional aspects of SAD have been investigated but have not been sufficiently integrated into current models. To facilitate such integration, we reviewed the literature on emotional constructs (emotional intelligence, emotional knowledge, emotional clarity, emotion differentiation, and emotion regulation), and discrete emotions (anger, shame, embarrassment, loneliness, guilt, pride, and envy) in SAD and social anxiety. We present the studies conducted on these constructs, summarize the main findings, suggest areas for future research, discuss the findings in the context of existing models of SAD and attempt to integrate the findings into these existing models of the disorder. Clinical implications of our findings are also discussed.

Concurrent TMS-EEG and EEG reveal neuroplastic and oscillatory changes associated with self-compassion and negative emotions

Background/Objective

Self-compassion has a consensual relevance for overall mental health, but its mechanisms remain unknown. Using intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) and concurrent transcranial magnetic stimulation-electroencephalography (TMS-EEG), this study investigated the causal relationship of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) with self-compassion and explored the changes in neuroplasticity and neural dynamics.

Method

Thirty-two healthy participants received iTBS or sham stimulation over the DLPFC, before and after which they were instructed to either use self-compassionate strategies or to be rejected in the context of social rejection and to report the level of self-compassion or negative affect. TMS-evoked potentials were evaluated as novel neuroplastic techniques with N45, P60, N100, and P180.

Results

iTBS uniquely decreased P180 amplitude measured with TMS-EEG whereby sham stimulation had no effect on neuroplasticity. In line with neuroplasticity changes, iTBS enhanced a widespread gamma band power and coherence, which correlated consistently with increased engagement in self-compassion. Meanwhile, iTBS demonstrated opposite effects on theta activity dependent on the social contexts whereby self-compassion decreased and social rejection enhanced it respectively. This unique effect of iTBS on theta activity was also supplemented by the enhancement of theta band coherence following iTBS.

Conclusions

We found a causal relationship between DLPFC and self-compassion. We also provide evidence to indicate widespread gamma activity and connectivity to correlate with self-compassion as well as the critical role of the DLPFC in modulating theta activity and negative emotions.

Interconnections between Emotion Recognition, Self-Processes and Psychological Well-Being in Adolescents

Background: Adolescence is a critical developmental period for mentalization and emotion regulation skills. Studies show that during this time, adolescents may experience greater vulnerability to challenges of mental and emotional well-being. Studies also show that self-skills, such as mentalization, self-compassion, and self-control are independently associated with feelings of global self-worth or psychological well-being. To date, no known studies have explored interconnected relations among these self-skills, despite significant overlaps in the social-biological development of these skills. Aims: To investigate interconnected relations among psychological well-being, mentalization, self-compassion and self-control. Gender differences in these relations are explored. Method: As part of a larger, longitudinal study of adolescent well-being, this cross-sectional study drew on a variety of self-report measures, investigating relations among adolescents’ self-reports of psychological well-being, emotion recognition, self-control, and self-compassion. Participants consisted of 88 girls and 57 boys, mean age 13.38. Results: Main results showed associations among emotion recognition, self-control and self-compassion and feelings of global self-worth. Specifically, results showed that understanding negative emotions in others relates to lower levels of self-compassion and feelings of self-worth. Further, adolescents who report low levels of self-control reported uncompassionate self-responding and lower levels of self-worth. Gender differences and implications for further research and adolescent social-emotional interventions are discussed.

Self-compassion and social anxiety: The mediating effect of emotion regulation strategies and the influence of depressed mood

OBJECTIVES

Self-compassion constitutes a positive way of relating towards the self that enables emotional regulation and reduces emotional distress. This research first explored differences among a sample of persons with social anxiety disorder (SAD) and groups of high socially anxious (HSA) and low socially anxious (LSA) students on self-compassion, emotion regulation, and social anxiety. We then investigated emotional regulation as a mediator of the prediction of social anxiety by self-compassion and the influence of depressed mood on those relationships.

DESIGN

Study 1 compared a SAD group to matched groups of HSA and LSA students. Study 2 utilized the total sample (n = 330 students and n = 33 SAD) to test mediation. Self-compassion and emotion regulation were predictors of social anxiety and depression a covariate.

RESULTS

In Study 1, the SAD group did not differ from the HSA group on most aspects of self-compassion and emotional regulation but was higher on depression. Both were lower on most measures and higher on depression than the LSA group. In Study 2, higher self-compassion predicted lower social interaction anxiety, and emotional regulation strategies mediated this effect, regardless of depression. However, for social performance anxiety, controlling for depression removed mediation. Refraining from uncompassionate responses was directly connected to social anxiety, whereas compassionate responses influenced social anxiety via emotional regulation.

CONCLUSIONS

Results affirm the ameliorative role of self-compassion on social anxiety and emotion regulation strategies as mechanisms of that influence. However, self-compassion's influence was affected by depression and type of social anxiety. Also, refraining from uncompassionate self-responding appears to be of prime importance in predicting social anxiety, whereas compassionate self-responding influences social anxiety via emotion regulation.

Appearance Orientation and Dating Anxiety in Emerging Adults: Considering the Roles of Appearance-Based Rejection Sensitivity, Social Physique Anxiety, and Self-Compassion

Emerging research has suggested that appearance-related factors, such as greater appearance orientation, are associated with dating anxiety in emerging adults, but much more could be done to understand mechanistic pathways and potential buffers. Here, we tested a moderated mediation model in which appearance-based rejection sensitivity and social physique anxiety were explored as mediators, and self-compassion was explored as a moderator, of the relationship between appearance orientation and dating anxiety. A total of 501 heterosexual emerging adults (248 women, 253 men) from the UK completed instruments measuring the aforementioned constructs. Relationships among all variables were largely similar across women and men, with only the association between social physique anxiety and appearance-based rejection sensitivity being significantly stronger in women. Mediation analysis in the total sample indicated that both social physique anxiety and appearance-based rejection anxiety were significant mediators. Additionally, we confirmed a serial mediation involving appearance orientation → appearance-based rejection sensitivity → social physique anxiety → dating anxiety. Conversely, self-compassion did not moderate the effects of either social physique anxiety or appearance-based rejection sensitivity on dating anxiety, although greater self-compassion was moderately associated lower dating anxiety. We suggest ways in which existing interventions aimed at reducing dating anxiety could be combined with body image interventions to reduce dating anxiety in heterosocial contexts.

Moderating role of compassion in the link between fear of Coronavirus disease and mental health among undergraduate students

Background

The societal challenges presented by fear related to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic may present unique challenges for an individual's mental health. However, the moderating role of compassion in the relationship between fear of COVID-19 and mental health has not been well-studied. The present study aimed to explore the association between fear of COVID-19 and mental health, as well as test the buffering role of compassion in this relationship.

Methods

The participants in this study were 325 Iranian undergraduate students (228 females), aged 18-25 years, who completed questionnaires posted on social networks via a web-based platform.

Results

The results showed that fear of COVID-19 was positively related with physical symptoms, social function, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms. The results also showed that compassion was negatively associated with physical symptoms, social function, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms. The interaction-moderation analysis revealed that compassion moderated the relationship between fear of COVID-19 and subscale of mental health.

Conclusion

Results highlight the important role of compassion in diminishing the effect of fear of COVID-19 on the mental health (physical symptoms, social function, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms) of undergraduate students.

Mindfulness and eudaimonic well-being: the mediating roles of rumination and emotion dysregulation

Mindfulness has been widely studied in Western psychology for reducing psychological distress. However, several scholars noted that in the East, where the concept originated, mindfulness may be understood differently. In Eastern cultures such as Thailand, mindfulness is not only employed to deal with suffering but also to promote well-being. To the best of our knowledge, no studies have been undertaken to evaluate the relationship between traditional mindfulness and eudaimonic well-being in Eastern contexts. In the present study, we investigated the relationships between mindfulness and eudaimonic well-being in Thai contexts. We also explored the mediating roles of rumination and emotion dysregulation on this relationship. Data were collected from 312 Thai undergraduates who completed a measure of Eudaimonic Well-Being, the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory, the Rumination-Reflection Questionnaire, and the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Results largely supported our hypotheses. Mindfulness was found to have a positive and direct association with eudaimonic well-being. Rumination and emotion dysregulation partially mediated this association. Additionally, both rumination and emotion dysregulation had negative and direct association with eudaimonic well-being. The findings highlight the positive influences of mindfulness on well-being. The benefits of mindfulness for improvement of eudaimonic well-being through reducing rumination and emotion dysfunction are discussed.

Cognitive reappraisal and self-compassion as emotion regulation strategies for parents during COVID-19: An online randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

Parenting during pandemic restrictions places extreme demands on everyday family life, leading to increased stress levels for parents and distressed parent-child interactions. This RCT aimed to investigate whether cognitive reappraisal and self-compassion are helpful emotion regulation (ER) strategies to reduce individual and parental stress during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHOD

An online intervention for parents was developed focusing on the application of ER strategies to pandemic requirements of families. A sample of 265 parents were randomly assigned to either cognitive reappraisal (CR; n = 88), self-compassion (SC; n = 90) or wait-list control (WLC; n = 87) group. Interventions included two video sessions (day 1 and day 3) and three email reminders to transfer the application of ER strategies to daily family life (days 2, 4, 5). Parents' perceived individual stress and parental stress were assessed at baseline (T0), at T1 prior to the booster session on day 3, and at T2 (7 days after baseline).

RESULTS

Significant decreases from T0 to T2 emerged for both primary stress outcomes in both intervention groups. Individual stress significantly decreased in CR compared to WLC at T2, but not compared to SC. No time × group interactions for parental stress were found. However, mediation analyses suggested that parental stress was indirectly decreased via reductions in individual stress for CR compared to WLC at both time points.

CONCLUSIONS

COVID-19 will not be the last pandemic to affect family life. Cognitive reappraisal as a brief online intervention can ease acute stress and strengthen the mental health of parents in acute crises.