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Murhububa IS, Bragard C, Tougeron K, Hance T. Preference of Pentalonia nigronervosa for infected banana plants tends to reverse after Banana bunchy top virus acquisition. Sci Rep 2024; 14:2993. [PMID: 38316887 PMCID: PMC10844331 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-53205-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is the vector of the Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV), the most serious viral disease of banana (Musa spp.) in the world. Before acquiring the virus, the vector is more attracted to infected banana plants in response to the increased emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Here, we test the hypothesis that BBTV acquisition directly modifies the preference of P. nigronervosa for infected banana plants, and that the change in preference results from the alteration of the organs linked to the VOC detection or to the behaviour of the vector. We found that the preference of P. nigronervosa for infected banana plants reverses after virus acquisition in dessert banana, while it remains similar between healthy and infected banana plants before and after the acquisition of BBTV. At the same time, aphids reared on infected bananas had smaller forewing areas and hind tibia length than aphids reared on healthy bananas, although the number of secondary rhinaria on the antennae was lower on dessert banana-reared aphids than plantain-reared aphids, this was not affected by the infection status of the aphid. These results support the "vector manipulation hypothesis-VMH" of pathogens to promote their spread. They have implications for the BBTV management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignace Safari Murhububa
- Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
- Département de l'Environnement et Sciences Agronomiques, Faculté des Sciences, Université Officielle de Bukavu, Bukavu, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
- Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques, Université Catholique de Bukavu, Bukavu, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
- Institut Supérieur d'Etudes Agronomiques et Vétérinaires de Walungu, Walungu, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
| | - Claude Bragard
- Applied Microbiology, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Kévin Tougeron
- Ecology of Interactions and Global Change, Research Institute in Biosciences, Université de Mons, 7000, Mons, Belgium
| | - Thierry Hance
- Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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Krieger C, Halter D, Baltenweck R, Cognat V, Boissinot S, Maia-Grondard A, Erdinger M, Bogaert F, Pichon E, Hugueney P, Brault V, Ziegler-Graff V. An Aphid-Transmitted Virus Reduces the Host Plant Response to Its Vector to Promote Its Transmission. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2023; 113:1745-1760. [PMID: 37885045 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-12-22-0454-fi] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
The success of virus transmission by vectors relies on intricate trophic interactions between three partners, the host plant, the virus, and the vector. Despite numerous studies that showed the capacity of plant viruses to manipulate their host plant to their benefit, and potentially of their transmission, the molecular mechanisms sustaining this phenomenon has not yet been extensively analyzed at the molecular level. In this study, we focused on the deregulations induced in Arabidopsis thaliana by an aphid vector that were alleviated when the plants were infected with turnip yellows virus (TuYV), a polerovirus strictly transmitted by aphids in a circulative and nonpropagative mode. By setting up an experimental design mimicking the natural conditions of virus transmission, we analyzed the deregulations in plants infected with TuYV and infested with aphids by a dual transcriptomic and metabolomic approach. We observed that the virus infection alleviated most of the gene deregulations induced by the aphids in a noninfected plant at both time points analyzed (6 and 72 h) with a more pronounced effect at the later time point of infestation. The metabolic composition of the infected and infested plants was altered in a way that could be beneficial for the vector and the virus transmission. Importantly, these substantial modifications observed in infected and infested plants correlated with a higher TuYV transmission efficiency. This study revealed the capacity of TuYV to alter the plant nutritive content and the defense reaction against the aphid vector to promote the viral transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Célia Krieger
- Institut de biologie moléculaire des plantes, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, 67084 Strasbourg, France
| | - David Halter
- INRAE, Université de Strasbourg, SVQV UMR1131, 68000 Colmar, France
| | | | - Valérie Cognat
- Institut de biologie moléculaire des plantes, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, 67084 Strasbourg, France
| | | | | | - Monique Erdinger
- INRAE, Université de Strasbourg, SVQV UMR1131, 68000 Colmar, France
| | - Florent Bogaert
- INRAE, Université de Strasbourg, SVQV UMR1131, 68000 Colmar, France
| | - Elodie Pichon
- INRAE, Université de Strasbourg, SVQV UMR1131, 68000 Colmar, France
| | | | - Véronique Brault
- INRAE, Université de Strasbourg, SVQV UMR1131, 68000 Colmar, France
| | - Véronique Ziegler-Graff
- Institut de biologie moléculaire des plantes, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, 67084 Strasbourg, France
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3
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Bertasello LET, da Silva MF, Pinto LR, Nóbile PM, Carmo-Sousa M, dos Anjos IA, Perecin D, Spotti Lopes JR, Gonçalves MC. Yellow Leaf Disease Resistance and Melanaphis sacchari Preference in Commercial Sugarcane Cultivars. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:3079. [PMID: 37687326 PMCID: PMC10489660 DOI: 10.3390/plants12173079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Sugarcane yellow leaf disease (YLD) caused by sugarcane yellow leaf virus (ScYLV) is a major threat for the sugarcane industry worldwide, and the aphid Melanaphis sacchari is its main vector. Breeding programs in Brazil have provided cultivars with intermediate resistance to ScYLV, whereas the incidence of ScYLV has been underestimated partly due to the complexity of YLD symptom expression and identification. Here, we evaluated YLD symptoms in a field assay using eight sugarcane genotypes comprising six well-established commercial high-sucrose cultivars, one biomass yield cultivar, and a susceptible reference under greenhouse conditions, along with estimation of virus titer through RT-qPCR from leaf samples. Additionally, a free-choice bioassay was used to determine the number of aphids feeding on the SCYLV-infected cultivars. Most of the cultivars showed some degree of resistance to YLD, while also revealing positive RT-qPCR results for ScYLV and virus titers with non-significant correlation with YLD severity. The cultivars IACSP01-5503 and IACBIO-266 were similar in terms of aphid preference and ScYLV resistance traits, whereas the least preferred cultivar by M. sacchari, IACSP96-7569, showed intermediate symptoms but similar virus titer to the susceptible reference, SP71-6163. We conclude that current genetic resistance incorporated into sugarcane commercial cultivars does not effectively prevent the spread of ScYLV by its main aphid vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiz Eduardo Tilhaqui Bertasello
- School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences-FCAV, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Jaboticabal 17884-900, Brazil; (L.E.T.B.); (L.R.P.); (D.P.)
| | - Marcel Fernando da Silva
- Sugarcane Research Centre, Instituto Agronômico de Campinas-IAC, Ribeirão Preto 14001-970, Brazil; (M.F.d.S.); (P.M.N.); (I.A.d.A.)
| | - Luciana Rossini Pinto
- School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences-FCAV, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Jaboticabal 17884-900, Brazil; (L.E.T.B.); (L.R.P.); (D.P.)
- Sugarcane Research Centre, Instituto Agronômico de Campinas-IAC, Ribeirão Preto 14001-970, Brazil; (M.F.d.S.); (P.M.N.); (I.A.d.A.)
| | - Paula Macedo Nóbile
- Sugarcane Research Centre, Instituto Agronômico de Campinas-IAC, Ribeirão Preto 14001-970, Brazil; (M.F.d.S.); (P.M.N.); (I.A.d.A.)
| | - Michele Carmo-Sousa
- Department of Entomology and Acarology, Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (ESALQ), University of São Paulo, Piracicaba 13418-900, Brazil; (M.C.-S.); (J.R.S.L.)
| | - Ivan Antônio dos Anjos
- Sugarcane Research Centre, Instituto Agronômico de Campinas-IAC, Ribeirão Preto 14001-970, Brazil; (M.F.d.S.); (P.M.N.); (I.A.d.A.)
| | - Dilermando Perecin
- School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences-FCAV, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Jaboticabal 17884-900, Brazil; (L.E.T.B.); (L.R.P.); (D.P.)
| | - João Roberto Spotti Lopes
- Department of Entomology and Acarology, Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (ESALQ), University of São Paulo, Piracicaba 13418-900, Brazil; (M.C.-S.); (J.R.S.L.)
| | - Marcos Cesar Gonçalves
- School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences-FCAV, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Jaboticabal 17884-900, Brazil; (L.E.T.B.); (L.R.P.); (D.P.)
- Crop Protection Research Centre, Instituto Biológico-IB, São Paulo 04014-002, Brazil
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Edula SR, Bag S, Milner H, Kumar M, Suassuna ND, Chee PW, Kemerait RC, Hand LC, Snider JL, Srinivasan R, Roberts PM. Cotton leafroll dwarf disease: An enigmatic viral disease in cotton. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2023; 24:513-526. [PMID: 37038256 PMCID: PMC10189767 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
TAXONOMY Cotton leafroll dwarf virus (CLRDV) is a member of the genus Polerovirus, family Solemoviridae. Geographical Distribution: CLRDV is present in most cotton-producing regions worldwide, prominently in North and South America. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES The virion is a nonenveloped icosahedron with T = 3 icosahedral lattice symmetry that has a diameter of 26-34 nm and comprises 180 molecules of the capsid protein. The CsCl buoyant density of the virion is 1.39-1.42 g/cm3 and S20w is 115-127S. Genome: CLRDV shares genomic features with other poleroviruses; its genome consists of monopartite, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA, is approximately 5.7-5.8 kb in length, and is composed of seven open reading frames (ORFs) with an intergenic region between ORF2 and ORF3a. TRANSMISSION CLRDV is transmitted efficiently by the cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii Glover) in a circulative and nonpropagative manner. Host: CLRDV has a limited host range. Cotton is the primary host, and it has also been detected in different weeds in and around commercial cotton fields in Georgia, USA. SYMPTOMS Cotton plants infected early in the growth stage exhibit reddening or bronzing of foliage, maroon stems and petioles, and drooping. Plants infected in later growth stages exhibit intense green foliage with leaf rugosity, moderate to severe stunting, shortened internodes, and increased boll shedding/abortion, resulting in poor boll retention. These symptoms are variable and are probably influenced by the time of infection, plant growth stage, varieties, soil health, and geographical location. CLRDV is also often detected in symptomless plants. CONTROL Vector management with the application of chemical insecticides is ineffective. Some host plant varieties grown in South America are resistant, but all varieties grown in the United States are susceptible. Integrated disease management strategies, including weed management and removal of volunteer stalks, could reduce the abundance of virus inoculum in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sudeep Bag
- Department of Plant PathologyUniversity of GeorgiaTiftonGeorgiaUSA
| | - Hayley Milner
- Department of Plant PathologyUniversity of GeorgiaTiftonGeorgiaUSA
| | - Manish Kumar
- Department of Plant PathologyUniversity of GeorgiaTiftonGeorgiaUSA
| | | | - Peng W. Chee
- Institute of Plant, Breeding, Genetics, and GenomicsUniversity of GeorgiaTiftonGeorgiaUSA
| | | | - Lavesta C. Hand
- Department of Crop and Soil SciencesUniversity of GeorgiaTiftonGeorgiaUSA
| | - John L. Snider
- Department of Crop and Soil SciencesUniversity of GeorgiaTiftonGeorgiaUSA
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Lu J, Zeng L, Holford P, Beattie GAC, Wang Y. Discovery of Brassica Yellows Virus and Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus in Diaphorina citri and Changes in Virome Due to Infection with ' Ca. L. asiaticus'. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0499622. [PMID: 36943045 PMCID: PMC10100913 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.04996-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Detection of new viruses or new virus hosts is essential for the protection of economically important agroecosystems and human health. Increasingly, metatranscriptomic data are being used to facilitate this process. Such data were obtained from adult Asian citrus psyllids (ACP) (Diaphorina citri Kuwayama) that fed solely on mandarin (Citrus ×aurantium L.) plants grafted with buds infected with 'Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus' (CLas), a phloem-limited bacterium associated with the severe Asian variant of huanglongbing (HLB), the most destructive disease of citrus. Brassica yellows virus (BrYV), the causative agent of yellowing or leafroll symptoms in brassicaceous plants, and its associated RNA (named as BrYVaRNA) were detected in ACP. In addition, the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), which affects pigs and is economically important to pig production, was also found in ACP. These viruses were not detected in insects feeding on plants grafted with CLas-free buds. Changes in the concentrations of insect-specific viruses within the psyllid were caused by coinfection with CLas. IMPORTANCE The cross transmission of pathogenic viruses between different farming systems or plant communities is a major threat to plants and animals and, potentially, human health. The use of metagenomics is an effective approach to discover viruses and vectors. Here, we collected buds from the CLas-infected and CLas-free mandarin (Citrus ×aurantium L. [Rutaceae: Aurantioideae: Aurantieae]) trees from a commercial orchard and grafted them onto CLas-free mandarin plants under laboratory conditions. Through metatranscriptome sequencing, we first identified the Asian citrus psyllids feeding on plants grafted with CLas-infected buds carried the plant pathogen, brassica yellows virus and its associated RNA, and the swine pathogen, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. These discoveries indicate that both viruses can be transmitted by grafting and acquired by ACP from CLas+ mandarin seedlings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinming Lu
- College of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A&F University, Linan, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Lixia Zeng
- College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Paul Holford
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - George A. C. Beattie
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Yanjing Wang
- The Key Laboratory for Quality Improvement of Agricultural Products of Zhejiang Province, College of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, Zhejiang A&F University, Linan, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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Nicolas P, Shinozaki Y, Powell A, Philippe G, Snyder SI, Bao K, Zheng Y, Xu Y, Courtney L, Vrebalov J, Casteel CL, Mueller LA, Fei Z, Giovannoni JJ, Rose JKC, Catalá C. Spatiotemporal dynamics of the tomato fruit transcriptome under prolonged water stress. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 190:2557-2578. [PMID: 36135793 PMCID: PMC9706477 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiac445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Water availability influences all aspects of plant growth and development; however, most studies of plant responses to drought have focused on vegetative organs, notably roots and leaves. Far less is known about the molecular bases of drought acclimation responses in fruits, which are complex organs with distinct tissue types. To obtain a more comprehensive picture of the molecular mechanisms governing fruit development under drought, we profiled the transcriptomes of a spectrum of fruit tissues from tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), spanning early growth through ripening and collected from plants grown under varying intensities of water stress. In addition, we compared transcriptional changes in fruit with those in leaves to highlight different and conserved transcriptome signatures in vegetative and reproductive organs. We observed extensive and diverse genetic reprogramming in different fruit tissues and leaves, each associated with a unique response to drought acclimation. These included major transcriptional shifts in the placenta of growing fruit and in the seeds of ripe fruit related to cell growth and epigenetic regulation, respectively. Changes in metabolic and hormonal pathways, such as those related to starch, carotenoids, jasmonic acid, and ethylene metabolism, were associated with distinct fruit tissues and developmental stages. Gene coexpression network analysis provided further insights into the tissue-specific regulation of distinct responses to water stress. Our data highlight the spatiotemporal specificity of drought responses in tomato fruit and indicate known and unrevealed molecular regulatory mechanisms involved in drought acclimation, during both vegetative and reproductive stages of development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yoshihito Shinozaki
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - Adrian Powell
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - Glenn Philippe
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - Stephen I Snyder
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - Kan Bao
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - Yi Zheng
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - Yimin Xu
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | | | | | - Clare L Casteel
- Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | | | - Zhangjun Fei
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Robert W. Holley Center for Agriculture and Health, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - James J Giovannoni
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
- U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Robert W. Holley Center for Agriculture and Health, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - Jocelyn K C Rose
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - Carmen Catalá
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
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Farooq T, Hussain MD, Shakeel MT, Riaz H, Waheed U, Siddique M, Shahzadi I, Aslam MN, Tang Y, She X, He Z. Global genetic diversity and evolutionary patterns among Potato leafroll virus populations. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1022016. [PMID: 36590416 PMCID: PMC9801716 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1022016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Potato leafroll virus (PLRV) is a widespread and one of the most damaging viral pathogens causing significant quantitative and qualitative losses in potato worldwide. The current knowledge of the geographical distribution, standing genetic diversity and the evolutionary patterns existing among global PLRV populations is limited. Here, we employed several bioinformatics tools and comprehensively analyzed the diversity, genomic variability, and the dynamics of key evolutionary factors governing the global spread of this viral pathogen. To date, a total of 84 full-genomic sequences of PLRV isolates have been reported from 22 countries with most genomes documented from Kenya. Among all PLRV-encoded major proteins, RTD and P0 displayed the highest level of nucleotide variability. The highest percentage of mutations were associated with RTD (38.81%) and P1 (31.66%) in the coding sequences. We detected a total of 10 significantly supported recombination events while the most frequently detected ones were associated with PLRV genome sequences reported from Kenya. Notably, the distribution patterns of recombination breakpoints across different genomic regions of PLRV isolates remained variable. Further analysis revealed that with exception of a few positively selected codons, a major part of the PLRV genome is evolving under strong purifying selection. Protein disorder prediction analysis revealed that CP-RTD had the highest percentage (48%) of disordered amino acids and the majority (27%) of disordered residues were positioned at the C-terminus. These findings will extend our current knowledge of the PLRV geographical prevalence, genetic diversity, and evolutionary factors that are presumably shaping the global spread and successful adaptation of PLRV as a destructive potato pathogen to geographically isolated regions of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tahir Farooq
- Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Plant Protection Research Institute and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of High Technology for Plant Protection, Guangzhou, China
| | - Muhammad Dilshad Hussain
- State Key Laboratory for Agro-Biotechnology, and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory for Pest Monitoring and Green Management, Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Muhammad Taimoor Shakeel
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture & Environment, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Hasan Riaz
- Institute of Plant Protection, Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Ummara Waheed
- Institute of Plant Breeding and Biotechnology, Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Maria Siddique
- Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad, Pakistan
| | - Irum Shahzadi
- Department of Biotechnology, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Naveed Aslam
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture & Environment, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Yafei Tang
- Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Plant Protection Research Institute and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of High Technology for Plant Protection, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoman She
- Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Plant Protection Research Institute and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of High Technology for Plant Protection, Guangzhou, China,*Correspondence: Xiaoman She, ; Zifu He,
| | - Zifu He
- Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Plant Protection Research Institute and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of High Technology for Plant Protection, Guangzhou, China,*Correspondence: Xiaoman She, ; Zifu He,
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8
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Legume plant defenses and nutrients mediate indirect interactions between soil rhizobia and chewing herbivores. Basic Appl Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.baae.2022.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Ray S, Casteel CL. Effector-mediated plant-virus-vector interactions. THE PLANT CELL 2022; 34:1514-1531. [PMID: 35277714 PMCID: PMC9048964 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koac058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Hemipterans (such as aphids, whiteflies, and leafhoppers) are some of the most devastating insect pests due to the numerous plant pathogens they transmit as vectors, which are primarily viral. Over the past decade, tremendous progress has been made in broadening our understanding of plant-virus-vector interactions, yet on the molecular level, viruses and vectors have typically been studied in isolation of each other until recently. From that work, it is clear that both hemipteran vectors and viruses use effectors to manipulate host physiology and successfully colonize a plant and that co-evolutionary dynamics have resulted in effective host immune responses, as well as diverse mechanisms of counterattack by both challengers. In this review, we focus on advances in effector-mediated plant-virus-vector interactions and the underlying mechanisms. We propose that molecular synergisms in vector-virus interactions occur in cases where both the virus and vector benefit from the interaction (mutualism). To support this view, we show that mutualisms are common in virus-vector interactions and that virus and vector effectors target conserved mechanisms of plant immunity, including plant transcription factors, and plant protein degradation pathways. Finally, we outline ways to identify true effector synergisms in the future and propose future research directions concerning the roles effectors play in plant-virus-vector interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swayamjit Ray
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology Section, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA
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10
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Kansman JT, Basu S, Casteel CL, Crowder DW, Lee BW, Nihranz CT, Finke DL. Plant Water Stress Reduces Aphid Performance: Exploring Mechanisms Driven by Water Stress Intensity. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.846908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Drought alters plant traits in ways that affect herbivore performance. However, we lack a comprehensive understanding of the plant-derived mechanisms that mediate insect responses to drought. Water stress occurs along gradients of intensity, and the impacts of drought intensity on plant-insect interactions is understudied. Here, we assessed aphid performance on wheat plants exposed to a gradient of water stress and measured plant nutrients and phytohormones that may mediate aphid response to drought. We show that water stress reduced aphid performance, and the negative effect grew stronger as the magnitude of water stress increased. The plant response to water limitation was not consistent across the stress gradient and was reliant on the trait measured. Water limitation did not affect whole-plant nitrogen; however, water limitation did reduce amino acid concentration and increase sugars, but only under high stress intensity. The phytohormones abscisic acid (ABA), jasmonic acid (JA), and salicylic acid (SA), and the expression of their associated gene transcripts, were also differentially affected by water stress intensity. In well-watered conditions, aphid feeding increased concentrations of the defense-related hormones SA and JA over time; however, any amount of water limitation prevented aphid induction of JA. Although aphids may experience a reprieve from JA-related defenses in stressed conditions, SA levels remain high in response to aphid feeding, indicating aphids are still vulnerable to SA-related defenses. Any level of water stress also increased the expression of a callose-associated gene transcript, a physical defense that impairs feeding. Thus, poor aphid performance on mildly-stressed plants was correlated with increased plant defenses, whereas poor performance on highly-stressed plants was correlated with stronger plant defense induction and reduced plant nutritional quality. Understanding the mechanisms driving aphid and plant performance under water stress conditions can improve our ability to predict how aphid populations will respond to climate change.
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11
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Zhang Z, Zhang B, He H, Yan M, Li J, Yan F. Changes in Visual and Olfactory Cues in Virus-Infected Host Plants Alter the Behavior of Bemisia tabaci. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.766570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The cucurbit chlorotic yellows virus (CCYV) has caused serious damage to melon crops in many countries in recent years. This plant virus is exclusively transmitted by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) in a semi-persistent mode. Previous studies have shown that both persistent and non-persistent viruses can affect the orientation and performance of insect vectors, through changing host phenotype or interacting with insect vectors directly to facilitate the spread of viruses. However, how CCYV affects host-plant selection by B. tabaci has not been reported. In this study, we investigated the visual and olfactory preferences of B. tabaci between healthy and CCYV-infected host plants Cucumis sativus (Cucurbitaceae). Volatile profiles of healthy and CCYV-infected C. sativus plants were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In the choice assay, whiteflies preferred to settle on CCYV-infected C. sativus seedlings. However, the concentrations of total volatiles and terpenes in C. sativus plants decreased after CCYV infection. Interestingly, in the Y-tube assay and vision preference test, whitefly B. tabaci adults showed significant visual preference to CCYV-infected host but showed olfactory preference to healthy plants. These results indicated that CCYV infection in plants differently affected the visual and olfactory-mediated orientation behaviors of vector whiteflies and implied that visual cues could play a more important role than olfactory cues in whiteflies in locating CCYV-infected host plants.
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12
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Jayasinghe WH, Akhter MS, Nakahara K, Maruthi MN. Effect of aphid biology and morphology on plant virus transmission. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2022; 78:416-427. [PMID: 34478603 DOI: 10.1002/ps.6629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Aphids severely affect crop production by transmitting many plant viruses. Viruses are obligate intracellular pathogens that mostly depend on vectors for their transmission and survival. A majority of economically important plant viruses are transmitted by aphids. They transmit viruses either persistently (circulative or non-circulative) or non-persistently. Plant virus transmission by insects is a process that has evolved over time and is strongly influenced by insect morphological features and biology. Over the past century, a large body of research has provided detailed knowledge of the molecular processes underlying virus-vector interactions. In this review, we discuss how aphid biology and morphology can affect plant virus transmission. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wikum H Jayasinghe
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | - Md Shamim Akhter
- Laboratory of Pathogen-Plant Interactions, Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Plant Pathology Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Joydebpur, Bangladesh
| | - Kenji Nakahara
- Laboratory of Pathogen-Plant Interactions, Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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13
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Potato leafroll virus reduces Buchnera aphidocola titer and alters vector transcriptome responses. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23931. [PMID: 34907187 PMCID: PMC8671517 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02673-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses in the Luteoviridae family, such as Potato leafroll virus (PLRV), are transmitted by aphids in a circulative and nonpropagative mode. This means the virions enter the aphid body through the gut when they feed from infected plants and then the virions circulate through the hemolymph to enter the salivary glands before being released into the saliva. Although these viruses do not replicate in their insect vectors, previous studies have demonstrated viruliferous aphid behavior is altered and the obligate symbiont of aphids, Buchnera aphidocola, may be involved in transmission. Here we provide the transcriptome of green peach aphids (Myzus persicae) carrying PLRV and virus-free control aphids using Illumina sequencing. Over 150 million paired-end reads were obtained through Illumina sequencing, with an average of 19 million reads per library. The comparative analysis identified 134 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the M. persicae transcriptomes, including 64 and 70 genes that were up- and down-regulated in aphids carrying PLRV, respectively. Using functional classification in the GO databases, 80 of the DEGs were assigned to 391 functional subcategories at category level 2. The most highly up-regulated genes in aphids carrying PLRV were cytochrome p450s, genes related to cuticle production, and genes related to development, while genes related to heat shock proteins, histones, and histone modification were the most down-regulated. PLRV aphids had reduced Buchnera titer and lower abundance of several Buchnera transcripts related to stress responses and metabolism. These results suggest carrying PLRV may reduce both aphid and Buchnera genes in response to stress. This work provides valuable basis for further investigation into the complicated mechanisms of circulative and nonpropagative transmission.
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14
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Plant Viruses Can Alter Aphid-Triggered Calcium Elevations in Infected Leaves. Cells 2021; 10:cells10123534. [PMID: 34944040 PMCID: PMC8700420 DOI: 10.3390/cells10123534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Alighting aphids probe a new host plant by intracellular test punctures for suitability. These induce immediate calcium signals that emanate from the punctured sites and might be the first step in plant recognition of aphid feeding and the subsequent elicitation of plant defence responses. Calcium is also involved in the transmission of non-persistent plant viruses that are acquired by aphids during test punctures. Therefore, we wanted to determine whether viral infection alters calcium signalling. For this, calcium signals triggered by aphids were imaged on transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing the cytosolic FRET-based calcium reporter YC3.6-NES and infected with the non-persistent viruses cauliflower mosaic (CaMV) and turnip mosaic (TuMV), or the persistent virus, turnip yellows (TuYV). Aphids were placed on infected leaves and calcium elevations were recorded by time-lapse fluorescence microscopy. Calcium signal velocities were significantly slower in plants infected with CaMV or TuMV and signal areas were smaller in CaMV-infected plants. Transmission tests using CaMV-infected Arabidopsis mutants impaired in pathogen perception or in the generation of calcium signals revealed no differences in transmission efficiency. A transcriptomic meta-analysis indicated significant changes in expression of receptor-like kinases in the BAK1 pathway as well as of calcium channels in CaMV- and TuMV-infected plants. Taken together, infection with CaMV and TuMV, but not with TuYV, impacts aphid-induced calcium signalling. This suggests that viruses can modify plant responses to aphids from the very first vector/host contact.
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15
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LaTourrette K, Holste NM, Garcia-Ruiz H. Polerovirus genomic variation. Virus Evol 2021; 7:veab102. [PMID: 35299789 PMCID: PMC8923251 DOI: 10.1093/ve/veab102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 11/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The polerovirus (family Solemoviridae, genus Polerovirus) genome consists of single-, positive-strand RNA organized in overlapping open reading frames (ORFs) that, in addition to others, code for protein 0 (P0, a gene silencing suppressor), a coat protein (CP, ORF3), and a read-through domain (ORF5) that is fused to the CP to form a CP-read-through (RT) protein. The genus Polerovirus contains twenty-six virus species that infect a wide variety of plants from cereals to cucurbits, to peppers. Poleroviruses are transmitted by a wide range of aphid species in the genera Rhopalosiphum, Stiobion, Aphis, and Myzus. Aphid transmission is mediated both by the CP and by the CP-RT. In viruses, mutational robustness and structural flexibility are necessary for maintaining functionality in genetically diverse sets of host plants and vectors. Under this scenario, within a virus genome, mutations preferentially accumulate in areas that are determinants of host adaptation or vector transmission. In this study, we profiled genomic variation in poleroviruses. Consistent with their multifunctional nature, single-nucleotide variation and selection analyses showed that ORFs coding for P0 and the read-through domain within the CP-RT are the most variable and contain the highest frequency of sites under positive selection. An order/disorder analysis showed that protein P0 is not disordered. In contrast, proteins CP-RT and virus protein genome-linked (VPg) contain areas of disorder. Disorder is a property of multifunctional proteins with multiple interaction partners. The results described here suggest that using contrasting mechanisms, P0, VPg, and CP-RT mediate adaptation to host plants and to vectors and are contributors to the broad host and vector range of poleroviruses. Profiling genetic variation across the polerovirus genome has practical applications in diagnostics, breeding for resistance, and identification of susceptibility genes and contributes to our understanding of virus interactions with their host, vectors, and environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine LaTourrette
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 4240 Fair Street, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 406 Plant Science Hall, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
- Complex Biosystems Interdisciplinary Life Sciences Program, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 2200 Vine Street, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
| | - Natalie M Holste
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 4240 Fair Street, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 406 Plant Science Hall, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
| | - Hernan Garcia-Ruiz
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 4240 Fair Street, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 406 Plant Science Hall, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
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16
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Basu S, Clark RE, Bera S, Casteel CL, Crowder DW. Responses of pea plants to multiple antagonists are mediated by order of attack and phytohormone crosstalk. Mol Ecol 2021; 30:4939-4948. [PMID: 34347913 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Plants are often attacked by multiple antagonists and traits of the attacking organisms and their order of arrival onto hosts may affect plant defences. However, few studies have assessed how multiple antagonists, and varying attack order, affect plant defence or nutrition. To address this, we assessed defensive and nutritional responses of Pisum sativum plants after attack by a vector herbivore (Acrythosiphon pisum), a nonvector herbivore (Sitona lineatus), and a pathogen (Pea enation mosaic virus, PEMV). We show viruliferous A. pisum induced several antipathogen plant defence signals, but these defences were inhibited by S. lineatus feeding on peas infected with PEMV. In contrast, S. lineatus feeding induced antiherbivore defence signals, and these plant defences were enhanced by PEMV. Sitona lineatus also increased abundance of plant amino acids, but only when they attacked after viruliferous A. pisum. Our results suggest that diverse communities of biotic antagonists alter defence and nutritional traits of plants through complex pathways that depend on the identity of attackers and their order of arrival onto hosts. Moreover, we show interactions among a group of biotic stressors can vary along a spectrum from antagonism to enhancement/synergism based on the identity and order of attackers, and these interactions are mediated by a multitude of phytohormone pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saumik Basu
- Department of Entomology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Robert E Clark
- Department of Entomology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Sayanta Bera
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology Section, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Clare L Casteel
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology Section, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - David W Crowder
- Department of Entomology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
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17
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Lee BW, Basu S, Bera S, Casteel CL, Crowder DW. Responses to predation risk cues and alarm pheromones affect plant virus transmission by an aphid vector. Oecologia 2021; 196:1005-1015. [PMID: 34264386 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-021-04989-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Herbivores assess predation risk in their environment by identifying visual, chemical, and tactile predator cues. Detection of predator cues can induce risk-avoidance behaviors in herbivores that affect feeding, dispersal, and host selection in ways that minimize mortality and reproductive costs. For herbivores that transmit plant pathogens, including many aphids, changes in herbivore behavior in response to predator cues may also affect pathogen spread. However, few studies have assessed how aphid behavioral responses to different types of predator cues affect pathogen transmission. Here, we conducted greenhouse experiments to assess whether responses of pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) to predation risk and alarm pheromone (E-β-Farnesene), an aphid alarm signal released in response to predation risk, affected transmission of Pea enation mosaic virus (PEMV). We exposed A. pisum individuals to risk cues, and quantified viral titer in aphids and pea (Pisum sativum) host plants across several time periods. We also assessed how A. pisum responses to risk cues affected aphid nutrition, reproduction, and host selection. We show that exposure to predator cues and alarm pheromone significantly reduced PEMV acquisition and inoculation. Although vectors avoided hosts with predator cues, predator cues did not alter vector reproduction or reduce nutrient acquisition. Overall, these results suggest that non-consumptive effects of predators may indirectly decrease the spread of plant pathogens by altering vector behavior in ways that reduce vector competence and pathogen transmission efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin W Lee
- Department of Entomology, Washington State University, 166 FSHN Building, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA.
| | - Saumik Basu
- Department of Entomology, Washington State University, 166 FSHN Building, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA
| | - Sayanta Bera
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Plant-Microbe Biology and Plant Pathology Section, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Clare L Casteel
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Plant-Microbe Biology and Plant Pathology Section, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - David W Crowder
- Department of Entomology, Washington State University, 166 FSHN Building, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA
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18
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DeBlasio SL, Wilson JR, Tamborindeguy C, Johnson RS, Pinheiro PV, MacCoss MJ, Gray SM, Heck M. Affinity Purification-Mass Spectrometry Identifies a Novel Interaction between a Polerovirus and a Conserved Innate Immunity Aphid Protein that Regulates Transmission Efficiency. J Proteome Res 2021; 20:3365-3387. [PMID: 34019426 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.1c00313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The vast majority of plant viruses are transmitted by insect vectors, with many crucial aspects of the transmission process being mediated by key protein-protein interactions. Still, very few vector proteins interacting with viruses have been identified and functionally characterized. Potato leafroll virus (PLRV) is transmitted most efficiently by Myzus persicae, the green peach aphid, in a circulative, non-propagative manner. Using affinity purification coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (AP-MS), we identified 11 proteins from M. persicaedisplaying a high probability of interaction with PLRV and an additional 23 vector proteins with medium confidence interaction scores. Three of these aphid proteins were confirmed to directly interact with the structural proteins of PLRV and other luteovirid species via yeast two-hybrid. Immunolocalization of one of these direct PLRV-interacting proteins, an orthologue of the human innate immunity protein complement component 1 Q subcomponent-binding protein (C1QBP), shows that MpC1QBP partially co-localizes with PLRV in cytoplasmic puncta and along the periphery of aphid gut epithelial cells. Artificial diet delivery to aphids of a chemical inhibitor of C1QBP leads to increased PLRV acquisition by aphids and subsequently increased titer in inoculated plants, supporting a role for C1QBP in the acquisition and transmission efficiency of PLRV by M. persicae. This study presents the first use of AP-MS for the in vivo isolation of a functionally relevant insect vector-virus protein complex. MS data are available from ProteomeXchange.org using the project identifier PXD022167.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacy L DeBlasio
- Emerging Pests and Pathogens Research Unit, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States.,Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Jennifer R Wilson
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States.,Section of Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Cecilia Tamborindeguy
- Section of Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Richard S Johnson
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98109, United States
| | - Patricia V Pinheiro
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States.,Section of Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Michael J MacCoss
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98109, United States
| | - Stewart M Gray
- Emerging Pests and Pathogens Research Unit, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States.,Section of Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Michelle Heck
- Emerging Pests and Pathogens Research Unit, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States.,Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States.,Section of Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
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19
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Pan L, Miao H, Wang Q, Walling LL, Liu S. Virus-induced phytohormone dynamics and their effects on plant-insect interactions. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 230:1305-1320. [PMID: 33555072 PMCID: PMC8251853 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Attacks on plants by both viruses and their vectors is common in nature. Yet the dynamics of the plant-virus-vector tripartite system, in particular the effects of viral infection on plant-insect interactions, have only begun to emerge in the last decade. Viruses can modulate the interactions between insect vectors and plants via the jasmonate, salicylic acid and ethylene phytohormone pathways, resulting in changes in fitness and viral transmission capacity of their insect vectors. Virus infection of plants may also modulate other phytohormones, such as auxin, gibberellins, cytokinins, brassinosteroids and abscisic acid, with yet undefined consequences on plant-insect interactions. Moreover, virus infection in plants may incur changes to other plant traits, such as nutrition and secondary metabolites, that potentially contribute to virus-associated, phytohormone-mediated manipulation of plant-insect interactions. In this article, we review the research progress, discuss issues related to the complexity and variability of the viral modulation of plant interactions with insect vectors, and suggest future directions of research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li‐Long Pan
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and InsectsInstitute of Insect SciencesZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058China
| | - Huiying Miao
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant GrowthDevelopment and Quality ImprovementMinistry of AgricultureDepartment of HorticultureZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058China
| | - Qiaomei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant GrowthDevelopment and Quality ImprovementMinistry of AgricultureDepartment of HorticultureZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058China
| | - Linda L. Walling
- Department of Botany and Plant SciencesCenter for Plant Cell BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaRiverside, CA92521‐0124USA
| | - Shu‐Sheng Liu
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and InsectsInstitute of Insect SciencesZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058China
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20
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Silva CJ, van den Abeele C, Ortega-Salazar I, Papin V, Adaskaveg JA, Wang D, Casteel CL, Seymour GB, Blanco-Ulate B. Host susceptibility factors render ripe tomato fruit vulnerable to fungal disease despite active immune responses. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:2696-2709. [PMID: 33462583 PMCID: PMC8006553 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eraa601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The increased susceptibility of ripe fruit to fungal pathogens poses a substantial threat to crop production and marketability. Here, we coupled transcriptomic analyses with mutant studies to uncover critical processes associated with defense and susceptibility in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fruit. Using unripe and ripe fruit inoculated with three fungal pathogens, we identified common pathogen responses reliant on chitinases, WRKY transcription factors, and reactive oxygen species detoxification. We established that the magnitude and diversity of defense responses do not significantly impact the interaction outcome, as susceptible ripe fruit mounted a strong immune response to pathogen infection. Then, to distinguish features of ripening that may be responsible for susceptibility, we utilized non-ripening tomato mutants that displayed different susceptibility patterns to fungal infection. Based on transcriptional and hormone profiling, susceptible tomato genotypes had losses in the maintenance of cellular redox homeostasis, while jasmonic acid accumulation and signaling coincided with defense activation in resistant fruit. We identified and validated a susceptibility factor, pectate lyase (PL). CRISPR-based knockouts of PL, but not polygalacturonase (PG2a), reduced susceptibility of ripe fruit by >50%. This study suggests that targeting specific genes that promote susceptibility is a viable strategy to improve the resistance of tomato fruit against fungal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian J Silva
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Casper van den Abeele
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Victor Papin
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
- Ecole Nationale Supérieure Agronomique de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Jaclyn A Adaskaveg
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Duoduo Wang
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- School of Biosciences, Plant and Crop Science Division, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, UK
| | - Clare L Casteel
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Graham B Seymour
- School of Biosciences, Plant and Crop Science Division, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, UK
| | - Barbara Blanco-Ulate
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
- Correspondence:
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21
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Ali JG, Casteel CL, Mauck KE, Trase O. Chemical Ecology of Multitrophic Microbial Interactions: Plants, Insects, Microbes and the Metabolites that Connect Them. J Chem Ecol 2021; 46:645-648. [PMID: 32776182 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-020-01209-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jared G Ali
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
| | - C L Casteel
- Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA.
| | - K E Mauck
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA.
| | - O Trase
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
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22
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Ye J, Zhang L, Zhang X, Wu X, Fang R. Plant Defense Networks against Insect-Borne Pathogens. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 26:272-287. [PMID: 33277186 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2020.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2020] [Revised: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Upon infection with insect-borne microbial pathogens, plants are exposed to two types of damage simultaneously. Over the past decade, numerous molecular studies have been conducted to understand how plants respond to pathogens or herbivores. However, investigations of host responses typically focus on a single stress and are performed under static laboratory conditions. In this review, we highlight research that sheds light on how plants deploy broad-spectrum mechanisms against both vector-borne pathogens and insect vectors. Among the host genes involved in multistress resistance, many are involved in innate immunity and phytohormone signaling (especially jasmonate and salicylic acid). The potential for genome editing or chemical modulators to fine-tune crop defensive signaling, to develop sustainable methods to control insect-borne diseases, is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Lili Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Xiujuan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Rongxiang Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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23
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Cruzado-Gutiérrez RK, Sadeghi R, Prager SM, Casteel CL, Parker J, Wenninger EJ, Price WJ, Bosque-Pérez NA, Karasev AV, Rashed A. Interspecific interactions within a vector-borne complex are influenced by a co-occurring pathosystem. Sci Rep 2021; 11:2242. [PMID: 33500488 PMCID: PMC7838419 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-81710-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Potato virus Y (PVY) and zebra chip (ZC) disease are major threats to solanaceous crop production in North America. PVY can be spread by aphid vectors and through vegetative propagation in potatoes. ZC is associated with "Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum" (Lso), which is transmitted by the tomato/potato psyllid, Bactericera cockerelli Šulc (Hemiptera: Triozidae). As these two pathosystems may co-occur, we studied whether the presence of one virus strain, PVY°, affected the host preference, oviposition, and egg hatch rate of Lso-free or Lso-carrying psyllids in tomato plants. We also examined whether PVY infection influenced Lso transmission success by psyllids, Lso titer and plant chemistry (amino acids, sugars, and phytohormones). Lso-carrying psyllids showed a preference toward healthy hosts, whereas the Lso-free psyllids preferentially settled on the PVY-infected tomatoes. Oviposition of the Lso-carrying psyllids was lower on PVY-infected than healthy tomatoes, but Lso transmission, titer, and psyllid egg hatch were not significantly affected by PVY. The induction of salicylic acid and its related responses, and not nutritional losses, may explain the reduced attractiveness of the PVY-infected host to the Lso-carrying psyllids. Although our study demonstrated that pre-existing PVY infection can reduce oviposition by the Lso-carrying vector, the preference of the Lso-carrying psyllids to settle on healthy hosts could contribute to Lso spread to healthy plants in the presence of PVY infection in a field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina K Cruzado-Gutiérrez
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Nematology, University of Idaho, Aberdeen R&E Center, Aberdeen, ID, 83210, USA
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Nematology, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA
| | - Rohollah Sadeghi
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Nematology, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA
| | - Sean M Prager
- Department of Plant Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5A8, Canada
| | - Clare L Casteel
- Department of Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Jessica Parker
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Nematology, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA
| | - Erik J Wenninger
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Nematology, Kimberly Research & Extension Center, University of Idaho, Kimberly, ID, 83341, USA
| | - William J Price
- College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Statistical Programs, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA
| | - Nilsa A Bosque-Pérez
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Nematology, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA
| | - Alexander V Karasev
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Nematology, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA
| | - Arash Rashed
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Nematology, University of Idaho, Aberdeen R&E Center, Aberdeen, ID, 83210, USA.
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Nematology, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA.
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Bera S, Blundell R, Liang D, Crowder DW, Casteel CL. The Oxylipin Signaling Pathway Is Required for Increased Aphid Attraction and Retention on Virus-Infected Plants. J Chem Ecol 2020; 46:771-781. [PMID: 32065342 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-020-01157-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 01/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Many studies have shown that virus infection alters phytohormone signaling and insect vector contact with hosts. Increased vector contact and movement among plants should increase virus survival and host range. In this study we examine the role of virus-induced changes in phytohormone signaling in plant-aphid interactions, using Pea enation mosaic virus (PEMV), pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum), and pea (Pisum sativum) as a model. We observed that feeding by aphids carrying PEMV increases salicylic acid and jasmonic acid accumulation in pea plants compared to feeding by virus-free aphids. To determine if induction of the oxylipin jasmonic acid is critical for aphid settling, attraction, and retention on PEMV-infected plants, we conducted insect bioassays using virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS), an oxylipin signaling inducer, methyl jasmonate (MeJA), and a chemical inhibitor of oxylipin signaling, phenidone. Surprisingly, there was no impact of phenidone treatment on jasmonic acid or salicylic acid levels in virus-infected plants, though aphid attraction and retention were altered. These results suggest that the observed impacts of phenidone on aphid attraction to and retention on PEMV-infected plants are independent of the jasmonic acid and salicylic acid pathway but may be mediated by another component of the oxylipin signaling pathway. These results shed light on the complexity of viral manipulation of phytohormone signaling and vector-plant interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Bera
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Plant-Microbe Biology and Plant Pathology Section, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - R Blundell
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - D Liang
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - D W Crowder
- Department of Entomology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA
| | - C L Casteel
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Plant-Microbe Biology and Plant Pathology Section, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
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Mauck KE, Chesnais Q. A synthesis of virus-vector associations reveals important deficiencies in studies on host and vector manipulation by plant viruses. Virus Res 2020; 285:197957. [PMID: 32380208 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2020.197957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Plant viruses face many challenges in agricultural environments. Although crop fields appear to be abundant resources for these pathogens, it may be difficult for viruses to "escape" from crop environments prior to host senescence or harvesting. One way for viruses to increase the odds of persisting outside of agricultural fields across seasons is by evolving traits that increase transmission opportunities between crops and wild plant communities. There is accumulating evidence that some viruses can achieve this by manipulating crop plant phenotypes in ways that enhance transmission by vectors. Putative manipulations occur through alteration of plant cues (color, size, texture, foliar volatiles, in-leaf metabolites, defenses, and leaf cuticles) that mediate vector orientation, feeding, and dispersal behaviors. Virus effects on host phenotypes are not uniform but appear to exhibit convergence depending on virus traits underlying transmission, particularly the duration of probing and feeding required to acquire and inoculate distinct types of plant viruses. This shared congruence in manipulation strategies and mechanisms across divergent virus lineages suggests that such effects may be adaptive. To discern if this is the case, researchers must consider molecular and environmental constraints on virus evolution, including those imposed by insect vectors from organismal to landscape scales. In this review, we synthesize applied research on vector-borne virus transmission in laboratory and field settings to identify the main factors determining transmission opportunities for plant viruses, and thus, selection pressure to evolve manipulative traits. We then examine these outputs in the context of studies reporting putative instances of plant virus manipulation. Our synthesis reveals important disconnects between virus manipulation studies and actual selection pressures imposed by vectors in real-world contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry E Mauck
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| | - Quentin Chesnais
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA; Université de Strasbourg, INRAE, SVQV UMR-A 1131, F-68000 Colmar, France
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Ziegler-Graff V. Molecular Insights into Host and Vector Manipulation by Plant Viruses. Viruses 2020; 12:v12030263. [PMID: 32121032 PMCID: PMC7150927 DOI: 10.3390/v12030263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant viruses rely on both host plant and vectors for a successful infection. Essentially to simplify studies, transmission has been considered for decades as an interaction between two partners, virus and vector. This interaction has gained a third partner, the host plant, to establish a tripartite pathosystem in which the players can react with each other directly or indirectly through changes induced in/by the third partner. For instance, viruses can alter the plant metabolism or plant immune defence pathways to modify vector’s attraction, settling or feeding, in a way that can be conducive for virus propagation. Such changes in the plant physiology can also become favourable to the vector, establishing a mutualistic relationship. This review focuses on the recent molecular data on the interplay between viral and plant factors that provide some important clues to understand how viruses manipulate both the host plants and vectors in order to improve transmission conditions and thus ensuring their survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Véronique Ziegler-Graff
- Institut de biologie moléculaire des plantes, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, 67084 Strasbourg, France
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27
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Impact of Mutations in Arabidopsis thaliana Metabolic Pathways on Polerovirus Accumulation, Aphid Performance, and Feeding Behavior. Viruses 2020; 12:v12020146. [PMID: 32012755 PMCID: PMC7077285 DOI: 10.3390/v12020146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
During the process of virus acquisition by aphids, plants respond to both the virus and the aphids by mobilizing different metabolic pathways. It is conceivable that the plant metabolic responses to both aggressors may be conducive to virus acquisition. To address this question, we analyze the accumulation of the phloem-limited polerovirus Turnip yellows virus (TuYV), which is strictly transmitted by aphids, and aphid's life traits in six Arabidopsis thaliana mutants (xth33, ss3-2, nata1, myc234, quad, atr1D, and pad4-1). We observed that mutations affecting the carbohydrate metabolism, the synthesis of a non-protein amino acid and the glucosinolate pathway had an effect on TuYV accumulation. However, the virus titer did not correlate with the virus transmission efficiency. Some mutations in A. thaliana affect the aphid feeding behavior but often only in infected plants. The duration of the phloem sap ingestion phase, together with the time preceding the first sap ingestion, affect the virus transmission rate more than the virus titer did. Our results also show that the aphids reared on infected mutant plants had a reduced biomass regardless of the mutation and the duration of the sap ingestion phase.
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28
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Arena GD, Ramos-González PL, Falk BW, Casteel CL, Freitas-Astúa J, Machado MA. Plant Immune System Activation Upon Citrus Leprosis Virus C Infection Is Mimicked by the Ectopic Expression of the P61 Viral Protein. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:1188. [PMID: 32849736 PMCID: PMC7427430 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.01188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Citrus leprosis virus C (CiLV-C, genus Cilevirus, family Kitaviridae) is an atypical virus that does not spread systemically in its plant hosts. Upon its inoculation by Brevipalpus mites, only localized lesions occur, and the infection remains limited to cells around mite feeding sites. Here, we aimed to gain insights into the putative causes of viral unfitness in plants by expanding the limited knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying plant/kitavirid interactions. Firstly, we quantified the CiLV-C viral RNAs during the infection in Arabidopsis thaliana plants using RT-qPCR and systematized it by defining three stages of distinguishing subgenomic and genomic RNA accumulation: i) 0-24 h after infestation, ii) 2-4 days after infestation (dai), and iii) 6-10 dai. Accordingly, the global plant response to CiLV-C infection was assessed by RNA-Seq at each period. Results indicated a progressive reprogramming of the plant transcriptome in parallel to the increasing viral loads. Gene ontology enrichment analysis revealed the induction of cell growth-related processes at the early stages of the infection and the triggering of the SA-mediated pathway, ROS burst and hypersensitive response (HR) at the presymptomatic stage. Conversely, infected plants downregulated JA/ET-mediated pathways and processes involved in the primary metabolism including photosynthesis. Marker genes of unfolded protein response were also induced, suggesting a contribution of the endoplasmic reticulum stress to the cell death caused by the viral infection. Finally, we transiently expressed CiLV-C proteins in Nicotiana benthamiana plants to undertake their roles in the elicited plant responses. Expression of the CiLV-C P61 protein consistently triggered ROS burst, upregulated SA- and HR-related genes, increased SA levels, reduced JA levels, and caused cell death. Mimicry of responses typically observed during CiLV-C-plant interaction indicates P61 as a putative viral effector causing the HR-like symptoms associated with the infection. Our data strengthen the hypothesis that symptoms of CiLV-C infection might be the outcome of a hypersensitive-like response during an incompatible interaction. Consequently, the locally restricted infection of CiLV-C, commonly observed across infections by kitavirids, supports the thesis that these viruses, likely arising from an ancestral arthropod-infecting virus, are unable to fully circumvent plant defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella D. Arena
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia, Centro de Citricultura Sylvio Moreira, Instituto Agronômico de Campinas, Cordeirópolis, Brazil
- Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (ESALQ), Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, Brazil
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular Aplicada, Instituto Biológico, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Pedro Luis Ramos-González
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular Aplicada, Instituto Biológico, São Paulo, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Pedro Luis Ramos-González, ; Juliana Freitas-Astúa,
| | - Bryce W. Falk
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Clare L. Casteel
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Juliana Freitas-Astúa
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular Aplicada, Instituto Biológico, São Paulo, Brazil
- Laboratório de Virologia Vegetal, Embrapa Mandioca e Fruticultura, Cruz das Almas, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Pedro Luis Ramos-González, ; Juliana Freitas-Astúa,
| | - Marcos A. Machado
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia, Centro de Citricultura Sylvio Moreira, Instituto Agronômico de Campinas, Cordeirópolis, Brazil
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