1
|
McMinn MH, Hu X, Poisson K, Berger P, Pimentel P, Zhang X, Ashara P, Greenfield EL, Eig J, Tian Z. Emerging investigator series: in-depth chemical profiling of tire and artificial turf crumb rubber: aging, transformation products, and transport pathways. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2024. [PMID: 39176437 DOI: 10.1039/d4em00326h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
Crumb rubber generated from end-of-life tires (ELTs) poses a threat to environmental and human health based on its widespread use. Of particular concern is the use of ELT crumb rubber as infill for artificial turf fields, as people are unknowingly exposed to complex mixtures of chemicals when playing on these fields. Additionally, there is concern regarding transport of rubber-related chemicals from artificial turf into the environment. However, existing knowledge does not fully elucidate the chemical profile, transformation products, and transport pathways of artificial turf crumb rubber across different ages. To address these knowledge gaps, we utilized a multi-faceted approach that consisted of targeted quantitation, chemical profiling, and suspect screening via ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS). We collected and processed 3 tire and 11 artificial turf crumb rubber samples via solvent extraction, leaching, and a bioaccessibility-based extraction. Nineteen rubber-derived chemicals were quantified using parallel reaction monitoring and isotope dilution techniques. In solvent extracts, the most abundant analytes were 1,3-diphenylguanidine (0.18-1200 μg g-1), N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD, 0.16-720 μg g-1), 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (0.47-140 μg g-1), and benzothiazole (0.84-150 μg g-1). Chemical profiling assessed changes in sample diversity, abundance, polarity, and molecular mass. Suspect screening identified 81 compounds with different confidence levels (16 at level 1, 53 with level 2, 7 at level 3, and 5 at level 4). The formation rate of transformation products and clustering analysis results identified time-based trends in artificial turf field samples. We found that the first two years of aging may be critical for the potential environmental impact of artificial turf fields. Our analysis provides insight into the chemical complexity of artificial turf crumb rubber samples ranging from 0-14 years in age.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Madison H McMinn
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
- Barnett Institute for Chemical and Biological Analysis, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ximin Hu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Katherine Poisson
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
- Barnett Institute for Chemical and Biological Analysis, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Phillip Berger
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
- Barnett Institute for Chemical and Biological Analysis, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Paola Pimentel
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Xinwen Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Pranali Ashara
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Ella L Greenfield
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Jessica Eig
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Zhenyu Tian
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
- Barnett Institute for Chemical and Biological Analysis, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Turner A, Filella M. Chemical characteristics of artificial plastic plants and the presence of hazardous elements from the recycling of electrical and electronic waste. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 903:166083. [PMID: 37574058 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Because of their convenience, the demand for decorative plastic plants has been increasing over recent years. However, no information exists on the origin or nature of the polymers employed or the type of additives used in order to understand potential environmental impacts and inform safe and sustainable disposal or recycling practices. In this study, 203 parts or offcuts from 175 plastic plants acquired from European shops and venues have been analysed by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine elemental content, while a selection has been analysed by infrared spectrometry to establish polymer type. The (usually green) moulded components (n = 159) were commonly constructed of polyethylene or polypropylene, while leaves and colourful petals (n = 40) were generally made of polyethylene terephthalate fabric that had been glued to the moulded component. However, both components also exhibited evidence of being coated with a resin or adhesive for support, protection or appearance. Barium, Fe, Ti and Zn-based additives were commonly encountered but more important from an environmental and health perspective were variable concentrations of potentially hazardous elements in the moulded parts: namely, Br (6.1 to 108,000 mg kg-1; n = 78), Pb (7.6 to 17,400 mg kg-1; n = 53) and Sb (58.6 to 70,800 mg kg-1; n = 17). These observations suggest that many of the moulded components are derived from recyclates that are contaminated by waste electronic and electrical plastic, introducing brominated flame retardants, the flame retardant synergist, Sb2O3, and Pb into the final product. There are no standards for these chemicals in plastic plants, but regulations for electronic plastic, toy safety and packaging are frequently exceeded or potentially exceeded. Widespread contamination of plastic plants may impose constraints on their recycling and disposal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Turner
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
| | - Montserrat Filella
- Department F.-A. Forel, University of Geneva, Boulevard Carl-Vogt 66, CH-1205 Geneva, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Armada D, Martinez-Fernandez A, Celeiro M, Dagnac T, Llompart M. Assessment of the bioaccessibility of PAHs and other hazardous compounds present in recycled tire rubber employed in synthetic football fields. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 857:159485. [PMID: 36257444 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Recycled tire crumb rubber (RTCR) surfaces contain harmful and carcinogenic substances, which can be ingested by the users of these facilities, mainly athletes and children. In this work, the potential in-vitro oral bioaccessibility of eighteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from RTCR employed as infill in synthetic football fields was studied in human synthetic body fluids (saliva, gastric, duodenal and bile), prepared according the Unified Bioaccessibility Method. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) using commercial sorbents and a new green material based on cork (cork industry by-product) were used to isolate the bioaccessible PAHs before gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis. The method was optimized and validated attending the analytical figures of merit. The feasibility of cork biosorbent for the extraction of the compounds was demonstrated, as well as the suitability of the UBM method to perform the digestion with good precision. The application to real samples collected from football fields demonstrated the presence of 17 of the 18 target PAHs in the biofluids. Most volatile PAHs such as NAP, ACY, ACE, FLU, PHN and ANC, achieved the highest bioaccessibility percentage levels. The carcinogenic B[a]P was detected in 75 % of the samples at concentrations up to 2.5 ng g-1 (bioaccessible fraction). Children exposure assessment was carried out to identify potential risk. Other hazardous and environmentally problematic compounds such as N-(1,3-Dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine-quinone (6PPD-quinone), recently related with the dead of coho salmon, and hexamethoxymethylmelamine (HMMM), among others, were also detected. This is the first study in which the bioaccesibility from real crumb rubber samples of 15 out of the 16 PAHs considered as priority pollutants by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the presence of 6PPD-quinone and HMMM in the bioaccessible fractions is reported.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Armada
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Antia Martinez-Fernandez
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Maria Celeiro
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Thierry Dagnac
- Agronomic Research Centre (AGACAL-CIAM), Unit of Organic Contaminants, Apartado 10, E-15080 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Kubota R, Obama T, Kawakami T, Sakai S, Inoue K, Ikarashi Y. Characterization of synthetic turf rubber granule infill in Japan: Total content and migration of metals. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 842:156705. [PMID: 35716741 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
We evaluated the total content of 28 metals in synthetic turf rubber granule infill and performed extraction tests using four types of simulated biofluids to assess the health effects of synthetic turf crumb rubbers used in Japan. The highest median metal concentration was obtained for Zn, with median concentrations above 100 μg/g, followed by Al, Fe, and Mn. The highest median Pb concentration was 19.9 μg/g. The metal concentrations of the samples were different depending on the origin/material. Among high-concentration metals, Al, Fe, and Mn were higher in ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber, and Zn was higher in tires. Significantly higher Sb and Sr concentrations were observed in other materials, including industrial rubber, synthetic rubber, and thermoplastic elastomer, compared with tires. However, significantly higher Sn, Co, Pb, and Cd concentrations were detected in tires compared with other materials. Metals with high concentrations independent of the origin/material were considered derived from materials added during the manufacturing process. To evaluate the bioaccessibility, extraction tests were conducted using simulated biofluids. In gastric fluid, many metals were detected in higher concentrations than in other biofluids, intestinal fluid, saliva, and sweat, and the extraction rate of most metals exceeded 10% in artificial gastric fluid. Because the amount of metals leached into the simulated biofluids was much lower than several standards on the amount of certain metals that have the potential to be extracted from the object if ingested, the risk related to the exposure to metals from synthetic turf rubber granule infill is considered low.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reiji Kubota
- Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan.
| | - Tomoko Obama
- Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Kawakami
- Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
| | - Shinobu Sakai
- Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
| | - Kaoru Inoue
- Division of Risk Assessment, Biological Safety Research Center, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Ikarashi
- Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Tang X, Benowitz N, Gundel L, Hang B, Havel CM, Hoh E, Jacob Iii P, Mao JH, Martins-Green M, Matt GE, Quintana PJE, Russell ML, Sarker A, Schick SF, Snijders AM, Destaillats H. Thirdhand Exposures to Tobacco-Specific Nitrosamines through Inhalation, Dust Ingestion, Dermal Uptake, and Epidermal Chemistry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:12506-12516. [PMID: 35900278 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c02559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) are emitted during smoking and form indoors by nitrosation of nicotine. Two of them, N'-nitrosonornicotine (NNN) and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), are human carcinogens with No Significant Risk Levels (NSRLs) of 500 and 14 ng day-1, respectively. Another TSNA, 4-(methylnitrosamino)-4-(3-pyridyl) butanal (NNA), shows genotoxic and mutagenic activity in vitro. Here, we present additional evidence of genotoxicity of NNA, an assessment of TSNA dermal uptake, and predicted exposure risks through different pathways. Dermal uptake was investigated by evaluating the penetration of NNK and nicotine through mice skin. Comparable mouse urine metabolite profiles suggested that both compounds were absorbed and metabolized via similar mechanisms. We then investigated the effects of skin constituents on the reaction of adsorbed nicotine with nitrous acid (epidermal chemistry). Higher TSNA concentrations were formed on cellulose and cotton substrates that were precoated with human skin oils and sweat compared to clean substrates. These results were combined with reported air, dust, and surface concentrations to assess NNK intake. Five different exposure pathways exceeded the NSRL under realistic scenarios, including inhalation, dust ingestion, direct dermal contact, gas-to-skin deposition, and epidermal nitrosation of nicotine. These results illustrate potential long-term health risks for nonsmokers in homes contaminated with thirdhand tobacco smoke.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaochen Tang
- Indoor Environment Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Neal Benowitz
- Clinical Pharmacology Program, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Lara Gundel
- Indoor Environment Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Bo Hang
- Bioengineering & Biomedical Sciences Department, Biological Systems & Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Christopher M Havel
- Clinical Pharmacology Program, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Eunha Hoh
- School of Public Health, San Diego State University, San Diego, California 92182, United States
| | - Peyton Jacob Iii
- Clinical Pharmacology Program, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Jian-Hua Mao
- Bioengineering & Biomedical Sciences Department, Biological Systems & Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Manuela Martins-Green
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California 92506, United States
| | - Georg E Matt
- Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California 92182, United States
| | - Penelope J E Quintana
- School of Public Health, San Diego State University, San Diego, California 92182, United States
| | - Marion L Russell
- Indoor Environment Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Altaf Sarker
- Bioengineering & Biomedical Sciences Department, Biological Systems & Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Suzaynn F Schick
- Clinical Pharmacology Program, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Antoine M Snijders
- Bioengineering & Biomedical Sciences Department, Biological Systems & Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Hugo Destaillats
- Indoor Environment Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Graça CAL, Rocha F, Gomes FO, Rocha MR, Homem V, Alves A, Ratola N. Presence of metals and metalloids in crumb rubber used as infill of worldwide synthetic turf pitches: Exposure and risk assessment. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 299:134379. [PMID: 35339520 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Crumb rubber derived from end-of-life tires (ELTs) is frequently used as infill of synthetic turf pitches, promoting circular economy. Although important to reduce the accumulation of waste, the use of recycled ELTs can be a problem to human health and the environment, both by direct contact during pitch use and by the release of these elements to the surroundings, mostly via volatilization and leaching. The present study aimed to evaluate the distribution of metals in ELT-derived crumb rubber collected in artificial turf worldwide and assess possible trends by country, pitch age and type (indoor vs. outdoor). The concentration ranges observed are very wide, especially in outdoor fields and for the most abundant metals, namely Zn (2989-5246 mg/kg), Fe (196-5194 mg/kg), Mg (188-1795 mg/kg) and Al (159-1882 mg/kg). For Zn, the levels were mostly above the safe limits set in European directives for relatable matrices (soils and toy materials), and the same happened for Pb, a much more toxic metal at lower concentrations. A multi-pathway human exposure study was also performed, and the risk assessment shows non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks from accidental crumb rubber ingestion (with Cr and Pb as major contributors) above the acceptable values for all the receptors except adult bystanders, with a higher significance to younger individuals. These results bring a different perspective regarding most of the studies reporting low risks related with exposure to metals in crumb rubber.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cátia A L Graça
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Filipe Rocha
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Filipa O Gomes
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - M Rosário Rocha
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Vera Homem
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Arminda Alves
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Negev M, Barnett-Itzhaki Z, Berman T, Reicher S, Cohen N, Ardi R, Shammai Y, Zohar T, Diamond ML. Hazardous chemicals in outdoor and indoor surfaces: artificial turf and laminate flooring. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2022; 32:392-399. [PMID: 34697408 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-021-00396-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic materials, increasingly used for indoor and outdoor surfaces including homes and playgrounds, may contain toxic chemicals. Infants have a higher potential of exposure to chemicals in these materials, which may pose a risk to their health. OBJECTIVE To understand potential risks related to outdoor surface coverings, based on a review of the literature and regulations, and to assess levels of hazardous chemicals in surface coverings in Israel. METHODS We reviewed the literature and regulations on artificial turf. We tested 46 samples of surfaces for trace metals in synthetic playground surfaces; trace metals, phthalates, and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT) in synthetic grass, and phthalates, DEHT and formaldehyde in laminate flooring. RESULTS Twelve studies reporting high levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and varying levels of trace metals in synthetic playground surfaces were identified, as well as five international regulations on lead with maximum acceptable concentrations in the range 40-500 mg/kg. Surface tests showed that 20 out of 30 samples of synthetic playground surfaces exceeded relevant standards for trace metals, of which five had cadmium levels ≥30 mg/kg and four had chromium levels ≥510 mg/kg. In synthetic grass, three out of eight samples exceeded relevant standards, with lead levels ≥1200 mg/kg. In Laminate flooring (n = 8) formaldehyde levels were in the range of 0.7-1.2 mg/m2 formaldehyde, and five samples contained ~5% DEHT. SIGNIFICANCE The literature on chemicals in surfaces is limited, but indicates some exceedance of regulatory limits. Trace metals in synthetic playground surfaces and synthetic grass, not regulated in Israel, exceeded relevant international standards in 72% of samples. Laminate flooring, regulated for formaldehyde, did not exceed the 3.5 mg/m2 standard, but contained DEHT, a replacement for ortho-substituted phthalates. The results of this preliminary study show that flooring surfaces may be a source of children's exposure to toxic chemicals. IMPACT STATEMENT Synthetic surfaces are increasingly being used in, for example, children's playgrounds and sports fields. Exceedances of regulatory limits from other jurisdictions, of heavy metal levels in most outdoor surfaces sampled in Israel indicates the potential for children's exposure. Domestic regulations should be implemented to reduce the risk to children from exposure to these surfaces.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maya Negev
- School of Public Health, University of Haifa, Mt. Carmel, Haifa, 3498838, Israel.
| | - Zohar Barnett-Itzhaki
- Ministry of Health, Jeremiya Street 39, Jerusalem, 9446724, Israel
- School of Engineering, Research Center for Health Informatics, Ruppin Academic Center, Emek Hefer, 4025000, Israel
| | - Tamar Berman
- Ministry of Health, Jeremiya Street 39, Jerusalem, 9446724, Israel
| | - Shay Reicher
- Ministry of Health, Jeremiya Street 39, Jerusalem, 9446724, Israel
| | - Naor Cohen
- The Standards Institution of Israel, 42 Chaim Levanon Street, Tel Aviv, 6997701, Israel
| | - Ruti Ardi
- The Standards Institution of Israel, 42 Chaim Levanon Street, Tel Aviv, 6997701, Israel
| | - Yaniv Shammai
- The Standards Institution of Israel, 42 Chaim Levanon Street, Tel Aviv, 6997701, Israel
| | - Tamar Zohar
- School of Public Health, University of Haifa, Mt. Carmel, Haifa, 3498838, Israel
| | - Miriam L Diamond
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, 22 Russell Street, Toronto, M5S 3B1, ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Armada D, Llompart M, Celeiro M, Garcia-Castro P, Ratola N, Dagnac T, de Boer J. Global evaluation of the chemical hazard of recycled tire crumb rubber employed on worldwide synthetic turf football pitches. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 812:152542. [PMID: 34952075 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Social and environmental concern about the use of crumb rubber from end-of-life car tires in the construction of different sport and recreational facilities is increasing due to the presence of hazardous compounds. The aim of this research was the assessment of 42 organic chemicals, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates, adipates, antioxidants and vulcanisation agents in a large number of infill samples (91) from synthetic turf football pitches of diverse characteristics and geographical origin. Samples were taken worldwide, in 17 countries on 4 continents, to show the global dimension of this problem. Ultrasound assisted extraction was employed to extract the target compounds, followed by gas chromatography coupled to tandem-mass spectrometry (UAE-GC-MS/MS). Seventy-eight crumb rubber samples as well as thirteen samples of alternatives materials, such as cork granulates, thermoplastic elastomers and coconut fibre, were analyzed. The results highlight the presence of all target PAH in most rubber samples at concentrations up to μg g-1, including the eight ECHA (European Chemicals Agency) PAHs considered as carcinogenic, and anthracene (ANC), pyrene (PYR) and benzo[ghi]perylene (B[ghi]P), catalogued as substances of very high concern (SVHC). Endocrine disruptors such as some plasticizers (mainly phthalates), and other compounds like benzothiazole (BTZ) and 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBTZ) were found reaching the mg g-1 level. This confirms the presence of the hazardous substances in the recycled crumb rubber samples collected all around the world. Three crumb rubber samples exceeded the limit of 20 μg g-1 for the sum of the eight ECHA PAHs. Regarding the chemical composition of other infill alternatives, cork appears to be adequate, while the thermoplastic elastomers contained high levels of some plasticizers. In addition, the plastic infill as well as the crumb rubber both are microplastics. Microplastics are considered contaminants of emerging concern since they do not biodegrade and remain in the environment for a long time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Armada
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Maria Celeiro
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Pablo Garcia-Castro
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Thierry Dagnac
- Agronomic Research Centre (AGACAL-CIAM), Unit of Organic Contaminants, Apartado 10, E-15080 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Environment & Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Ge JL, Wang JX, Wu CC, Bao LJ, Zeng EY. Development of an in vitro model to simulate migration of organic contaminants from pad products to human sweat and enhance dermal exposure risk assessment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 795:148827. [PMID: 34252776 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Dermal sorption is an important route for human exposure to organic chemicals embedded in consumer products, but the related chemical migration from consumer products to sweats was often overlooked in assessing skin exposure risk. To address this issue, the present study selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalic acid esters (PAEs), and benzothiazoles (BTs) as the target compounds and developed an in vitro simulation model with two artificial sweats (i.e., acidic and alkaline), a sorbent, and a PVC standard material. An appropriate biological inhibitor (ampicillin) and incubation time of 20 d for assessing the maximum migration efficiency of chemicals were selected. The mass balance of the target compounds during the in vitro incubation was verified. The established in vitro simulation model was used to determine the migration ratios of PAEs and BTs in three types of mouse pads. The maximum migration ratios of DBP, DIBP, DEHP, and BT from leather pad to both sweats were less than those for silicone and rubber pads. Key controlling parameters in migration ratios should be examined in subsequent investigations. Risk assessment showed that the daily exposure doses of PAEs and BTs in mouse pads were higher than the literature data. The hazard index of PAEs in leather pad exceed 1, indicating that PAEs could induce non-carcinogenic effects to human health through hand contact. Overall, the established in vitro simulation model provides a feasible alternative for assessing the potential risk for dermal exposure to consumer products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Li Ge
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Jia-Xiong Wang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Chen-Chou Wu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Lian-Jun Bao
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China.
| | - Eddy Y Zeng
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Skoczyńska E, Leonards PEG, Llompart M, de Boer J. Analysis of recycled rubber: Development of an analytical method and determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic aromatic compounds in rubber matrices. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 276:130076. [PMID: 33714875 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Recycled crumb rubber (CR) is rich in compounds with unrecognized toxic potency; this study aims at the development of an analytical method that would allow identification and quantification of a very wide range of organic compounds extractable from the complex rubber matrix. The analytical set-up includes target analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and methyl-PAHs and suspect screening of raw extracts to tentatively identify primary organic compounds present, but not included in the standard target analysis of recycled rubber, followed by analytical method development and target analysis of identified compounds. Analyzed samples included weathered and new CR originating from football turf granulates, rubber mats, and end-of-life car tires (ELTs). The developed analytical method involves sonication extraction, followed by solid phase extraction (SPE) fractionation that enables simple and efficient separation of analytes with broad polarity scale. The application of SPE fractionation resolves coelution problems and simplifies the chromatograms. This analytical approach allowed to identify and quantify 46 sample specific compounds, including several heterocyclic PAHs like 2-methylthiobenzothiazole, benzonapthothiophenes, benzonaphthofuranes and aromatic amines like diphenylamine and N-phenyl-2-naphthylamine, which to our knowledge were not determined before. The PAHs concentrations determined in CR tiles purchased in Dutch and Spanish shops exceed the EU limits for articles marketed for use by the public. Furthermore, sets of methylated PAHs, dibenzothiazoles and aromatic amines were identified and quantified, and several other compounds were tentatively identified. The obtained results stress the need for expanding the list of target compounds analyzed in CR and the need for longitudinal studies on weathering processes taking place in CR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Skoczyńska
- Vrije Universiteit, Department of Environment and Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Pim E G Leonards
- Vrije Universiteit, Department of Environment and Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS Institute, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Vrije Universiteit, Department of Environment and Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Schneider K, Bierwisch A, Kaiser E. ERASSTRI - European risk assessment study on synthetic turf rubber infill - Part 3: Exposure and risk characterisation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 718:137721. [PMID: 32173010 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
As the final part of a Europe-wide study on the risk from synthetic turf infill consisting of rubber granules derived from end-of-life tyres (ELT), exposure of sportspeople was assessed and compared with health-based reference values for various chemical substances. Based on information from previous project phases, exposure scenarios were established and exposure was calculated for oral, dermal and inhalation routes. Calculated cancer risks for exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were below 1:1 million. Risk characterisation ratios (RCRs) for non-carcinogenic substances were below 1, indicating no health concerns. For 2-hydroxybenzothiazole no toxicological data were found from which to derive a substance-specific reference value. A threshold-of-toxicological concern approach revealed maximum RCRs slightly above 1, which are acceptable, given the conservativism of the approach. ERASSTRI substantially improved the data available for assessing human health risks from using ELT-derived infill material. Overall, no health concerns could be identified for the use of synthetic turfs with ELT-derived infill material.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Schneider
- FoBiG, Forschungs- und Beratungsinstitut Gefahrstoffe GmbH, Klarastr. 63, 79106 Freiburg i. Br., Germany.
| | - Anne Bierwisch
- FoBiG, Forschungs- und Beratungsinstitut Gefahrstoffe GmbH, Klarastr. 63, 79106 Freiburg i. Br., Germany.
| | - Eva Kaiser
- FoBiG, Forschungs- und Beratungsinstitut Gefahrstoffe GmbH, Klarastr. 63, 79106 Freiburg i. Br., Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Massey R, Pollard L, Jacobs M, Onasch J, Harari H. Artificial Turf Infill: A Comparative Assessment of Chemical Contents. New Solut 2020; 30:10-26. [PMID: 32089037 DOI: 10.1177/1048291120906206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Concerns have been raised regarding toxic chemicals found in tire crumb used as infill in artificial turf and other play surfaces. A hazard-based analysis was conducted, comparing tire crumb with other materials marketed as alternative infills. These include other synthetic polymers as well as plant- and mineral-based materials. The comparison focused on the presence, absence, number, and concentration of chemicals of concern. No infill material was clearly free of concerns, but several are likely to be somewhat safer than tire crumb. Some alternative materials contain some of the same chemicals of concern as those found in tire crumb; however, they may contain a smaller number of these chemicals, and the chemicals may be present in lower quantities. Communities making choices about playing surfaces are encouraged to examine the full range of options, including the option of organically managed natural grass.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Massey
- Toxics Use Reduction Institute, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA
| | - Lindsey Pollard
- Toxics Use Reduction Institute, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA
| | - Molly Jacobs
- Lowell Center for Sustainable Production, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA
| | - Joy Onasch
- Toxics Use Reduction Institute, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA
| | - Homero Harari
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Donald CE, Scott RP, Wilson G, Hoffman PD, Anderson KA. Artificial turf: chemical flux and development of silicone wristband partitioning coefficients. AIR QUALITY, ATMOSPHERE, & HEALTH 2019; 12:597-611. [PMID: 32201543 PMCID: PMC7083577 DOI: 10.1007/s11869-019-00680-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
This work provides the first quantitative measure of in situ flux of semi-volatile contaminants on artificial turf fields. Passive samplers were used to identify gas-phase PAHs and OPAHs not previously reported associated with artificial turf. Utilizing a broad and targeted screen, we assess both artificial turf and from crumb rubber for 1,529 chemicals, including several with known health effects including benzo[c]fluorene. We also report the presence of 25 chemicals that have not yet been reported in artificial turf literature, including some with known effects on human health. This is the first report of bioavailable gas-phase PAH and OPAH concentrations on an outdoor field, to date gas-phase concentrations have only been reported from indoor facilities. Turf air and air were highly correlated at all three sites, and particularly at the recently-installed indoor site. Finally, thermal extraction and silicone passive samplers are highly suitable for larger-scale sampling campaigns that aim for less solvent and sample processing. We demonstrate for the first time that silicone passive samplers can be used to quantify volatile and semi-volatile organic chemicals from artificial turf. Co-deploying silicone passive samplers and conventional low density polyethylene, we develop partitioning coefficients that can be used for silicone passive air sampling environmental assessment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carey E Donald
- Food Safety and Environmental Stewardship Program, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, 1007c Agricultural and Life Sciences Building, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97330, USA
- Present address: Institute of Marine Research, Nordnesgaten 50, 5005 Bergen, Norway
| | - Richard P Scott
- Food Safety and Environmental Stewardship Program, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, 1007c Agricultural and Life Sciences Building, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97330, USA
| | - Glenn Wilson
- Food Safety and Environmental Stewardship Program, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, 1007c Agricultural and Life Sciences Building, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97330, USA
| | - Peter D Hoffman
- Food Safety and Environmental Stewardship Program, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, 1007c Agricultural and Life Sciences Building, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97330, USA
| | - Kim A Anderson
- Food Safety and Environmental Stewardship Program, Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, 1007c Agricultural and Life Sciences Building, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97330, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Almansour KS, Arisco NJ, Woo MK, Young AS, Adamkiewicz G, Hart JE. Playground lead levels in rubber, soil, sand, and mulch surfaces in Boston. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0216156. [PMID: 31022281 PMCID: PMC6483242 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0216156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Rubber surfacing is often used in playgrounds due to its potential injury prevention benefits and as a way to recycle waste tires. Available research on chemicals in recycled rubber has focused on synthetic turf applications, but is limited for playground rubber surfacing. Potential lead contamination from vulcanizing agents used in rubber surfacing are a possible concern; however this has not been researched. We examined levels of lead in poured-in-place rubber and compared them to levels in soil, sand, and wood mulch materials from 28 randomly selected playgrounds in Boston, MA, USA using X-ray fluorescence. To evaluate the association between material type and lead concentrations, we conducted a two-way ANOVA with repeated measures and built a linear regression model controlling for distance to major roadway, neighborhood-level status as an environmental justice area, peeling paint on the playground, and rubber condition. Average lead levels were 65.7 μg/g for soil, 22.0 μg/g for rubber, 8.5 μg/g for sand, and 9.0 μg/g for mulch. Our finding of lower concentrations of lead in sand and mulch compared to rubber and soil should be used to inform playground design to optimize children's health, alongside other chemical and safety considerations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Khaled S. Almansour
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Nicholas J. Arisco
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - May K. Woo
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Anna S. Young
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Gary Adamkiewicz
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Jaime E. Hart
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Diekmann A, Giese U, Schaumann I. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in consumer goods made from recycled rubber material: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 220:1163-1178. [PMID: 33395803 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Revised: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Vast amounts of rubber waste are produced every year, where end-of-life tires (ELT) mount up the largest share with several million tonnes in the EU each year. This points up the necessity for reusing end-of-life rubber material. The recycled material shows nearly the same advantages like the origin materials. In consequence, the recycled material is predestined for the use in sport facilities, which explains that around half of the recycled ELTs are used to produce artificial turf, sports flooring and injury-prevention pavements on playgrounds. Since tires contain potentially toxic components, there is worry concerning the release of such chemical substances stemming from these products. As tires contain highly aromatic oils and carbon black, the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and their carcinogenic properties are discussed controversially. This review issues a comprehensive overview of PAH release and a conclusive assessment on human health risk. Analytical studies dealing with the PAH content of consumer goods made from recycled rubber material and associated risk assessments are reviewed. In conclusion PAHs can be detected in consumer goods made from recycled rubber and are released into the environment. They reach humans via leaching (soil, ground water, rivers), oral intake, dermal exposure and inhalation. Thereby, dermal contact or inhalation is the primary route of exposure, whereas oral intake and environmental pollution are regarded as secondary risks. The amount of PAHs that could potentially harm humans is in the magnitude of urban pollution. Risk assessment studies reviewed in this article show no serious risk potential.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Diekmann
- Deutsches Institut für Kautschuktechnologie e. V., Eupener Straße 33, 30519, Hannover, Germany.
| | - Ulrich Giese
- Deutsches Institut für Kautschuktechnologie e. V., Eupener Straße 33, 30519, Hannover, Germany.
| | - I Schaumann
- Deutsches Institut für Kautschuktechnologie e. V., Eupener Straße 33, 30519, Hannover, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Perkins AN, Inayat-Hussain SH, Deziel NC, Johnson CH, Ferguson SS, Garcia-Milian R, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V. Evaluation of potential carcinogenicity of organic chemicals in synthetic turf crumb rubber. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 169:163-172. [PMID: 30458352 PMCID: PMC6396308 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2018] [Revised: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Currently, there are >11,000 synthetic turf athletic fields in the United States and >13,000 in Europe. Concerns have been raised about exposure to carcinogenic chemicals resulting from contact with synthetic turf fields, particularly the infill material ("crumb rubber"), which is commonly fabricated from recycled tires. However, exposure data are scant, and the limited existing exposure studies have focused on a small subset of crumb rubber components. Our objective was to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of a broad range of chemical components of crumb rubber infill using computational toxicology and regulatory agency classifications from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) to inform future exposure studies and risk analyses. Through a literature review, we identified 306 chemical constituents of crumb rubber infill from 20 publications. Utilizing ADMET Predictor™, a computational program to predict carcinogenicity and genotoxicity, 197 of the identified 306 chemicals met our a priori carcinogenicity criteria. Of these, 52 chemicals were also classified as known, presumed or suspected carcinogens by the US EPA and ECHA. Of the remaining 109 chemicals which were not predicted to be carcinogenic by our computational toxicology analysis, only 6 chemicals were classified as presumed or suspected human carcinogens by US EPA or ECHA. Importantly, the majority of crumb rubber constituents were not listed in the US EPA (n = 207) and ECHA (n = 262) databases, likely due to an absence of evaluation or insufficient information for a reliable carcinogenicity classification. By employing a cancer hazard scoring system to the chemicals which were predicted and classified by the computational analysis and government databases, several high priority carcinogens were identified, including benzene, benzidine, benzo(a)pyrene, trichloroethylene and vinyl chloride. Our findings demonstrate that computational toxicology assessment in conjunction with government classifications can be used to prioritize hazardous chemicals for future exposure monitoring studies for users of synthetic turf fields. This approach could be extended to other compounds or toxicity endpoints.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alaina N Perkins
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA
| | - Salmaan H Inayat-Hussain
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA; Product Stewardship and Toxicology Section, Group Health, Safety, Security and Environment, Petroliam Nasional Berhad, Kuala Lumpur 50088, Malaysia
| | - Nicole C Deziel
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA
| | - Caroline H Johnson
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA
| | - Stephen S Ferguson
- Biomolecular Screening Branch, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Durham, NC 27709, USA
| | - Rolando Garcia-Milian
- Bioinformatics Support Program, Cushing/ Whitney Medical Library, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06250, USA
| | - David C Thompson
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Vasilis Vasiliou
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Celeiro M, Dagnac T, Llompart M. Determination of priority and other hazardous substances in football fields of synthetic turf by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: A health and environmental concern. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 195:201-211. [PMID: 29268178 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.12.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/10/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Due to the high concern generated in the last years about the safety of recycled tire rubber used for recreational sports surfaces, this study aims at evaluating the presence of forty organic compounds including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates, adipates, vulcanisation additives and antioxidants in recycled tire crumb of synthetic turf football fields. Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) was successfully employed to extract the target compounds from the crumb rubber, and analysis was performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The transfer of the target chemicals from the crumb rubber to the runoff water and to the air above the rubber surface has also been evaluated employing solid-phase microextraction (SPME). Samples from fifteen football fields were analysed, and the results revealed the presence of 24 of the 40 target compounds, including 14 of the 16 EPA PAHs, with total concentrations up to 50 μg g-1. Heavy metals such as Cd, Cr and Pb were also found. A partial transfer of organic compounds to the air and runoff water was also demonstrated. The analysis of rain water collected directly from the football field, showed the presence of a high number of the target compounds at concentrations reaching above 100 μg L-1. The environmental risk arising from the burning of crumb rubber tires has been assessed, as well, analysing the crumb rubber, and the air and water in contact with this material, showing a substantial increase both of the number and concentration of the hazardous chemicals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Celeiro
- Laboratory of Research and Development of Analytical Solutions (LIDSA), Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Chemistry, E-15782, Campus Vida, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Thierry Dagnac
- Agronomic and Agrarian Research Centre (INGACAL-CIAM), Unit of Organic Contaminants, Apartado 10, 15080, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Maria Llompart
- Laboratory of Research and Development of Analytical Solutions (LIDSA), Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Chemistry, E-15782, Campus Vida, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Canepari S, Castellano P, Astolfi ML, Materazzi S, Ferrante R, Fiorini D, Curini R. Release of particles, organic compounds, and metals from crumb rubber used in synthetic turf under chemical and physical stress. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:1448-1459. [PMID: 29090445 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-0377-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The chemical and morphological characteristics of materials released under chemical and physical stress by different rubber granulates used as infill materials in synthetic turf (recycled scrap tires, natural rubber, and a new-generation thermoplastic elastomer) were compared.The headspace solid-phase micro-extraction GC-MS analysis evidenced that at 70 °C natural rubber and thermoplastic elastomer release amounts of organic species much higher than recycled scrap tires. In particular, the desorption of mineral oils, with a prevalence of toxicologically relevant low-viscosity alkanes in the range C17-C22, and plasticizers (diisobutyl phthalate) was clearly evidenced. The new-generation thermoplastic elastomer material also releases butylated hydroxytoluene.In slightly acidic conditions, quite high amounts of bio-accessible Zn, Cu, and Co are released from recycled scrap tires, while natural rubber releases mainly Se and Tl. In contrast, the thermoplastic elastomer does not contain significant concentrations of leachable heavy metals.The formation of small particles, also in the inhalable fraction, was evidenced by electron microscopy after mechanical or thermal treatment of natural rubber.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Canepari
- Chemistry Department, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Paola Castellano
- Local Office of Aosta, INAIL-Italian Workers' Compensation Authority, Corso Padre Lorenzo, 18, 11100, Aosta, Italy
| | - Maria Luisa Astolfi
- Chemistry Department, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Materazzi
- Chemistry Department, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Riccardo Ferrante
- Department of Occupational Hygiene, INAIL-Italian Workers' Compensation Authority, Research Area, via Fontana Candida 1, 00040 Monteporzio Catone, Rome, Italy
| | - Dennis Fiorini
- Chemistry Division, School of Science and Technology, University of Camerino, V. S. Agostino 1, 62032, Camerino, MC, Italy
| | - Roberta Curini
- Chemistry Department, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Peterson MK, Lemay JC, Pacheco Shubin S, Prueitt RL. Comprehensive multipathway risk assessment of chemicals associated with recycled ("crumb") rubber in synthetic turf fields. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2018; 160:256-268. [PMID: 29031215 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 07/27/2017] [Accepted: 09/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thousands of synthetic turf fields in the US are regularly used by millions of individuals (particularly children and adolescents). Although many safety assessments have concluded that there are low or negligible risks related to exposure to chemicals found in the recycled rubber used to make these fields, concerns remain about the safety of this product. Existing studies of recycled rubber's potential health risks have limitations such as small sample sizes and limited evaluation of relevant exposure pathways and scenarios. OBJECTIVE Conduct a comprehensive multipathway human health risk assessment (HHRA) of exposure to chemicals found in recycled rubber. METHODS All available North American data on the chemical composition of recycled rubber, as well as air sampling data collected on or near synthetic turf fields, were identified via a literature search. Ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation pathways were evaluated according to US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) guidance, and exposure scenarios for adults, adolescents, and children were considered. RESULTS Estimated non-cancer hazards and cancer risks for all the evaluated scenarios were within US EPA guidelines. In addition, cancer risk levels for users of synthetic turf field were comparable to or lower than those associated with natural soil fields. CONCLUSIONS This HHRA's results add to the growing body of literature that suggests recycled rubber infill in synthetic turf poses negligible risks to human health. This comprehensive assessment provides data that allow stakeholders to make informed decisions about installing and using these fields.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Julie C Lemay
- Gradient, 20 University Road, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | | | - Robyn L Prueitt
- Gradient, 600 Stewart Street, Suite 1900, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Eijnde WVD, Masen M, Lamers E, van de Kerkhof P, Peppelman M, Erp PV. The load tolerance of skin during impact on artificial turf using ex-vivo skin as the readout system. SCI MED FOOTBALL 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2017.1390593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wilbert van den Eijnde
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Marc Masen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Peter van de Kerkhof
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Malou Peppelman
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Piet Van Erp
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Re Depaolini A, Bianchi G, Fornai D, Cardelli A, Badalassi M, Cardelli C, Davoli E. Physical and chemical characterization of representative samples of recycled rubber from end-of-life tires. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 184:1320-1326. [PMID: 28679152 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.06.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A large number of end-of-life tires (ELTs) were sampled and classified by type, age and origin to obtain recycled rubber samples representative of the materials placed on the Italian market. The selected recycled tire rubber samples were physically and chemically characterized and a chemometric approach was used to determine correlations. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) content was correlated to the aromaticity index and a model was built to establish the H-Bay aromaticity index (H-Bay) from the PAH concentrations. ELT of different origin and age produced in non-European countries generally had higher PAH content and a higher H-Bay index. H-Bay values of all the samples were lower than the REACH limits and old tires had higher aromatic content than recent ones, possibly due to the replacement of aromatic oils in tire production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Re Depaolini
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Environmental Health Sciences Department, IRCCS Istituto Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Bianchi
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Environmental Health Sciences Department, IRCCS Istituto Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Daniele Fornai
- Ecopneus Scpa, Via Messina 38, Torre B, 20154, Milano, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Enrico Davoli
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Environmental Health Sciences Department, IRCCS Istituto Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Abstract
Most synthetic turf fields have crumb rubber interspersed among the simulated grass fibers to reduce athletic injuries by allowing users to turn and slide more readily as they play sports or exercise on the fields. Recently, the crumbs have been implicated in causing cancer in adolescents and young adults who use the fields, particularly lymphoma and primarily in soccer goalkeepers. This concern has led to the initiation of large-scale studies by local and federal governments that are expected to take years to complete. Meanwhile, should the existing synthetic turf fields with crumb rubber be avoided? What should parents, players, coaches, school administrators, and playground developers do? What should sports medicine specialists and other health professionals recommend? Use grass fields when weather and field conditions permit? Exercise indoors? Three basic premises regarding the nature of the reported cancers, the latency of exposure to environmental causes of cancer to the development of clinically detectable cancer, and the rarity of environmental causation of cancer in children, adolescents, and young adults suggest otherwise.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Archie Bleyer
- Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA. .,University of Texas Medical School, Houston, TX, USA. .,, 2884 NW Horizon Dr., Bend, OR, 97703, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Pochron ST, Fiorenza A, Sperl C, Ledda B, Lawrence Patterson C, Tucker CC, Tucker W, Ho YL, Panico N. The response of earthworms (Eisenia fetida) and soil microbes to the crumb rubber material used in artificial turf fields. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 173:557-562. [PMID: 28142114 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.01.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Municipalities have been replacing grass fields with artificial turf, which uses crumb rubber infill made from recycled tires. Crumb rubber contains hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and heavy metals. Water runoff from crumb rubber fields contains heavy metals. These components can damage the environment. We contaminated topsoil with new crumb rubber and measured its impact on earthworms and soil microbes. Specifically, we compared soil microbe activity and earthworm health, survivorship, and longevity in heat and light stress under two soil regimes: clean topsoil and clean topsoil contaminated with crumb rubber. We then characterized levels of metals, nutrients, and micronutrients of both soil treatments and compared those to published New York soil background levels and to levels set by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) as remediation goals. We found that: 1) contaminated soil did not inhibit microbial respiration rates, 2) earthworm survivorship was not impacted by exposure to contaminated soil, 3) earthworms' ability to cope with heat and light stress remained unchanged after living in contaminated soil, but 4) earthworms living in contaminated soil gained 14% less body weight than did earthworms living in uncontaminated soil. We also found that, with the exception of zinc, heavy metals in our contaminated soil did not exceed the background levels found throughout New York State or the remediation targets set by the DEC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sharon T Pochron
- Sustainability Studies Program, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-3435, USA.
| | - Andrew Fiorenza
- Sustainability Studies Program, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-3435, USA
| | | | - Brianne Ledda
- Miller Place High School, Miller Place, NY 11764, USA
| | | | - Clara C Tucker
- Sustainability Studies Program, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-3435, USA
| | - Wade Tucker
- Miller Place High School, Miller Place, NY 11764, USA
| | | | - Nicholas Panico
- Sustainability Studies Program, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-3435, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Guney M, Chapuis RP, Zagury GJ. Lung bioaccessibility of contaminants in particulate matter of geological origin. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:24422-24434. [PMID: 27080406 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-6623-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Human exposure to particulate matter (PM) has been associated with adverse health effects. While inhalation exposure to airborne PM is a prominent research subject, exposure to PM of geological origin (i.e., generated from soil/soil-like material) has received less attention. This review discusses the contaminants in PM of geological origin and their relevance for human exposure and then evaluates lung bioaccessibility assessment methods and their use. PM of geological origin can contain toxic elements as well as organic contaminants. Observed/predicted PM lung clearance times are long, which may lead to prolonged contact with lung environment. Thus, certain exposure scenarios warrant the use of in vitro bioaccessibility testing to predict lung bioavailability. Limited research is available on lung bioaccessibility test development and test application to PM of geological origin. For in vitro tests, test parameter variation between different studies and concerns about physiological relevance indicate a crucial need for test method standardization and comparison with relevant animal data. Research is recommended on (1) developing robust in vitro lung bioaccessibility methods, (2) assessing bioaccessibility of various contaminants (especially polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)) in PM of diverse origin (surface soils, mine tailings, etc.), and (3) risk characterization to determine relative importance of exposure to PM of geological origin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mert Guney
- Department of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, H3C 3A7, Canada
| | - Robert P Chapuis
- Department of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, H3C 3A7, Canada
| | - Gerald J Zagury
- Department of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, H3C 3A7, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Ragaert K, Delva L, Van Damme N, Kuzmanovic M, Hubo S, Cardon L. Microstructural foundations of the strength and resilience of LLDPE artificial turf yarn. J Appl Polym Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/app.44080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. Ragaert
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Centre for Polymer & Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture; Ghent University; Technologie Park 915 Gent 9052 Belgium
| | - L. Delva
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Centre for Polymer & Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture; Ghent University; Technologie Park 915 Gent 9052 Belgium
| | - N. Van Damme
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Centre for Polymer & Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture; Ghent University; Technologie Park 915 Gent 9052 Belgium
| | - M. Kuzmanovic
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Centre for Polymer & Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture; Ghent University; Technologie Park 915 Gent 9052 Belgium
| | - S. Hubo
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Centre for Polymer & Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture; Ghent University; Technologie Park 915 Gent 9052 Belgium
| | - L. Cardon
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Centre for Polymer & Material Technologies, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture; Ghent University; Technologie Park 915 Gent 9052 Belgium
| |
Collapse
|