Characterization and evolution of countries affected by bovine brucellosis (1996-2014)

Is it safe to use ovarian follicular fluid from cows seropositive for brucellosis in the production of in vitro embryos?

Animal reproduction biotechniques are important tools for the technological advancement of livestock, as they allow the selection of the reproductive potential of superior quality females and males; however, infectious diseases that have a predilection for the reproductive system can be a hindrance for the use of these technologies. Therefore, the present study aimed to detect Brucella spp. in the ovarian follicular fluid of brucellosis-positive bovine cows. A total of 47 bovine ovarian follicular fluid aspirates from cows, positive in tests for brucellosis and from Brucella-positive herd, were submitted to PCR. The primers used in the PCR were specific to the genus Brucella (bcsp31 gene). All 47 bovine aspirates were negative for Brucella spp. 0.00% (95% CI: 0.00-4.00%). Our results demonstrated that Brucella spp. was absent in the ovarian follicular fluid from seropositive cows, which indicates that Brucella spp.-infected cows could be used for reproductive biotechnologies carried out with follicular aspirates. Future studies are needed to more precisely evaluate the feasibility and safety of using these oocytes from brucellosis-seropositive cows to transfer embryos to heifers/cows not infected by Brucella, aiming to produce calves free of the infection.

Indirect hemagglutination assay for diagnosing brucellosis: Past, present, and future

Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease that causes enormous losses in livestock production worldwide and has a significant public health impact. None of the brucellosis-free countries is currently able to guarantee their ability to prevent the introduction of the pathogen due to the increase in tourism and the expansion of migration. The timely identification of infected animals is an effective means of preventing brucellosis and minimizing the epidemiological risk. The tube agglutination test, Rose Bengal plate test, complement fixation test, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, which are routinely used to identify seropositive productive animals, have limitations and results that do not always correlate. The indirect hemagglutination assay (IHA) stands out among non-traditional methods because it is affordable, has a simple protocol, and is more reliable than classical serological tests, especially in cases of questionable and/or false-negative results. The diagnostic value of the IHA has long been studied by laboratories in several countries, but mostly by post-soviet research teams; therefore, the results continue to be published in Russian-language journals, ensuring that the local scientific community can access the results. In addition, the efficacy of this test for the diagnosis of brucellosis and other infectious diseases has not yet been reviewed. The purpose of this review was to summarize the results of studies on the development and use of IHA for the diagnosis of brucellosis and to determine the prospects for further improvement.

Spatiotemporal dynamics and influencing factors of human brucellosis in Mainland China from 2005-2021

BACKGROUND

Brucellosis poses a significant public health concern. This study explores the spatial and temporal dynamic evolution of human brucellosis in China and analyses the spatial heterogeneity of the influencing factors related to the incidence of human brucellosis at the provincial level.

METHODS

The Join-point model, centre of gravity migration model and spatial autocorrelation analysis were employed to evaluate potential changes in the spatial and temporal distribution of human brucellosis in mainland China from 2005 to 2021. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR), and Multi-scale Geographically Weighted Regression (MGWR) models were constructed to analyze the spatial and temporal correlation between the incidence rate of human brucellosis and meteorological and social factors.

RESULTS

From 2005 to 2021, human brucellosis in China showed a consistent upward trend. The incidence rate rose more rapidly in South, Central, and Southwest China, leading to a shift in the center of gravity from the North to the Southwest, as illustrated in the migration trajectory diagram. Strong spatial aggregation was observed. The MGWR model outperformed others. Spatio-temporal plots indicated that lower mean annual temperatures and increased beef, mutton, and milk production significantly correlated with higher brucellosis incidence. Cities like Guangxi and Guangdong were more affected by low temperatures, while Xinjiang and Tibet were influenced more by beef and milk production. Inner Mongolia and Heilongjiang were more affected by mutton production. Importantly, an increase in regional GDP and health expenditure exerted a notable protective effect against human brucellosis incidence.

CONCLUSIONS

Human brucellosis remains a pervasive challenge. Meteorological and social factors significantly influence its incidence in a spatiotemporally specific manner. Tailored prevention strategies should be region-specific, providing valuable insights for effective brucellosis control measures.

Accuracy of serological tests for bovine brucellosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The direct methods for diagnosis of bovine brucellosis have several limitations, therefore serological tests are the basis for the diagnosis of the disease. However, a meta-analysis estimating the diagnostic sensitivity (DSe) and diagnostic specificity (DSp) on the main tests used in bovine brucellosis control programs worldwide has not been performed. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to estimate the DSe, DSp and thereby accuracy of serological tests individually used in the diagnosis of bovine brucellosis. The databases CABI, Cochrane Library, PubMed/MEDLINE, SciELO, Scopus and Web of Science were used to select articles. The search resulted in 5308 studies, of which 71 were selected for systematic review using quality assessment tools and 65 studies were included in the meta-analysis. For the meta-analysis, 178 assays and 11 different serological tests were considered. To estimate DSe and DSp of the tests, studies were divided according to animal selection for the studies: (1) studies that carried out a random or consecutive selection of participants (noncasecontrol studies) and (2) all studies, including casecontrol studies. Considering only the non-case-control studies to estimate the DSe, the tests that exhibited the best and worst performance were the iELISA test (indirect enzyme immunoassay - bacterial suspension as antigen - BS) (96.5%, 95% CI: 94.1-97.9%) and 2ME (2- mercaptoethanol test) (85.0%, 95% CI: 79.6-89.1%), respectively; while for DSp, the FPA (fluorescence polarization assay) (99, 7%, 95% CI: 99.5-99.8%) and PCFIA tests (protein concentration fluorescence immunoassay) (78.5%, 95% CI: 70.0-85.1%) showed better and worse performance, respectively. Overall, our results showed an overestimation in the DSe and DSp of the eleven serological tests assessed when casecontrol studies were included in the meta-analysis, which is a concern considering its impacts on the time and costs associated with populational diagnosis of the diseases, since several of these tests are routinely used in the control and eradication programs of bovine brucellosis worldwide. Furthermore, the tests that exhibited the best DSe and DSp, iELISA (BS) and FPA, respectively, are relatively easy to perform and interpret and the test which showed the best overall accuracy was FPA.

Brucellae as resilient intracellular pathogens: epidemiology, host-pathogen interaction, recent genomics and proteomics approaches, and future perspectives

Brucellosis is considered one of the most hazardous zoonotic diseases all over the world. It causes formidable economic losses in developed and developing countries. Despite the significant attempts to get rid of Brucella pathogens in many parts of the world, the disease continues to spread widely. Recently, many attempts proved to be effective for the prevention and control of highly contagious bovine brucellosis, which could be followed by others to achieve a prosperous future without rampant Brucella pathogens. In this study, the updated view for worldwide Brucella distribution, possible predisposing factors for emerging Brucella pathogens, immune response and different types of Brucella vaccines, genomics and proteomics approaches incorporated recently in the field of brucellosis, and future perspectives for prevention and control of bovine brucellosis have been discussed comprehensively. So, the current study will be used as a guide for researchers in planning their future work, which will pave the way for a new world without these highly contagious pathogens that have been infecting and threatening the health of humans and terrestrial animals.

Global Estimate of Human Brucellosis Incidence

Brucellosis is a major public health concern worldwide, especially for persons living in resource-limited settings. Historically, an evidence-based estimate of the global annual incidence of human cases has been elusive. We used international public health data to fill this information gap through application of risk metrics to worldwide and regional at-risk populations. We performed estimations using 3 statistical models (weighted average interpolation, bootstrap resampling, and Bayesian inference) and considered missing information. An evidence-based conservative estimate of the annual global incidence is 2.1 million, significantly higher than was previously assumed. Our models indicate Africa and Asia sustain most of the global risk and cases, although areas within the Americas and Europe remain of concern. This study reveals that disease risk and incidence are higher than previously suggested and lie mainly within resource-limited settings. Clarification of both misdiagnosis and underdiagnosis is required because those factors will amplify case estimates.

Risk factors associated to bovine brucellosis seroprevalence in the eastern region of Paraguay

In Paraguay, whose main economic activity is cattle raising, bovine brucellosis is an endemic disease. Between May 2019 and October 2020, a national prevalence survey was implemented by the Paraguayan Veterinary Services. In the frame of that survey, a cross-sectional study was conducted in the eastern region of Paraguay to identify the risk factors that could be associated with brucellosis-positive farms and to estimate the bovine brucellosis seroprevalence and farmers' awareness about the disease. A questionnaire was administered to farmers to collect data on potential risk factors for bovine brucellosis as well as awareness on the disease. A logistic regression model was used to identify the risk factors associated with a farm brucellosis positive status. Blood samples were collected from 2551 cattle on 133 farms. The overall apparent seroprevalence was 27.8 % (95 % CI: 20.4-36.3 %) at the farm level, and 5.5 % (95 % CI: 4.7-6.5 %) at the animal level. Among 18 potential risk factors, four were associated with a farm brucellosis positive status. Farm size was associated with a higher risk of positive status in medium (20-80 cows) and large farms (>80 cows), compared with small farms (<20 cows). Barn disinfection had a protective effect on the risk of positive status. Conversely, presence of dogs and not incinerating/burying aborted material increased this risk. Even if 89 % of the farmers acknowledged being aware of the bovine brucellosis transmission to humans, only 46% of these farmers declared using protective gloves during calving or when handling abortions. The findings of this study emphasize the importance of implementing biosecurity measures and proper disposal of aborted material to control the disease. Therefore, to control the disease in Paraguay, vaccination campaigns should be accompanied by awareness campaigns addressing good farm management practices to minimize the risk of introduction and maintenance of brucellosis as well as the risk of human infection.

Epidemic intelligence data of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, European Region, 2012 to 2022: a new opportunity for risk mapping of neglected diseases

BackgroundThe Epidemic Intelligence from Open Sources (EIOS) system, jointly developed by the World Health Organisation (WHO), the Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission and various partners, is a web-based platform that facilitate the monitoring of information on public health threats in near real-time from thousands of online sources.AimsTo assess the capacity of the EIOS system to strengthen data collection for neglected diseases of public health importance, and to evaluate the use of EIOS data for improving the understanding of the geographic extents of diseases and their level of risk.MethodsA Bayesian additive regression trees (BART) model was implemented to map the risk of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) occurrence in 52 countries and territories within the European Region between January 2012 and March 2022 using data on CCHF occurrence retrieved from the EIOS system.ResultsThe model found a positive association between all temperature-related variables and the probability of CCHF occurrence, with an increased risk in warmer and drier areas. The highest risk of CCHF was found in the Mediterranean basin and in areas bordering the Black Sea. There was a general decreasing risk trend from south to north across the entire European Region.ConclusionThe study highlights that the information gathered by public health intelligence can be used to build a disease risk map. Internet-based sources could aid in the assessment of new or changing risks and planning effective actions in target areas.

Original and introduced lineages co-driving the persistence of Brucella abortus circulating in West Africa

Introduction

Brucellosis, a serious public health issue affecting animals and humans, is neglected in West Africa (WA).

Methods

In the present study, bio-typing, multi-locus sequence typing (MLST), multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA), and whole genome sequencing single-nucleotide polymorphism (WGS-SNP) analysis were used to characterize the Brucella abortus (B. abortus) strains from WA.

Results

All of the 309 strains analyzed in this study were extracted and downloaded from the international MLVA bank and were from 10 hosts (cattle, humans, ovine, buffalo, dromedaries, horse, sheep, zebu, dog, and cat) distributed in 17 countries in WA. Based on the bio-typing, three biovars, dominated by B. abortus bv.3, were observed and reported across seven decades (1958–2019). With MLST, 129 B. abortus strains from the present study were sorted into 14 STs, with ST34 as the predicted founder. These 14 STs clustered into the global MLST data into three clone complexes (C I–C III) with the majority of strains clustering in C I, while C II forms an independent branch, and C III harbors three STs shared by different continents. These data revealed that most cases were caused by strains from native lineages. According to the MLVA-11 comparison, 309 strains were divided into 22 MLVA-11 genotypes, 15 of which were unique to WA and the remaining seven had a global distribution. MLVA-16 analysis showed that there were no epidemiological links among these strains. Based on the MLVA data, B. abortus strains from WA have high genetic diversity, and predominated genotypes were descended from a native lineage. While the MLVA-16 globally highlights that the dominant native and few introduced lineages (from Brazil, the USA, South Korea, Argentina, India, Italy, Portugal, the UK, Costa Rica, and China) co-driving the B. abortus ongoing prevalence in WA. The high-resolution SNP analysis implied the existence of introduced B. abortus lineages, which may be reasonably explained by the movement and trade of dominant hosts (cattle) and/or their products.

Discussion

Our results indicated that B. abortus strains in WA consist of native and introduced strains that necessitate control such as vaccination, testing, slaughtering, and movement control by the relevant country authorities to reduce brucellosis in livestock.

Analysis of cattle movement networks in Paraguay: Implications for the spread and control of infectious diseases

Beef exports represent a substantial part of Paraguay's agricultural sector. Cattle movements involve a high risk due to the possible spread of bovine diseases that can have a significant impact on the country's economy. We analyzed cattle movements from 2014 to 2018 using the networks analysis methodology at the holding and district levels at different temporal scales. We built two types of networks to identify network characteristics that may contribute to the spread of two diseases with different epidemiological characteristics: i) a network including all cattle movements to consider the transmission of a disease of rapid spread like foot and mouth disease, and ii) a network including only cow movements to account for bovine brucellosis, a disease of slow spread that occurs mainly in adult females. Network indicators did not vary substantially among the cattle and cow only networks. The holdings/districts included in the largest strongly connected components were distributed throughout the country. Percolation analysis performed at the holding level showed that a large number of holdings should be removed to make the largest strongly connected component disappear. Higher values of the centrality indicators were found for markets than for farms, indicating that they may play an important role in the spread of an infectious disease. At the holding level (but not at the district level), the networks exhibited characteristics of small-world networks. This property may facilitate the spread of foot and mouth disease in case of re-emergence, or of bovine brucellosis in the country through cattle movements. They should be taken into account when implementing surveillance or control measures for these diseases.

Spatiotemporal Pattern Evolution and Driving Factors of Brucellosis in China, 2003-2019

Brucellosis is a prevalent zoonotic disease worldwide. However, the spatiotemporal patterns evolution and its driving factors of Brucellosis have not been well explored. In this study, spatiotemporal scan statistics were applied to describe the spatiotemporal pattern of evolution in Brucellosis from 2003 to 2019 in mainland China, and GeoDetector analysis was further conducted to explore the driving effects of environmental, meteorological, and socioeconomic factors. We identified a distinct seasonal pattern for Brucellosis, with a peak in May and lowest incidence between September and December. High-risk clusters were first observed in the northwestern pastoral areas and later expanded to the southern urban areas. The spatiotemporal heterogeneity was mainly explained by total SO₂ emissions, average annual temperature, sheep output, and consumption of meat per capita with explanatory powers of 45.38%, 44.60%, 40.76%, and 30.46% respectively. However, the explanatory power changed over time. Specifically, the explanatory power of average annual temperature tended to decrease over time, while consumption of meat per capita and total output of animal husbandry tended to increase. The most favorable conditions for the spread of Brucellosis include 0.66-0.70 million tons of SO₂ emissions, 9.54-11.68 °C of average annual temperature, 63.28-72.40 million heads of sheep output, and 16.81-20.58 kg consumption of meat per capita. Brucellosis remains more prevalent in traditional pastoral areas in Northwest China, with the tendency of spreading from pastoral to non-pastoral, and rural to urban, areas. Total SO₂ emission, average annual temperature, sheep output, and consumption of meat per capita dominated the spatial heterogeneity of Brucellosis with changes in explanatory power over time.

Human brucellosis: Widespread information deficiency hinders an understanding of global disease frequency

Background

For decades, human brucellosis has been recognized worldwide as a significant cause of morbidity, yet the annual incidence of this disease remains unknown. We analyzed this frequency, using international reports (2005–2019), identifying information gaps, and distinguishing a possible path forward.

Methodology/Principal findings

A novel approach to estimating the incidence of this disease was explored. We utilized annual health data extracted from the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE)–World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS) database, assessing the dataset completeness and representativeness of the data for the world population. Additionally, we assessed the reported country level human brucellosis case counts and the factors that influenced the observed changes over time. Our analysis revealed incomplete and unrepresentative information, preventing the estimation of annual human brucellosis case incidence at the global level. In the OIE-WAHIS database, only 48.4% of the required reports have been submitted as of 2019, with approximately 47.3% of the world population represented. Additionally, geographic regions were disproportionate in completeness, representativeness, and actual reported case counts. Africa and Asia constituted the majority of reported cases, while simultaneously submitting the lowest percentage of reports as well as covering the lowest percentage of their populations within those reports, when compared to the rest of the world.

Conclusions/Significance

The global annual frequency of human brucellosis cases remains elusive. Furthermore, there exists great heterogeneity in diagnostic, surveillance, and reporting systems worldwide, calling into question the validity of available information. This study reveals that the Neglected Zoonotic Disease priority status for brucellosis should be restored.

Despite brucellosis being a major concern worldwide, particularly for populations residing within resource-limited settings, a suitable estimate of annual incidence is currently nonexistent for human disease. To our knowledge, this is the first study to characterize global human brucellosis frequency by utilizing nationally reported case data supplied to the global intergovernmental public health authorities. The combined records demonstrate that within currently available and established international reporting systems, there are insufficient data to calculate the annual global frequency of human brucellosis. Furthermore, the regional differences in populations represented within reports, as well as actual reported case counts, bias the correct interpretation of the overall human brucellosis disease frequency. This suggests that broadcasting a specific global quantity of new cases each year is misleading and, accordingly, there is presently no way to assess the global public health impact of this disease. In past years, disease prioritization by individual countries, including the reallocation of funds to national surveillance, have been demonstrated to positively impact the completeness and representativeness of the data. In the future, the international community must similarly reallocate resources to understand and fill gaps within the available information. Application of this information can be directed towards effectively pinpointing disease burden and efficient control strategies. The reinstatement of human brucellosis as a priority Neglected Zoonotic Disease by the WHO would substantially facilitate this process.

Sensitivity of an international notification system for wildlife diseases: A case study using the OIE-WAHIS data on tularemia

The World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) has recently developed a Wildlife Health Framework to respond to the need of members to manage the risk from emerging diseases at the animal-human-ecosystem interface. One of its objectives is to improve surveillance systems, early detection and notification of wildlife diseases. Members share information on disease occurrence by reporting through the OIE World Animal Health Information System (OIE-WAHIS-formerly known as 'WAHIS'). To evaluate the capacity of a surveillance system to detect disease events, it is important to quantify the gap between all known events and those officially notified to the OIE. This study used capture-recapture analysis to estimate the sensitivity of the OIE-WAHIS system for a OIE-listed wildlife disease by comparing information from publicly available sources to identify undetected events. This article presents a case study of the occurrence of tularemia in lagomorphs among selected North American and European countries during the period 2014-2019. First, an analysis using three data sources (OIE-WAHIS, ProMED, WHO-EIOS [Epidemic Intelligence from Open Sources]) was conducted. Subsequent analysis then explored the model integrating information from a fourth source (scientific literature collected in PubMed). Two models were built to evaluate both the sensitivity of the OIE-WAHIS using media reports (ProMED and WHO-EIOS), which is likely to represent current closer to real-time events, and published scientific data, which is more useful for retrospective analysis. Using the three-source approach, the predicted number of tularemia events was 93 (95% CI: 75-114), with an OIE-WAHIS sensitivity of 90%. In the four-source approach, the number of predicted events increased to 120 (95% CI: 99-143), dropping the sensitivity of the OIE-WAHIS to 70%. The results indicate a good sensitivity of the OIE-WAHIS system using the three-source approach, but lower sensitivity when including information from the scientific literature. Further analysis should be undertaken to identify diseases and regions for which international reporting presents a low sensitivity. This will enable evaluation and prioritization of underreported OIE-listed wildlife diseases and identify areas of focus as part of the Wildlife Health Framework. This study also highlights the need for stronger collaborations between academia and National Veterinary Services to enhance surveillance systems for notifiable diseases.

Importance of brucellosis control programs of livestock on the improvement of one health

Brucellosis not only represents an important health restraint on livestock but also causes high economic losses in many developing countries worldwide. Despite considerable efforts made for the control of brucellosis, the disease is still spreading in many regions (such as the Middle East) where it represents one of the most important health hazards impacting both animals and humans. The present review aims to investigate the efficacy of veterinary control programs regarding brucellosis, with a special focus on current prevention, control, and eradication approaches. The reasons for unsuccessful control programs such as the absence of highly effective vaccines and non-certified bulls are also debated, to understand why the prevalence of brucellosis in livestock is not decreasing in many areas despite considerable efforts taken to date. The importance of governmental and regional investment in brucellosis control remains one of the main limiting factors owing to the limited budget allocated to tackle this disease. In this context, one health concept has generated novel comprehensive approaches with multiple economic implications across the livestock industry and public health. However, the implementation of such global preventive strategies appears to be a key issue for many endemic and low-income countries. According to the collected data, epidemiological contexts including management and trade systems along with well-defined agro-ecological zones should be evaluated in brucellosis endemic countries to improve milk production and to enhance the sustainability of the livestock sector at both national and regional levels.

Ending the Neglect of Treatable Bacterial Zoonoses Responsible for Non-Malaria Fevers

Bacterial zoonotic diseases such as leptospirosis, Q fever, melioidosis, spotted fever group rickettsioses, and brucellosis are increasingly recognized causes of non-malaria acute fevers. However, though readily treatable with antibiotics, these diseases are commonly misdiagnosed resulting in poor outcomes in patients. There is a considerable deficit in the understanding of basic aspects of the epidemiology of these neglected diseases and diagnostic tests for these zoonotic bacterial pathogens are not always available in resource-poor settings. Raising awareness about these emerging bacterial zoonoses is directly beneficial to the patients by allowing a test-and-treat approach and is essential to control these life-threatening diseases.

Survey of Zoonotic Bacterial Pathogens in Native Foxes in Central Chile: First Record of Brucella canis Exposure

Simple Summary

Wild canids play a crucial role in the environment, being an ecological agent of flora dispersal, top predators, and environmental sentinels for zoonotic emerging pathogens, such as Brucella spp. and pathogenic Leptospira. In Chile, three species of non-domestic native canids are present, and due to the growing concern about their interaction with humans and domestic animals, it is of utmost relevance to determine the role of these animals in the epidemiology of brucellosis and leptospirosis. This study aimed to detect the exposure to B. abortus, B. canis, and pathogenic Leptospira by serologic, bacteriologic, and molecular techniques in native foxes from rehabilitation and exhibition centers in Central Chile. Forty-six blood samples were obtained from culpeo and grey foxes, detecting exposure to B. canis and L. Javanica in 10.9% and 7.7%, respectively. Exposure was not registered by culture and qPCR in any of the sampled animals. Our results show for the first time in Chile exposure to B. canis in native foxes, highlighting the need to establish integrated surveillance programs to better evaluate the role of wild animals in the epidemiology of emerging zoonotic pathogens that may affect One Health.

Abstract

Brucella abortus, B. canis, and pathogenic Leptospira are zoonotic pathogens that infect humans, as well as domestic and wild animals. In wild canids, they may affect their fertility and reproduction, threatening their conservation. Wild canids play a crucial role in the environment as meso- and top-predators and environmental sentinels for zoonotic pathogens. In Chile, three species of wild canids are present, and due to changes in land use and environmental dynamics, it is of utmost relevance to determine the role of these species in the epidemiology of brucellosis and leptospirosis. This study aimed to detect the exposure to B. abortus, B. canis, and pathogenic Leptospira by serologic, bacteriologic, and molecular techniques in native foxes from rehabilitation and exhibition centers in Central Chile. Forty-six blood samples were obtained from Lycalopex culpaeus and L. griseus, detecting 10.9% of seropositivity to B. canis and 7.7% to L. Javanica. No seropositivity was seen for B. abortus. Exposure was not registered by culture and qPCR in any of the sampled animals. Our findings are the first register of exposure to any Brucella species in wild canids in Chile and highlight the need to establish surveillance programs of these emerging pathogens.

Spatiotemporal distribution and temporal trends of brucellosis and tuberculosis in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Brazil

The buffalo herds in Brazil have been an alternative for increasing the economy in different biomes. For this reason, knowledge of the spatial distribution of diseases of mandatory notification in buffalo herds, such as brucellosis and tuberculosis, is essential to guarantee the quality of exported animal products, as well as assist in strategies of national control and eradication programs. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the spatiotemporal distribution and temporal trends of brucellosis and tuberculosis in buffalo in Brazilian states between 2012-2019. During this period, 474 cases of brucellosis and 604 cases of tuberculosis were observed in buffalo in Brazil, with no significant differences between the total number of cases and incidence risk. The spatial distribution for the states was mostly heterogeneous, showing similarities of occurrences for both diseases in the south, north, and the states of Minas Gerais and Pernambuco. In the eight years evaluated, tuberculosis showed cyclical variation every 1-2 years; however, for brucellosis, there was a cyclical trend only between 2012-2015, with a significant decrease until 2018. Among Brazilian states, Pará had greater disease case numbers, with 34 % for brucellosis and 40.6 % for tuberculosis. Temporal trend analysis showed an increase for Pernambuco (annual percentage change [APC]: 21.0 [CI = 20.3; 21.8]), Paraná (APC: 27.1 [CI = 5.6; 53.0]), and Santa Catarina (APC: 10.4 [CI = 0.8; 21.0]) for brucellosis, and for tuberculosis, only for Santa Catarina state (APC: 24.1 [CI = 15.5; 33.3]). Spatiotemporally, there were four high-risk brucellosis clusters with a primary cluster, cluster A (relative risk [RRs] = 53.42, P < 0.001), involving the state of Amazonas between 2014-2015. For tuberculosis, there were three states of high risk, with a primary cluster, cluster E (RRs = 28.18, P < 0.001), involving the states of Pará, Roraima, Amazonas, Rondônia, and Acre in 2014. In conclusion, brucellosis and tuberculosis in buffalo in Brazil are heterogeneously distributed, with well-defined regions of high historical risk of infection. Among these regions, the states of Amazonas, Pará, Amapá, and Minas Gerais stand out due to the higher risk of infection for both brucellosis and tuberculosis, alerting Brazilian authorities to the need for disease control actions.

Bovine brucellosis - a comprehensive review

Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease of great animal welfare and economic implications worldwide known since ancient times. The emergence of brucellosis in new areas as well as transmission of brucellosis from wild and domestic animals is of great significance in terms of new epidemiological dimensions. Brucellosis poses a major public health threat by the consumption of non-pasteurized milk and milk products produced by unhygienic dairy farms in endemic areas. Regular and meticulous surveillance is essentially required to determine the true picture of brucellosis especially in areas with continuous high prevalence. Additionally, international migration of humans, animals and trade of animal products has created a challenge for disease spread and diagnosis in non-endemic areas. Isolation and identification remain the gold standard test, which requires expertise. The advancement in diagnostic strategies coupled with screening of newly introduced animals is warranted to control the disease. Of note, the diagnostic value of miRNAs for appropriate detection of B. abortus infection has been shown. The most widely used vaccine strains to protect against Brucella infection and related abortions in cattle are strain 19 and RB51. Moreover, it is very important to note that no vaccine, which is highly protective, safe and effective is available either for bovines or human beings. Research results encourage the use of bacteriophage lysates in treatment of bovine brucellosis. One Health approach can aid in control of this disease, both in animals and man.

Evolution of Rabies in South America and Inter-Species Dynamics (2009-2018)

Rabies is listed as one of the World Health Organisation's (WHO) Neglected Tropical Diseases Worldwide, with a significant impact in South America. This paper explores the dynamics of rabies cases in humans, pets (dogs and cats), livestock and wildlife (bats in particular) in South America during the period 2009-2018. The data used in this study were derived from the two main databases for rabies in South America: the OIE-WAHIS from the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and PANAFTOSA's Regional Information System for the Epidemiological Surveillance of Rabies (SIRVERA). Being a neglected disease with possible underreporting in some areas, the reported rabies cases may not always represent the real disease burden. The analysis focuses on the evolution of the number of cases in time and their spatial distribution, as well as on the main source of infections in humans, determined by laboratory assays of the antigenic variant or through epidemiological investigations. Additionally, Generalised Linear Mixed Models (GLMM) were used to evaluate the risk factors associated with the occurrence of human cases. Our results show that the highest impact of the disease in terms of number of cases was reported on livestock, while the overall number of cases (in animals and humans) progressively decreased along the study period. The spatial distribution of rabies in livestock showed two main clusters in the north-western (mainly Colombia) and in the south-eastern part of the affected area (Brazil), and a third smaller cluster in Peru. A cluster in dogs was observed in Bolivia. Out of the 192 human cases reported during the study period, 70% of them were transmitted by bats. The number of human cases reported during the study period were significantly associated with the number of rabies cases reported in livestock, pets and wildlife. Despite the overall decreasing case report rate, the disease still represents a major animal and public health concern in South America, and new strategies for compiling systematic information, networking and education are needed, as well as the education and training of veterinary staff.

Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) in animals: Global characterization and evolution from 2006 to 2019

This study describes the global distribution and temporal evolution of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) during the period 2006-2019, using the information officially reported to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) by the National Veterinary Services of 210 countries. Eight per cent (CI 95% 4-12) of the countries reported the disease as present at least once during the study period, whereas 82% (CI 95% 77-87) as absent. Information on CCHF status lacked for 10% (CI 95% 6-13) of the countries. The majority of the countries (46%, CI 95% 39-53) never declared CCHF as notifiable, whereas only 27% (CI 95% 21-33) reported the disease as notifiable during the large majority (≥76%) of the study period. The percentage of countries that routinely applied some CCHF control measures were as following: 14% (CI 95% 9-18) passive surveillance, 3% (CI 95% 0.9-5) active surveillance and 1% (CI 95% -0.2-3) control of vector. The time series analysis indicates a significant decreasing trend in the percentage of countries reporting no information, whereas the percentage of countries applying disease control measures significantly increase. This finding may reflect the increased awareness on the importance of the disease and the increased efforts to monitor virus circulation in animals through the application of surveillance programmes. Out of 25 countries reporting cases in humans since 2006, only 12 report cases in animals, pointing out the lack of surveillance capacity in animal populations for some countries. The paucity of CCHF notifications in animals may also reflect the difficulty in identifying the infection due to absent or mild clinical signs. Given that the implementation of surveillance programmes by the Veterinary Services is an essential tool for monitoring the virus circulation and prevent its further spread, National Veterinary Services should keep monitoring and reporting information on CCHF, and at the same time, they should improve the quality and accuracy of the information provided.

The role of CXCR3 and its ligands expression in Brucellar spondylitis

Aim

Brucellar spondylitis (BS) is one of the most serious complications of brucellosis. CXCR3 is closely related to the severity of disease infection. This research aimed to study the degree of BS inflammatory damage through analyzing the expression levels of CXCR3 and its ligands (CXCL9 and CXCL10) in patients with BS.

Methods

A total of 29 BS patients and 15 healthy controls were enrolled. Real-Time PCR was used to detect the mRNA expression levels of IFN-γ, CXCR3, CXCL9 and CXCL10 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of BS patients and healthy controls. Hematoxylin-Eosin staining was used to show the pathological changes in BS lesion tissues. Immunohistochemistry staining was used to show the protein expression levels of Brucella-Ab, IFN-γ, CXCR3, CXCL9 and CXCL10 in BS lesion tissues. At the same time, ELISA was used to detect the serum levels of IFN-γ, CXCL9 CXCL10 and autoantibodies against CXCR3 in patients with BS.

Results

In lesion tissue of BS patients, it showed necrosis of cartilage, acute or chronic inflammatory infiltration. Brucella-Ab protein was abundantly expressed in close lesion tissue. And the protein expression levels of IFN-γ, CXCR3 and CXCL10 were highly expressed in close lesion tissue and serum of BS patients. At the same time, the mRNA expression levels of IFN-γ, CXCR3 and CXCL10 in PBMCs of BS patients were significantly higher than those in controls.

Conclusion

In our research, the expression levels of IFN-γ, CXCR3 and its ligands were significantly higher than those in controls. It suggested that high expression levels of IFN-γ, CXCR3 and its ligands indicated a serious inflammatory damage in patients with BS.

Scoping review of brucellosis in Cameroon: Where do we stand, and where are we going?

Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease known to be endemic to parts of western and sub-Saharan Africa. However, the epidemiology for humans and animals remains largely unknown in many of these countries with Cameroon being a typical example. Despite common knowledge that brucellosis affects livestock, the actual number of infected animals remains unknown. Through a scoping review, the current known status of the disease is described. The aim is to ascertain relevant and publicly accessible research and knowledge of human and animal brucellosis in the country, and to provide an overview of the factors associated with its known persistence. Seroprevalence has been estimated and published in 12 separate instances (1 human; 9 cattle; 1 human and cattle; and 1 that includes cattle, pigs, and small ruminants), between 1982 and 2020, in 9 of the country's 10 geopolitical regions. In 1983, Brucella abortus and B. melitensis were isolated in cattle, but no further bacterial isolation has been published since. The seroprevalence from 196 total humans has ranged between 5.6% and 28.1%, and between 3.0% and 30.8% for 14,044 total cattle. As there is no ongoing surveillance program, it is not currently possible to identify the specific Brucella spp. that are endemic to the country and its regions. There are sufficient agricultural systems of cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep to sustain the presence of multiple Brucella spp. Surveillance information is the cornerstone of epidemiologic decision making, and is needed to direct policy makers, public health authorities, and veterinary services to appropriate actions. A combination of serological and molecular based diagnostics for surveillance is necessary to identify, quantify, and direct the appropriate public health interventions. Cameroon has an opportunity to build public and animal health infrastructure, leading the way for central Africa in the management and future eradication of brucellosis.

ONE Health Approach to Address Zoonotic Brucellosis: A Spatiotemporal Associations Study Between Animals and Humans

Background: Brucellosis is one of the most significant zoonosis over the world, threatening both veterinary and human public health. However, few studies were focused on nationwide animal brucellosis and made association with human brucellosis. Methodology and Principal Findings: We conducted a bilingual literature search on Brucella or brucellosis in China on the two largest databases (China National Knowledge Infrastructure and PubMed) and conducted a systematic review. A total of 1,383 Chinese and 81 English publications, published between 1958 and 2018 were identified. From them, 357 publications presenting 692 datasets were subjected to the meta-analysis. The overall prevalence rate is 1.70% (95% CI: 1.66-1.74), with a declining (until the late 1990s) and rising trend (starting the early 2000s). Interestingly, the animal with highest prevalence rate is canine (8.35%, 95% CI: 7.21-9.50), and lowest in cattle (1.22%, 95% CI: 1.17-1.28). The prevalence of Brucella in animals was unequally distributed among the 24 examined regions in China. Conclusions: Brucellosis is a reemerging disease for both humans and animals in China. The observed data suggests that dogs and yaks are the leading reservoirs for Brucella, and the provinces with highest prevalence rates in animals are Hubei, Sichuan, Inner Mongolia, Fujian, and Guizhou. Accordingly targeted intervention policy should be implemented to break the Brucella transmission chain between animals and humans in China.

Persistence of Brucella abortus lineages revealed by genomic characterization and phylodynamic analysis

Brucellosis, caused by Brucella abortus, is a major disease of cattle and humans worldwide distributed. Eradication and control of the disease has been difficult in Central and South America, Central Asia, the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Epidemiological strategies combined with phylogenetic methods provide the high-resolution power needed to study relationships between surveillance data and pathogen population dynamics, using genetic diversity and spatiotemporal distributions. This information is crucial for prevention and control of disease spreading at a local and worldwide level. In Costa Rica (CR), the disease was first reported at the beginning of the 20th century and has not been controlled despite many efforts. We characterized 188 B. abortus isolates from CR recovered from cattle, humans and water buffalo, from 2003 to 2018, and whole genome sequencing (WGS) was performed in 95 of them. They were also assessed based on geographic origin, date of introduction, and phylogenetic associations in a worldwide and national context. Our results show circulation of five B. abortus lineages (I to V) in CR, phylogenetically related to isolates from the United States, United Kingdom, and South America. Lineage I was dominant and probably introduced at the end of the 19th century. Lineage II, represented by a single isolate from a water buffalo, clustered with a Colombian sample, and was likely introduced after 1845. Lineages III and IV were likely introduced during the early 2000s. Fourteen isolates from humans were found within the same lineage (lineage I) regardless of their geographic origin within the country. The main CR lineages, introduced more than 100 years ago, are widely spread throughout the country, in contrast to new introductions that seemed to be more geographically restricted. Following the brucellosis prevalence and the farming practices of several middle- and low-income countries, similar scenarios could be found in other regions worldwide.

Epidemiological Characteristics and Spatiotemporal Trend Analysis of Human Brucellosis in China, 1950-2018

The rate of brucellosis, a zoonotic disease, has rapidly increased in humans brucellosis(HB) in recent years. In 1950-2018, a total of 684,380 HB cases (median 2274/year (interquartile range (IQR) 966-8325)) were reported to the National Infectious Disease Surveillance System in mainland China. The incidence of HB peaked in 2014 (4.32/100,000), and then showed a downward trend; we predict that it will maintain a steady downward trend in 2019-2020. Since 2015, the incidence of HB has shown opposite trends in the north and south of China; rates in the north have fallen and rates in the south have increased. In 2004-2018, the most significant increases in incidence of HB were in Yunnan (IQR 0.002-0.463/100,000), Hubei (IQR 0.000-0.338/100,000), and Guangdong (IQR 0.015-0.350/100,000). The areas where HB occurs have little overlap with areas with high per capita GDP in China. The "high-high" clusters of HB are located in northeastern China (Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Ningxia, Shanxi, and Gansu), and the "low-low" clusters of HB are located in southern China (Yunnan, Jiangxi, Shanghai, Guangxi, Guangdong, Zhejiang, Guizhou, and Hunan). In recent years, the incidence of HB in China has been controlled to some extent, but the incidence of HB has increased in southern China, and the disease has spread geographically in China from north to south. Further research is needed to address this change and to continue to explore the relationship between the incidence of HB and relevant factors.

Brucellosis: A rapid risk assessment by a regional outbreak team and its coordinated response with the Directorate-General for Food and Veterinary, North region of Portugal, 2019

We report a Brucella outbreak with seven cases in the Northern Region of Portugal in 2018-2019, associated with the consumption of fresh cheese. This outbreak has implications for risk assessment in Portuguese migrants related to this area, and it is an example of cooperation between public institutions, in a One Health based approach.

Spatial-temporal distribution of human brucellosis in mainland China from 2004 to 2017 and an analysis of social and environmental factors

Background

This study aimed to describe the changing distribution of human brucellosis between 2004 and 2017 in mainland China and seek scientific evidence of the relationship between socio-economic, environmental, and ecological factors and human brucellosis incidence.

Methods

The annual numbers of brucellosis cases and incidence rates from 31 provinces in mainland China between 2004 and 2017 were obtained from the Data-Center for China Public Health Science. The number of monthly brucellosis cases in 2018 was obtained from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. The electronic map of the People’s Republic of China was downloaded from the National Earth System Science Data Sharing Platform. Human population density, gross domestic product (GDP), and an inventory of cattle and sheep at the end of each year from 2004 to 2017 were obtained from the National Bureau of Statistics of China. Annual rainfall data from 31 provinces in the People’s Republic of China from 2004 to 2017 were collected from the China Meteorological Data Service Center. The risk distribution and changing trends of human brucellosis were mapped with ArcGIS. A cluster analysis was employed to identify geographical areas and periods with statistically significant incidence rates. Multivariate linear regression was used to determine possible factors that were significantly correlated with the presence of human brucellosis cases.

Results

Human brucellosis cases have spread throughout the whole country. Human brucellosis cases occurred mostly from March to August and were concentrated from April to July. The inventory of sheep, GDP, and climate were significantly correlated with the presence of brucellosis cases in mainland China.

Conclusions

The geographical expansion of human brucellosis in mainland China was observed, so did the high-incidence clusters between 2004 and 2017. Most of the cases were reported during the early spring to early summer (February–August). Results from the multivariate linear regression suggested that the inventory of sheep, GDP, and climate were significantly associated with the incidence of human brucellosis in mainland China.

Brucellosis in Colombia: Current Status and Challenges in the Control of an Endemic Disease

Brucellosis is a zoonosis of nearly worldwide distribution. The disease is considered to be endemic in most of the developing countries with a substantial impact on both human and animal health as well as on the economy. The aim of this scoping review is to provide an overview of the brucellosis status in Colombia and the factors associated with its persistence, to highlight the strengths and gaps of the adopted countermeasures and to supply evidence to policy-makers on the best approaches to mitigate the disease burden. Due to the presence of brucellosis in several susceptible production livestock systems scattered throughout the country, a plan for its control, prevention and eradication was established almost 20 years ago. However, despite extensive efforts, brucellosis prevalence has fluctuated over the years without any trend of decreasing. The restricted budget allocated for brucellosis control is a limiting factor for the success of the program. For instance, the absence of indemnities for farmers results in infected animals remaining on farms which potentially increases the risk of disease spread. Likewise, disease surveillance is restricted to Brucella abortus and excludes other Brucella species of importance, such as B. melitensis and B. suis. The countermeasures are mostly focused on cattle and only a few actions are in place for the management of brucellosis in other livestock species. In humans, cases of brucellosis are annually diagnosed, although the disease remains highly underreported. High impact educational and training programs are required to address the disease in a comprehensive manner, including vulnerable groups, such as traditional smallholders and low-productivity regions, as well as other stakeholders, such as healthcare and veterinary authorities. Important financial investments based on sustained cooperation between governmental institutions, industry, and farmers are important for developing affordable and effective strategies to control the disease.

Factors associated with the prevalence of antibodies against Brucella abortus in water buffaloes from Santarém, Lower Amazon region, Brazil

We evaluated the factors associated with the prevalence of antibodies against Brucella abortus in buffaloes in the municipality of Santarém, Western Pará, northern Brazil. The study was conducted on 60 farms, representing 25.8% of the total buffalo farms in the region. From those farms, a total of 426 buffaloes were sampled, males of any age and females more than 24 months of age, to avoid a false-positive reaction in the serological test due to vaccination. The Acidified Agglutination Serum Test was carried out on serum samples using B. abortus strain 1,119-3 as the antigen. Univariate and multivariate analysis were performed to investigate the association between brucellosis and potential risk factors. Of the 426 tested buffaloes, 29 were positive, resulting in an overall animal prevalence of antibodies against B. abortus at the animal level of 6.8% (4.6-9.6; 95% confidence interval). The herd level prevalence was 30% (18 of 60) and seroprevalence range within farms was from 0% to 100%. At the animal level, buffaloes raised in the floodplains tended (p = 0.06) to present a higher seroprevalence (9.70%) of antibodies against B. abortus than buffaloes raised in dry land (4.98%) and cows tended (p = 0.054) to have a higher seroprevalence than male buffaloes. Multivariate herd-level analysis revealed association between farm type and brucellosis seroprevalence (p = 0.015); dairy farms were two times more likely to have seropositive buffalo than beef farms. Our survey demonstrated a high farm seroprevalence of B. abortus in buffalo raised in an Amazonian ecosystem with positive animals found in one third of sampled farms.