Data and Metrics for Patient Blood Management: A Narrative Review and Practical Guide

Data collection, analysis, and reporting are fundamental for a successful hospital-based patient blood management program; however, very little has been published on the topic. Our aim was to synthesize evidence from a literature review to provide a detailed, practical list of outcome metrics, and the required data collection(s) to inform implementation. Ovid MEDLINE and PubMed were searched for any full-text original research articles published from inception to the year 2020. We included any studies reporting the implementation of interventions or programs study authors defined as "patient blood management" and extracted information on data collected and metrics reported. We included 45 studies describing the implementation of a patient blood management program and/or strategies. The outcomes reported by these studies were grouped into 1 of 36 metrics. We compiled a list of 65 relevant data elements to collect, and their potential source hospital information systems: patient administration, laboratory, transfusion/blood bank, operating room, pharmacy, emergency department, and intensive care unit. We further categorized patient blood management data systems into basic, intermediate, and advanced based on the combination of different information systems sourced. The results of this review can be used to inform patient blood management programs in planning what data collection(s) are needed, where these data can be sourced from, and how they can be analyzed.

Evaluation of Red Blood Cell Transfusion Practice and Knowledge Among Cancer Surgeons

BACKGROUND

Transfusion of blood products has a negative impact on surgical and cancer outcomes. The objective of the current study was to evaluate surgeons' practice and knowledge of red blood cell transfusion for surgical patients.

METHODS

A survey of residents, fellows, and faculty surgeons at the Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center and surgeons who identified as taking care of cancer patients nationally was conducted. Four domains were addressed including perceived preoperative assessment and management of anemia, perceived use of transfusion alternatives, perceived use of and factors influencing packed red blood cell administration, and transfusion practice knowledge.

RESULTS

Among 158 respondents, 87 (64.5%) were surgeons on faculty at an academic medical center, 26 (19%) were surgeons in private practice, and 24 (15.2%) were surgical residents or fellows. The majority of respondents were surgical oncologists or hepatobiliary surgeons (N = 83, 62.0%) and had been in practice > 10 years (> 10-15 N = 28, 20.6%) and > 15 years N = 59, 43.4%). Only thirteen (N = 13, 8.2%) surgeons reported that they routinely complete a preoperative anemia workup. The majority of providers reported that they rarely or never use alternatives to transfusion such as erythropoietin (N = 135, 91.8%), tranexamic acid (N = 140, 94.6%), autologous blood transfusion (N = 141, 95.3%), or cell saver for benign (N = 107, 72.3%) or malignant cases (N = 133, 90.4%). Provider transfusion knowledge was variable.

CONCLUSIONS

Surgeons varied widely in their transfusion practice and knowledge. Further education of surgeons regarding transfusion medicine and practice, as well as use of transfusion alternatives, could lead to improved patient outcomes. Patient blood management programs may help inform individual surgeon practices.

Demonstration of a U.S. nationwide reduction in transfusion in general surgery and a review of published transfusion reduction methodologies

BACKGROUND

Red blood cell transfusions in surgical procedures can be lifesaving. However, recent studies show transfusions are associated with a dose-dependent increase in postoperative morbidity and mortality; hospitals and physicians have attempted to reduce them. We sought to determine the success of these efforts and review and summarize published reduction methods employed.

STUDY DESIGN/METHODS

An analysis of transfusion data from ACS-NSQIP public use files of general surgical procedures for 2012 and 2018; a retrospective review of the literature surrounding general surgical transfusion reduction from 2008 to 2018.

RESULTS

The rate of general surgical transfusion in the NSQIP dataset decreased from 5.5% in 2012 to 4.0% in 2018, a 27% relative reduction in transfusion. After extensive multivariable adjustment for patient risk and operative complexity, this effect remained (Odds ratio 0.65, 95% CI 0.63-0.67, p < .001). Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between specific procedure decreases in transfusion and decreases in 30-day morbidity (rho =0.41, p = .003) and mortality (rho = 0.37, p = .007). There were 866 published studies matching our search term "red blood cell transfusion reduction." Forty-four were relevant to general surgery. Seven dominant strategies for transfusion reduction by descending frequency of report included restrictive transfusion thresholds, management of preoperative anemia, perioperative interventions, educational programs, electronic clinical decision support, waste reduction, and audits of transfusion practices.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrates a 27% decrease in general surgery transfusion between 2012 and 2018 with associated reductions in morbidity and mortality, suggesting published employed strategies have been successful and safely implemented.

Challenges in Patient Blood Management for Cardiac Surgery: A Narrative Review

About 15 years ago, Patient Blood Management (PBM) emerged as a new paradigm in perioperative medicine and rapidly found support of all major medical societies and government bodies. Blood products are precious, scarce and expensive and their use is frequently associated with adverse short- and long-term outcomes. Recommendations and guidelines on the topic are published in an increasing rate. The concept aims at using an evidence-based approach to rationalize transfusion practices by optimizing the patient's red blood cell mass in the pre-, intra- and postoperative periods. However, elegant as a concept, the implementation of a PBM program on an institutional level or even in a single surgical discipline like cardiac surgery, can be easier said than done. Many barriers, such as dogmatic ideas, logistics and lack of support from the medical and administrative departments need to be overcome and each center must find solutions to their specific problems. In this paper we present a narrative overview of the challenges and updated recommendations for the implementation of a PBM program in cardiac surgery.

Seeking Strategies to Optimize Blood Utilization: The Preliminary Experience with Implementing a Patient Blood Management Program in a Greek Tertiary Hospital

OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to assess blood utilization after implementation of a patient blood management (PBM) program in a Greek tertiary hospital.

METHODS

An electronic transfusion request form and a prospective audit of transfusion practice were implemented. After the one-year implementation period, a retrospective review was performed to assess transfusion practice in medical patients.

RESULTS

Pre-PBM, a total of 9478 RBC units were transfused (mean: 1.75 units per patient) compared with 9289 transfused units (mean: 1.57 units per patient) post-PBM. Regarding the post-PBM period, the mean hemoglobin (Hb) level of the 3099 medical patients without comorbidities transfused was 7.19 ± 0.79 gr/dL. Among them, 2065 (66.6%) had Hb levels >7.0 gr/dL, while 167 (5.3%) had Hb levels >8.0 gr/dL. In addition, 331 (25.3%) of the transfused patients with comorbidities had Hb >8.0 gr/dL. The Hb transfusion thresholds significantly differed across the clinics (p < 0.001), while 21.8% of all medical non-bleeding patients received more than one RBC unit transfusion.

CONCLUSION

A poor adherence with the restrictive transfusion threshold of 7.0 gr/dL was observed. The adoption of a less strict threshold might be a temporary step to allow physicians to become familiar with the program and be informed on the safety and advantages of the restrictive transfusion strategy.

Preoperative Anemia Treatment with Intravenous Iron Therapy in Patients Undergoing Abdominal Surgery: A Systematic Review

Introduction

Preoperative anemia is associated with increased morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. As a result of the increased incidence of chronic blood loss and iron deficiency anemia in abdominal surgery patients and its impact on patient outcomes, we systematically evaluated the quality of evidence for preoperative intravenous (IV) administration of iron to patients with anemia undergoing major abdominal surgery with the focus on clinical outcomes.

Methods

In this systematic review, PubMed, Cochrane, The Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Web Of Science, and Excerpta Medica Database databases were searched up to 2019 using specific keywords. Inclusion criteria were patients that were over 18 years of age, underwent abdominal surgery, and received an IV iron treatment in the preoperative setting.

Results

The nine studies included in the final systematic review do not provide consistent evidence of a reduced incidence of allogeneic blood transfusions with preoperative IV iron administration. However, IV iron administration did consistently cause a significant increase in hemoglobin levels relative to oral iron therapy or no iron.

Conclusion

Overall, these findings are consistent in that IV iron administration is highly effective at rapidly increasing hemoglobin levels in patients with iron deficiency anemia undergoing major abdominal surgery. Unfortunately, there is currently no evidence of reduced incidence of allogeneic blood transfusions or other enhanced outcomes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12325-021-01628-7.

Closing the evidence to practice gap in neonatal transfusion medicine

Significant resources are directed towards world-class research projects, but the findings are not necessarily translated into better healthcare outcomes, either at all or in a sustained way. There is a clear need to dedicate further resources to understanding how to promote the uptake of evidence and effectively change neonatal transfusion practice to improve outcomes. Approaching blood transfusion behaviour change more systematically, and working across disciplines and involving families, holds the potential to increase the rate of uptake of emerging evidence in clinical practice. This approach holds the potential to save costs, conserve resources, and improve clinical outcomes. Our paper focuses on the use of quality improvement to bridge the gap between evidence-based knowledge and transfusion practice in neonatal units around the world.

Preoperative Anemia and Iron Deficiency Screening, Evaluation and Management: Barrier Identification and Implementation Strategy Mapping

Introduction and aims

Patients undergoing major surgery risk significant blood loss and transfusion, which increases substantially if they have pre-existing anemia. Preoperative Anemia and Iron Deficiency Screening, Evaluation and Management Pathways (PAIDSEM-P) outline recommended blood tests and treatment to optimize patients before surgery. Documented success using PAIDSEM-P to reduce transfusions and improve patient outcomes exists, but the reporting quality of such studies is suboptimal. It remains unclear what implementation strategies best support the implementation of PAIDSEM-P.

Method

Maximum variation, purposive sampling was used to recruit a total of 15 participants, including a range of health professionals and patients for semi-structured interviews. Data analysis utilized a deductive approach informed by the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) for barrier identification and the Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change (ERIC) for reporting recommended implementation strategies. A modified version of the Action, Actor, Context, Target and Time (AACTT) framework assisted with conceptualisation and targeted strategy selection.

Results

The analysis revealed five barriers: access to knowledge and information, patient needs and resources, knowledge and beliefs about the intervention, available resources, and networks and communications, which had strong ERIC recommendations, including conduct educational meetings, develop educational materials, distribute educational materials, obtain and use patients/consumers family feedback, involve patients/consumers/family members, conduct a local needs assessment, access new funding, promote network weaving, and organize clinician implementation team meetings.

Conclusions

Mapping the barriers and strategies using the ERIC framework on the basis of individual actor categories proved to be useful in identifying a pragmatic number of implementation strategies that may help in supporting the utilisation of the PAIDSEM-P and other evidence-based healthcare implementation problems more broadly.

The Impact of Preoperative Intravenous Iron Therapy on Perioperative Outcomes in Cardiac Surgery: A Systematic Review

Background

Anemia is common in cardiac surgery affecting 25-40% of patients and associated with increased blood transfusions, morbidity, mortality, and higher hospital costs. Higher rates of stroke, acute renal injury, and total number of adverse postoperative outcomes have also been reported to be associated with preoperative anemia. This systematic review assessed the current evidence for preoperative intravenous iron on major outcomes following cardiac surgery.

Methods

Outcome measures included postoperative hemoglobin, transfusion rates, major adverse events, and mortality. The review was conducted according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, and articles were identified using PubMed, Cochrane, CLINAHL, WOS, and EMBASE databases. Articles were included if they compared patients with and without preoperative anemia based on treatment with intravenous iron. Quality was assessed using Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool and Newcastle-Ottawa scale, and strength of evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) approach.

Results

Of the articles reviewed, six met inclusion criteria. These included four randomized double-blind prospective cohort studies, one randomized non-blinded prospective study, and one non-randomized non-blinded prospective study with historical control. Across studies, 1,038 patients were enrolled. Two studies showed higher hemoglobin with iron therapy, and only one study showed significant differences in multiple outcomes such as transfusion and morbidity.

Conclusions

Given the paucity of studies and biases within them, the current evidence for treatment with intravenous iron prior to cardiac surgery is weak. More evidence is needed to support the administration of preoperative intravenous iron in cardiac surgery patients.

Blood utilization and clinical outcomes in pancreatic surgery before and after implementation of patient blood management

BACKGROUND

Over the past decade, patient blood management (PBM) programs have been developed to reduce allogeneic blood utilization. This is particularly important in pancreatic surgery, which has historically been associated with high transfusion requirements and morbid event rates. This study investigated blood utilization and clinical outcomes in pancreatic surgery before, during, and after the implementation of PBM.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

A total of 3482 pancreatic surgery patients were assessed in a 10-year retrospective cohort study (2009-2019) at a single academic center. Baseline patient characteristics, transfusion practices, postoperative morbidity (infectious, thrombotic, ischemic, respiratory, and renal complications), mortality, and length of stay were compared between patients in the pre-PBM (2009-2013), early-PBM (2014-2016), and mature-PBM (2017-2019) time periods. Multivariable analysis assessed the odds for composite morbidity/mortality.

RESULTS

Comparing the mature-PBM to pre-PBM cohorts, transfused units per 100 discharged patients decreased by 53% for erythrocytes (155 to 73; P < .0001), 81% for plasma (79 to 15; P < .038), and 75% for platelets (10 to 2.5; P < .005). Clinical outcomes improved as well, with composite morbid event rates decreasing by more than 50%, from 236 in 1438 patients (16.4%) to 85 in 1145 patients (7.4%) (P < .0001). Mortality and length of stay remained unchanged. Compared to the pre-PBM time period, early-PBM was associated with a risk-adjusted decrease in composite morbidity/mortality (OR 0.73; 95% CI 0.57-0.93; P = .010), while mature-PBM demonstrated a further incremental decrease (OR 0.44; 95% CI 0.33-0.57; P < .0001).

CONCLUSIONS

The implementation of PBM was associated with substantially decreased blood utilization in pancreatic surgery, without negatively impacting clinical outcomes.

Management and prevention of anemia (acute bleeding excluded) in adult critical care patients

OBJECTIVE

Anemia is very common in critical care patients, on admission (affecting about two thirds of patients), but also during and after their stay, due to repeated blood loss, the effects of inflammation on erythropoiesis, a decreased red blood cell life span, and haemodilution. Anemia is associated with severity of illness and length of stay.

METHODS

A committee composed of 16 experts from four scientific societies, SFAR, SRLF, SFTS and SFVTT, evaluated three fields: (1) anaemia prevention, (2) transfusion strategies and (3) non-transfusion treatment of anaemia. Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome (PICO) questions were reviewed and updated as needed, and evidence profiles were generated. Analysis of the literature and formulation of recommendations were then conducted according to the GRADE® methodology.

RESULTS

The SFAR-SRLF guideline panel provided ten statements concerning the management of anemia in adult critical care patients. Acute haemorrhage and chronic anemia were excluded from the scope of these recommendations. After two rounds of discussion and various amendments, a strong consensus was reached for ten recommendations. Three of these recommendations had a high level of evidence (GRADE 1±) and four had a low level of evidence (GRADE 2±). No GRADE recommendation could be provided for two questions in the absence of strong consensus.

CONCLUSIONS

The experts reached a substantial consensus for several strong recommendations for optimal patient management. The experts recommended phlebotomy reduction strategies, restrictive red blood cell transfusion and a single-unit transfusion policy, the use of red blood cells regardless of storage time, treatment of anemic patients with erythropoietin, especially after trauma, in the absence of contraindications and avoidance of iron therapy (except in the context of erythropoietin therapy).

Management and prevention of anemia (acute bleeding excluded) in adult critical care patients

Objective

Anemia is very common in critical care patients, on admission (affecting about two-thirds of patients), but also during and after their stay, due to repeated blood loss, the effects of inflammation on erythropoiesis, a decreased red blood cell life span, and haemodilution. Anemia is associated with severity of illness and length of stay.

Methods

A committee composed of 16 experts from four scientific societies, SFAR, SRLF, SFTS and SFVTT, evaluated three fields: (1) anemia prevention, (2) transfusion strategies and (3) non-transfusion treatment of anemia. Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome (PICO) questions were reviewed and updated as needed, and evidence profiles were generated. Analysis of the literature and formulation of recommendations were then conducted according to the GRADE^® methodology.

Results

The SFAR–SRLF guideline panel provided ten statements concerning the management of anemia in adult critical care patients. Acute haemorrhage and chronic anemia were excluded from the scope of these recommendations. After two rounds of discussion and various amendments, a strong consensus was reached for ten recommendations. Three of these recommendations had a high level of evidence (GRADE 1±) and four had a low level of evidence (GRADE 2±). No GRADE recommendation could be provided for two questions in the absence of strong consensus.

Conclusions

The experts reached a substantial consensus for several strong recommendations for optimal patient management. The experts recommended phlebotomy reduction strategies, restrictive red blood cell transfusion and a single-unit transfusion policy, the use of red blood cells regardless of storage time, treatment of anaemic patients with erythropoietin, especially after trauma, in the absence of contraindications and avoidance of iron therapy (except in the context of erythropoietin therapy).

Preoperative Anemia Treatment With Intravenous Iron in Patients Undergoing Major Orthopedic Surgery: A Systematic Review

Introduction

Based upon the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data, iron deficiency anemia is the cause of at least 20% of cases of anemia in adults over the age of 65. This is especially relevant in patients undergoing major orthopedic surgery as substantial perioperative blood loss is possible, leading to a high rate of allogeneic blood transfusion in total hip replacements, total knee replacements, and hip fracture repairs.

Significance

The results of this systematic review may be of interest to clinicians and hospital administrators evaluating the clinical efficacy and cost effectiveness of intravenous (IV) iron administration prior to major orthopedic surgery.

Materials and Methods

The original studies considered for this review included patients who were over 18 years of age, undergoing major orthopedic surgery, and who received an IV iron treatment in the preoperative setting. A total of 1083 articles were identified and reviewed. After removing duplicates, 1031 publications were screened, and 105 full-text studies were assessed for eligibility. A total of 98 were excluded and 7 articles remained which met the criteria for this review. The primary outcome examined in the included studies was the allogeneic blood transfusion rate. The secondary areas of interest were changes in serum hemoglobin, morbidity and mortality, length of stay, and cost effectiveness.

Results

This systematic review found little evidence that IV iron therapy is effective at reducing transfusion in patients undergoing major orthopedic surgery.

Conclusions

We do not recommend preoperative IV iron therapy for all patients scheduled for major orthopedic surgery.

Blood component utilization before and after implementation of good transfusion practice measures in a pediatric emergency department

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to determine the pattern of blood component utilization in pediatric Emergency Department (ED) and compare the utilization rate before and after the implementation of simple good transfusion practice measures.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This was a prospective pre/post interventional study conducted between February 2015 and April 2016. The study included 3 phases [1] Pre-intervention phase (6 weeks) consisting of baseline data collection [2] Intervention phase (3 months) involving education on transfusion triggers and periodic mailers about good practice and designated 'transfusion resident' for supervision. [3] Post- intervention phase (6 weeks) collecting data while continuing interventions.

RESULTS

During pre-intervention, 379 blood components [Packed red cells(PRBC) - 227, Platelet concentrate(PC) - 78, Fresh Frozen Plasma(FFP) - 74] were requested for 280 children; 195 were transfused with an overall utilization rate of 51.5 %. PRBC had the poorest utilization rate (30 %) followed by PC (72 %) and FFP (96 %). About 79 % of the requisitions sent by residents in first training year were not utilized before intervention. Indications such as anticipated surgery, congenital heart disease, pneumonia and sepsis had lower utilization rate. Post intervention, there was 14 % reduction in blood component requests (325 requests in 258 patients). Both overall utilization rate (56 %) and PRBC utilization (37.4 %) showed improvement but the difference was statistically not significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Red blood cells were the most frequently requested blood components yet poorly utilized in ED. Simple interventions targeting providers in early stages of training could potentially improve the blood component utilization and transfusion practices in busy emergency departments.

Overcoming barriers to evidence-based patient blood management: a restricted review

Background

Blood transfusions are associated with a range of adverse patient outcomes, including coagulopathy, immunomodulation and haemolysis, which increase the risk of morbidity and mortality. Consideration of these risks and potential benefits are necessary when deciding to transfuse. Patient blood management (PBM) guidelines exist to assist in clinical decision-making, but they are underutilised. Exploration of barriers to the implementation and utilisation of the PBM guidelines is required. This study aimed to identify common barriers and implementation strategies used to implement PBM guidelines, with a comparison against current expert opinion.

Methods

A restricted review approach was used to identify the barriers to PBM guideline implementation as reported by health professionals and to review which implementation strategies have been used. Searches were undertaken in MEDLINE/PubMed, CINAHL, Embase, Scopus and the Cochrane library. The Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) was used to code barriers. The Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change (ERIC) tool was used to code implementation strategies, and subsequently, develop recommendations based on expert opinion.

Results

We identified 14 studies suitable for inclusion. There was a cluster of barriers commonly reported: access to knowledge and information (n = 7), knowledge and beliefs about the intervention ( = 7) and tension for change (n = 6). Implementation strategies used varied widely (n = 25). Only one study reported the use of an implementation theory, model or framework. Most studies (n = 11) had at least 50% agreement with the ERIC recommendations.

Conclusions

There are common barriers experienced by health professionals when trying to implement PBM guidelines. There is currently no conclusive evidence to suggest which implementation strategies are most effective. Further research using validated implementation approaches and improved reporting is required.

Assessment of the knowledge level of the professional as regards Patient Blood Management in their organisation. Results of the MAPBM project survey

INTRODUCTION

The Maturity Assessment Model in Patient Blood Management project involves the use of a matrix that evaluates the maturity of the centre as regards blood transfusion practice. This tool includes a questionnaire to be completed by physicians to determine their level of knowledge of patient blood management strategies in their centre.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Forty one hospitals took part in the Maturity Assessment Model in Patient Blood Management project in 2016. The questionnaire included 10 questions, 3 about the centre, specialty, and years of experience, and 7 about patient blood management protocols in the respondent's centre. The minimum responses required per centre was calculated according to the number of beds. Responses from at least 3 different specialties were required in order to be evaluated.

RESULTS

A total of 1403 questionnaires were completed. The specialty with the highest completion rate was anaesthesiology (40.9%). The distribution as regards professional experience was homogeneous: <10 years, 33.4%, 10-20 years, 33%, and> 20 years 33.6%. Nearly three-quarters (74.2%) knew the patient blood management protocol used in their centre, and 60.7% knew the protocol for the treatment of pre-operative anaemia. Slightly fewer (72%) reported knowing the blood transfusion protocol (transfusion threshold) used in their centre, and 90% considered other factors besides haemoglobin in the decision to transfuse. Only 30.7% of professionals reported receiving periodic information on transfusion practices.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a significant lack of knowledge about preoperative anaemia and perioperative transfusion protocols used in the centres polled. Few centres provide their physicians with information on transfusion practices.

Single versus double-unit transfusion: Safety and efficacy for patients with hematologic malignancies

OBJECTIVES

Although hemoglobin thresholds for red blood cell (RBC) transfusion have decreased, double-unit RBC transfusion practices persist. We studied the effects switching from predominantly double-unit to single-unit RBC transfusions had on utilization and clinical outcomes for malignant hematology patients.

METHODS

Retrospective chart review compared malignant hematology patients before and after implementing single-unit RBC transfusion policy. Hemoglobin threshold was 8.0 g/dL for both groups. RBC utilization metrics included number of RBC units transfused, RBC units transfused per admission, and number of transfusion episodes. Clinical outcomes included length of stay, 30-day mortality, and outpatient RBC transfusion 30-days post-discharge.

RESULTS

Baseline hemoglobin was similar in both groups. The single-unit group was transfused with fewer RBC units per admission (5.1 vs 4.5, P = 0.01) than the double-unit group, but had more transfusion episodes per admission (4.1 vs 2.7, P < 0.001). After implementing single-unit policy, a 29% reduction in RBC utilization was observed. Mean hemoglobin at discharge was lower in the single-unit group (8.9 vs 9.5 g/dL, P = 0.005). No significant differences in length of stay or 30-day mortality were observed.

CONCLUSION

Transfusing malignant hematology patients with single RBC units is safe and efficacious. Electronic provider order systems facilitating RBC transfusion requests provide excellent adherence to transfusion policy.

Clinical standards for patient blood management and perioperative hemostasis and coagulation management. Position Paper of the Italian Society of Anesthesia, Analgesia, Resuscitation and Intensive Care (SIAARTI)

Patient blood management is currently defined as the application of evidence based medical and surgical concepts designed to maintain hemoglobin (Hb), optimize hemostasis and minimize blood loss to improve patient outcome. Blood management focus on the perioperative management of patients undergoing surgery or other invasive procedures in which significant blood loss occurs or is expected. Preventive strategies are emphasized to identify and manage anemia, reduce iatrogenic blood losses, optimize hemostasis (e.g. pharmacologic therapy, and point of care testing); establish decision thresholds for the appropriate administration of blood therapy. This goal was motivated historically by known blood risks including transmissible infectious disease, transfusion reactions, and potential effects of immunomodulation. Patient blood management has been recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as the new standard of care and has urged all 193-member countries of WHO to implement this concept. There is a pressing need for this new "standard of care" so as to reduce blood transfusion and promote the availability of transfusion alternatives. Patient blood management therefore encompasses an evidence-based medical and surgical approach that is multidisciplinary (transfusion medicine specialists, surgeons, anesthesiologists, and critical care specialists) and multiprofessional (physicians, nurses, pump technologists and pharmacists). The Italian Society of Anesthesia, Analgesia, Resuscitation and Intensive Care (SIAARTI) organized a consensus project involving a Task Force of expert anesthesiologists that reviewing literature provide appropriate levels of care and good clinical practices. Hence, this article focuses on achieving goals of PBM in the perioperative period.

Factors associated with red blood cell, platelet, and plasma transfusions among inpatient hospitalizations: a nationally representative study in the United States

BACKGROUND

Demographic and hospital-level factors associated with red blood cell (RBC), plasma, and platelet transfusions in hospitalized patients across the U.S. are not well characterized.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective analysis of the National Inpatient Sample (2014). The unit of analysis was a hospitalization; sampling weights were applied to generate nationally-representative estimates. The primary outcome was having ≥ 1 RBC transfusion procedure; plasma and platelet transfusions were similarly assessed as secondary outcomes. For each component, factors associated with transfusion were measured using adjusted prevalence ratios (adjPR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) estimated by multivariable Poisson regression.

RESULTS

The prevalence of RBC, plasma, and platelet transfusion was 5.8%, 0.9%, and 0.7%, respectively. RBC transfusions were associated with older age (≥ 65 vs. < 18 years; adjPR = 1.80; 95% CI = 1.66-1.96), female sex (adjPR = 1.13; 95% CI = 1.12-1.14), minority race/ethnic status, and hospitalizations in rural hospitals compared to urban teaching hospitals. Prevalence of RBC transfusion was lower among hospitalizations in the Midwest compared to the Northeast (adjPR = 0.73; 95% CI = 0.67-0.80). All components were more likely to be transfused in patients with a primary hematologic diagnosis, patients with a higher number of total diagnoses, patients who experienced a higher number of other procedures, and patients who eventually died in the hospital. In contrast to RBC transfusions, prevalence of platelet transfusion was greater in urban teaching hospitals (vs. rural; adjPR = 1.71; 95% CI = 1.49-1.98) and lower in blacks (vs. whites; adjPR = 0.80; 95% CI = 0.76-0.85).

CONCLUSIONS

Nationally, there is heterogeneity in factors associated with transfusion between each blood component, including by hospital type and location. This variability presents patient blood management programs with potential opportunities to reduce transfusions.

Behaviour modification interventions to optimise red blood cell transfusion practices: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To assess the impact of behaviour modification interventions to promote restrictive red blood cell (RBC) transfusion practices.

DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, INTERVENTIONS

Seven electronic databases were searched to January 2018. Published randomised controlled trials (RCTs) or non-randomised studies examining an intervention to modify healthcare providers' RBC transfusion practice in any healthcare setting were included.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOMES

The primary outcome was the proportion of patients transfused. Secondary outcomes included the proportion of inappropriate transfusions, RBC units transfused per patient, in-hospital mortality, length of stay (LOS), pretransfusion haemoglobin and healthcare costs. Meta-analysis was conducted using a random-effects model and meta-regression was performed in cases of heterogeneity. Publication bias was assessed by Begg's funnel plot.

RESULTS

Eighty-four low to moderate quality studies were included: 3 were RCTs and 81 were non-randomised studies. Thirty-one studies evaluated a single intervention, 44 examined a multimodal intervention. The comparator in all studies was standard of care or historical control. In 33 non-randomised studies, use of an intervention was associated with reduced odds of transfusion (OR 0.63 (95% CI 0.56 to 0.71)), odds of inappropriate transfusion (OR 0.46 (95% CI 0.36 to 0.59)), RBC units/patient weighted mean difference (WMD: -0.50 units (95% CI -0.85 to -0.16)), LOS (WMD: -1.14 days (95% CI -2.12 to -0.16)) and pretransfusion haemoglobin (-0.28 g/dL (95% CI -0.48 to -0.08)). There was no difference in odds of mortality (OR 0.90 (95% CI 0.80 to 1.02)). Protocol/algorithm and multimodal interventions were associated with the greatest decreases in the primary outcome. There was high heterogeneity among estimates and evidence for publication bias.

CONCLUSIONS

The literature examining the impact of interventions on RBC transfusions is extensive, although most studies are non-randomised. Despite this, pooled analysis of 33 studies revealed improvement in the primary outcome. Future work needs to shift from asking, 'does it work?' to 'what works best and at what cost?'

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42015024757.

Contemporary Risk Factors and Outcomes of Transfusion-Associated Circulatory Overload

OBJECTIVES

Transfusion-associated circulatory overload is characterized by hydrostatic pulmonary edema following blood transfusion. Restrictive transfusion practice may affect the occurrence and severity of transfusion-associated circulatory overload in critically ill patients. We sought to examine contemporary risk factors and outcomes for transfusion-associated circulatory overload.

DESIGN

Case-control study.

SETTING

Four tertiary care hospitals.

PATIENTS

We prospectively enrolled 200 patients with transfusion-associated circulatory overload identified by active surveillance and 405 controls matched by transfusion intensity.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Among 20,845 transfused patients who received 128,263 blood components from May 2015 until July 2016, transfusion-associated circulatory overload incidence was one case per 100 transfused patients. In addition to cardiovascular comorbidities, multivariable analysis identified the following independent predictors of transfusion-associated circulatory overload: acute kidney injury, emergency surgery, pretransfusion diuretic use, and plasma transfusion-the latter especially in females. Compared with matched controls, transfusion-associated circulatory overload cases were more likely to require mechanical ventilation (71% vs 49%; p < 0.001), experienced longer intensive care and hospital lengths of stay following transfusion, and had higher mortality (21% vs 11%; p = 0.02) even after adjustment for other potentially confounding variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite restrictive transfusion practice, transfusion-associated circulatory overload remains a frequent complication of transfusion and is an independent risk factor for in-hospital morbidity and mortality. In addition to cardiovascular and renal risk factors, plasma transfusion was associated with transfusion-associated circulatory overload after controlling for other covariates. Additional research is needed to examine the benefit of reduced erythrocyte or plasma exposure in patients at high risk for transfusion-associated circulatory overload.

Patient blood management programs: how to spread the word?

Red blood cell (RBC) transfusions save lives and improve health; however, unnecessary transfusion practice exposes patients to immediate and long-term negative consequences. Indirect consequences of unnecessary transfusions are the reduced availability of RBC units for patients who are in need. Accumulating evidence shows that restricting RBC transfusions improves outcomes and current guidelines suggest limiting RBC transfusion to the minimum number of units required to relieve symptoms of anemia or to return the patient to a safe hemoglobin range (7-8 g/dl in stable, non-cardiac inpatients). Still, studies show that there is over-utilization of RBC transfusion, partly due to low level of knowledge of physicians regarding restrictive RBC transfusion policy across a broad range of professions and specialties. Patient blood management (PBM) programs have been developed to promote clear hospital transfusion guidelines, strive for optimization of patient hemoglobin and iron stores and, most importantly, improve education regarding restrictive RBC policy. Understanding what and where the gaps of knowledge are, as was done in the study by Dr. Koren and his colleagues, is an important step for developing effective PBM programs.

Anemia and Red Blood Cell Transfusion: Advances in Critical Care

Anemia is common in the intensive care unit (ICU), resulting in frequent administration of red blood cell (RBC) transfusions. Significant advances have been made in understanding the pathophysiology of anemia in the ICU, which is anemia of inflammation. This anemia is related to high hepcidin concentrations resulting in iron-restricted erythropoiesis, and decreased erythropoietin concentrations. A new hormone (erythroferrone) has been identified, which mediates hepcidin suppression to allow increased iron absorption and mobilization from iron stores. RBC transfusions are most commonly administered to ICU patients for treatment of anemia. All strategies to reduce anemia in the ICU should be implemented.

Organizational Contributors to the Variation in Red Blood Cell Transfusion Practices in Cardiac Surgery: Survey Results From the State of Michigan

BACKGROUND

While large volumes of red blood cell transfusions are given to preserve life for cardiac surgical patients, indications for lower volume transfusions (1-2 units) are less well understood. We evaluated the relationship between center-level organizational blood management practices and center-level variability in low volume transfusion rates.

METHODS

All 33 nonfederal, Michigan cardiac surgical programs were surveyed about their blood management practices for isolated, nonemergent coronary bypass procedures, including: (1) presence and structure of a patient blood management program, (2) policies and procedures, and (3) audit and feedback practices. Practices were compared across low (N = 14, rate: 0.8%-10.1%) and high (N = 18, rate: 11.0%-26.3%) transfusion rate centers.

RESULTS

Thirty-two (97.0%) of 33 institutions participated in this study. No statistical differences in organizational practices were identified between low- and high-rate groups, including: (1) the membership composition of patient blood management programs among those reporting having a blood management committee (P= .27-1.0), (2) the presence of available red blood cell units within the operating room (4 of 14 low-rate versus 2 of 18 high-rate centers report that they store no units per surgical case, P= .36), and (3) the frequency of internal benchmarking reporting about blood management audit and feedback practices (low rate: 8 of 14 versus high rate: 9 of 18; P= .43).

CONCLUSIONS

We did not identify meaningful differences in organizational practices between low- and high-rate intraoperative transfusion centers. While a larger sample size may have been able to identify differences in organizational practices, efforts to reduce variation in 1- to 2-unit, intraoperative transfusions may benefit from evaluating other determinants, including organizational culture and provider transfusion practices.

National and International Guidelines for Patient Blood Management in Obstetrics: A Qualitative Review

In developed countries, rates of postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) requiring transfusion have been increasing. As a result, anesthesiologists are being increasingly called upon to assist with the management of patients with severe PPH. First responders, including anesthesiologists, may adopt Patient Blood Management (PBM) recommendations of national societies or other agencies. However, it is unclear whether national and international obstetric societies' PPH guidelines account for contemporary PBM practices. We performed a qualitative review of PBM recommendations published by the following national obstetric societies and international groups: the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, United Kingdom; The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; The Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists of Canada; an interdisciplinary group of experts from Austria, Germany, and Switzerland, an international multidisciplinary consensus group, and the French College of Gynaecologists and Obstetricians. We also reviewed a PPH bundle, published by The National Partnership for Maternal Safety. On the basis of our review, we identified important differences in national and international societies' recommendations for transfusion and PBM. In the light of PBM advances in the nonobstetric setting, obstetric societies should determine the applicability of these recommendations in the obstetric setting. Partnerships among medical, obstetric, and anesthetic societies may also help standardize transfusion and PBM guidelines in obstetrics.

"Simplified International Recommendations for the Implementation of Patient Blood Management" (SIR4PBM)

BACKGROUND

More than 30% of the world's population are anemic with serious medical and economic consequences. Red blood cell transfusion is the mainstay to correct anemia, but it is also one of the top five overused procedures and carries its own risk and cost burden. Patient blood management (PBM) is a patient-centered and multidisciplinary approach to manage anemia, minimize iatrogenic blood loss, and harness tolerance to anemia in an effort to improve patient outcome. Despite resolution 63.12 of the World Health Organization in 2010 endorsing PBM and current guidelines which include evidence-based recommendations on the use of diagnostic/therapeutic resources to provide better health care, many hospitals have yet to implement PBM in routine clinical practice.

METHOD AND RESULTS

A number of experienced clinicians developed the following "Simplified International Recommendations for Patient Blood Management." We propose a series of simple, cost-effective, best-practice, feasible, and evidence-based measures that will enable any hospital to reduce both anemia prevalence on the day of intervention/surgery and anemia-related unnecessary transfusion in surgical and medical patients, including obstetrics and gynecology.

Blood Transfusion Therapy

Transfusion of red blood cells (RBCs) is a balance between providing benefit for patients while avoiding risks of transfusion. Randomized, controlled trials of restrictive RBC transfusion practices have shown equivalent patient outcomes compared with liberal transfusion practices, and meta-analyses have shown improved in-hospital mortality, reduced cardiac events, and reduced bacterial infections. This body of level 1 evidence has led to substantial, improved blood utilization and reduction of inappropriate blood transfusions with implementation of clinical decision support via electronic medical records, along with accompanying educational initiatives.

[Patient blood management: Current state of the literature]

BACKGROUND

Preoperative anemia has a prevalence of approximately 30% and is one of the strongest predictors of perioperative red blood cell (RBC) transfusion. It is rarely treated although it is an independent risk factor for the occurrence of postoperative complications. Additionally, the high variability in the worldwide usage of RBC transfusions is alarming. Due to these serious deficits in patient care, in 2011 the World Health Organization recommended the implementation of a patient blood management (PBM).

OBJECTIVES

This article provides information about PBM as a multidimensional and interdisciplinary approach.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A selective literature search was carried out in the Medline and Cochrane library databases including consideration of national and international guidelines.

RESULTS

A PBM promotes the medically and ethically appropriate use of all available resources, techniques and materials in favor of an optimized perioperative patient care. Patients' own resources should be specifically protected, strengthened and used and include (i) diagnosis and therapy of preoperative anemia, (ii) minimizing perioperative blood loss, (iii) blood-conserving surgical techniques, (iv) restriction of diagnostic blood sampling, (v) utilization of individual anemia tolerance, (vi) optimal coagulation and hemotherapy concepts and (vii) guideline-based, rational indications for the use of RBC transfusions.

CONCLUSION

A PBM should be advocated as an incentive to evaluate and critically optimize local conditions. An individual, interdisciplinarily structured bundle of different PBM measures has great potential to optimize the quality of patient care and to make it safer.

Patient Blood Management Bundles to Facilitate Implementation

More than 30% of the world's population are anemic with serious economic consequences including reduced work capacity and other obstacles to national welfare and development. Red blood cell transfusion is the mainstay to correct anemia, but it is also 1 of the top 5 overused procedures. Patient blood management (PBM) is a proactive, patient-centered, and multidisciplinary approach to manage anemia, optimize hemostasis, minimize iatrogenic blood loss, and harness tolerance to anemia. Although the World Health Organization has endorsed PBM in 2010, many hospitals still seek guidance with the implementation of PBM in clinical routine. Given the use of proven change management principles, we propose simple, cost-effective measures enabling any hospital to reduce both anemia and red blood cell transfusions in surgical and medical patients. This article provides comprehensive bundles of PBM components encompassing 107 different PBM measures, divided into 6 bundle blocks acting as a working template to develop institutions' individual PBM practices for hospitals beginning a program or trying to improve an already existing program. A stepwise selection of the most feasible measures will facilitate the implementation of PBM. In this manner, PBM represents a new quality and safety standard.

Reduction of red blood cell transfusions by implementation of a concise pretransfusion checklist

BACKGROUND

This study assesses the effect of the implementation of a concise pretransfusion checklist as a means for restrictive blood transfusion strategy.

OBJECTIVES

To achieve an optimal use of red blood cells and to prevent overdosing of transfusion by implementation of a decision support algorithm.

METHODS

To ensure adequate use of red blood cells, physicians were obliged to complete the checklist with pretransfusion patient information before transfusion was approved. Laboratory employees checked the information and provided approval or refused to process the request. The red blood cell transfusion events, length of stay and mortality were analysed during a pre- and post-implementation period of 1 year.

RESULTS

Transfusion requests decreased by 17·0%. The proportion of 1-unit and 2-unit transfusions decreased by 5·6% and 29·2%, respectively, corresponding with a total red blood cell units reduction of 22·6% and a yearly direct local cost reduction of 190·000 €. The median length of stay of transfused patients on wards decreased by 1·07 days (P < 0·05). Average pre- and post-transfusion haemoglobin levels before and after implementation of the checklist decreased by 0·32-0·35 g L(-1) (P < 0·05) for one unit red blood cell transfusions and 0·72-0·87 g L(-1) (P < 0·05) for two units of red blood cell transfusions.

CONCLUSION

Decision support for transfusion necessity, in the form of a concise checklist as part of the transfusion request, is an example of a successful restricted blood transfusion strategy. The checklist can be applied in other hospitals as well.

Regular blood donation may help in the management of hypertension: an observational study on 292 blood donors

BACKGROUND

Hypertension is one of the leading global risks for cardiovascular events worldwide. There is preliminary evidence that regular blood donation may be beneficial.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Unselected blood donors were included in this observational study. Blood pressure (BP) was measured before and after blood donation, with participants donating between one and four occasions in a 1-year study period.

RESULTS

In this study, 292 donors were enrolled. At baseline, 146 had elevated BP (> 140/90 mmHg). In hypertensives, after four blood donations, systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP, respectively) decreased from a mean of 155.9 ± 13.0 to 143.7 ± 15.0 mmHg and from 91.4 ± 9.2 to 84.5 ± 9.3 mmHg, respectively (each p < 0.001). There was a clear dose effect with decreasing BP by the increasing number of blood donations. After at least four blood donations, donors with Stage II hypertensive baseline values (≥ 160 mmHg SBP and/or ≥ 100 mmHg DBP) were found to have the most marked reduction in BP, with 17.1 mmHg (95% confidence interval [CI], -23.2 to -11.0; p < 0.0001) and 11.7 mmHg (95% CI, -17.1 to -6.1; p = 0.0006) for SBP and DBP, respectively. The decrease in BP was not significantly associated with changes of blood count or variables of iron metabolism.

CONCLUSIONS

Regular blood donation is associated with pronounced decreases of BP in hypertensives. This beneficial effect of blood donation may open a new door regarding community health care and cost reduction in the treatment of hypertension.

Is there a "magic" hemoglobin number? Clinical decision support promoting restrictive blood transfusion practices

Blood transfusion has been identified as one of the most frequently performed therapeutic procedures, with a significant percentage of transfusions identified to be inappropriate. Recent key clinical trials in adults have provided Level 1 evidence to support restrictive red blood cell (RBC) transfusion practices. However, some advocates have attempted to identify a "correct" Hb threshold for RBC transfusion; whereas others assert that management of anemia, including transfusion decisions, must take into account clinical patient variables, rather than simply one diagnostic laboratory test. The heterogeneity of guidelines for blood transfusion by a number of medical societies reflects this controversy. Clinical decision support (CDS) uses a Hb threshold number in a smart Best Practices Alert (BPA) upon physician order, to trigger a concurrent utilization self-review for whether blood transfusion therapy is appropriate. This review summarizes Level 1 evidence in seven key clinical trials in adults that support restrictive transfusion practices, along strategies made possible by CDS that have demonstrated value in improving blood utilization by promoting restrictive transfusion practices.

Improving red blood cell orders, utilization, and management with point-of-care clinical decision support

BACKGROUND

The computerized order for red blood cell (RBC) transfusion within our electronic health record was redesigned with integrated clinical decision support (CDS) to reinforce our restrictive transfusion policy. These changes encouraged 1-unit (1U) RBC orders, clarified hemoglobin (Hb) transfusion triggers, and discouraged unnecessary orders. This study assessed whether these changes resulted in durable effects on provider practices.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

The study compared three 1-year subperiods from August 2011 to August 2014, with each year corresponding to a historical control period, preintervention and postintervention years. This study analyzed ratios of 1U versus 2-unit (2U) orders and the absolute rate of RBC orders, units charged, Hb transfusion triggers, repeat transfusion orders, and selected clinical indications both institution-wide and across several subpopulations.

RESULTS

Our institution-wide ratio of 1U versus 2U orders increased from 0.50 to 1.20 (p < 0.0001) in the pre- to postintervention subperiods, respectively. The number of units charged per day decreased from 15.68 to 13.53 (p < 0.001), while rates of initial and repeat orders remained stable. Proportion of clinical indications used and mean Hb triggers demonstrated generally positive results. The changes observed between the pre- and postintervention years were far greater than changes between historical control versus preintervention years, reinforcing attribution of results to computerized physician order entry changes.

CONCLUSION

Use of computerized orders and CDS encouraged a restrictive transfusion policy, which was highly successful in changing provider practices. We also succeeded in decreasing mean Hb triggers and overall utilization of RBCs. These findings persisted across many subpopulations.

Transfusion medicine as of 2014

Transfusion of blood components is one of the most common medical treatments, and in spite of the time that has evolved since we started to transfuse blood routinely in the 1930s, there are issues associated with its use that we are still trying to improve. Issues such as when to transfuse and adverse effects associated with the transfusion are fields where new evidence is being generated that ideally should help us to indicate when and what to transfuse to the patients. The recognition that the evidence generated in randomized control trials was not widely applied to guide the indication of the transfusion of blood components has provoked the development of initiatives that try to reduce its unnecessary usage. Those initiatives, grouped under the name of patient blood management, have represented a significant paradigm change, and a growing number of activities in this field are performed in health-care facilities around the world. This article tries to summarize the latest publications in those fields.