Salmonella Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices: A Survey of Backyard Poultry Owners Residing in Seattle, Washington and the Surrounding Metropolitan Area

Multistate outbreaks of salmonellosis linked to contact with backyard poultry-United States, 2015-2022

AIMS

Contact with backyard poultry (i.e., privately-owned, non-commercial poultry) was first associated with a multistate outbreak of salmonellosis in 1955. In recent years, backyard poultry-associated salmonellosis outbreaks have caused more illnesses in the United States than salmonellosis outbreaks linked to any other type of animal. Here, we describe the epidemiology of outbreaks from 2015-2022 to inform prevention efforts.

METHODS AND RESULTS

During 2015-2022, there were 88 multistate backyard poultry-associated salmonellosis outbreaks and 7866 outbreak-associated illnesses caused by 21 different Salmonella serotypes. Salmonella Enteritidis accounted for the most outbreaks (n = 21) and illnesses (n = 2400) of any serotype. Twenty-four percent (1840/7727) of patients with available information were <5 years of age. In total, 30% (1710/5644) of patients were hospitalized, and nine deaths were attributed to Salmonella infection. Throughout this period, patients reported behaviours that have a higher risk of Salmonella transmission, including kissing or snuggling poultry or allowing poultry inside their home.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite ongoing efforts to reduce the burden of salmonellosis associated with backyard poultry, outbreak-associated illnesses have nearly tripled and hospitalizations more than quadrupled compared with those in 1990-2014. Because this public health problem is largely preventable, government officials, human and veterinary healthcare providers, hatcheries, and retailers might improve the prevention of illnesses by widely disseminating health and safety recommendations to the public and by continuing to develop and implement prevention measures to reduce zoonotic transmission of Salmonella by backyard poultry.

Indigenous chicken production system in different agro-ecology of Indian Himalayan Region: implication on food and economic security

The indigenous chicken production system (ICPS) has several use values and ecosystem services. In the last few years, ICPS has been recognized for its possible contribution to household food security, income generation, wildlife protection, and bettering the women's lives. This study aimed to collect, for the first time, comprehensive information about ICPS in three different agro-ecologies (tropical, sub-tropical, and sub-temperate) of the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) and its role in food and economic security of traditional communities. In this study region, ICPS is semi-extensive, providing homegrown feed and temporary night shelter. In sub-temperate agro-ecology, females owned non-significant (p = 0.170) more indigenous chicken flocks than males. Households in sub-temperate agro-ecologies had significantly (p ≤ 0.001) larger flock sizes and tropical livestock units (chicken-TLU). However, the livestock diversity index (LDI) was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.001) in tropical and subtropical agro-ecology. The households in the sub-temperate region highly (p ≤ 0.001) valued indigenous chicken because of its survivability and adaptability. In absolute numbers significant (p ≤ 0.001) higher numbers of adult birds died in past 1 year in sub-temperate agro-ecology. The mortality rate of adult birds in sub-temperate agro-ecology was 9%, and it was 14 and 15% in tropical and sub-tropical agro-ecologies, respectively. In sub-temperate agro-ecology, larger flock size translated into significantly higher (p ≤ 0.001) egg production and subsequently a significant (p ≤ 0.001) higher egg consumption per household per month. In sub-temperate agro-ecology, households' dietary diversity score was significantly (p ≤ 0.001) higher. Similarly, the average annual income from ICPS was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.001) in sub-temperate agro-ecology and accounted for 18% of household income. ICPS' marketing chain was relatively short in the sub-temperate region. In all agro-ecologies, indigenous chicken and egg demand was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.001) in the winter. ICPS litter is used as farmyard manure, enhancing ecological resilience. In all agro-ecologies, the three most frequently cited obstacles to extending the indigenous chicken production system are illnesses, predators, and a lack of chicks availability. ICPS contributes to food and nutritional security, economic stability, and ecological resilience in this hilly and fragile ecosystem. Even though the system is self-sustaining, management and health interventions can increase production and productivity.

Backyard chickens - A cross-sectional survey of current and prospective backyard chicken owners in Ontario (2019-2021)

Objective

Chickens are a natural reservoir for zoonotic pathogens. Humans and pets may be at increased risk of illness due to contact with poultry, their eggs, and their environment. We aimed to identify any knowledge, attitude, or practice gaps among current and prospective backyard chicken owners.

Animal

Backyard chickens.

Procedure

Responses were collected through an anonymous online survey from December 2019 to March 2021. Respondents were asked questions regarding household demographics, previous, current, or future backyard chickens, primary reasons for having or wanting backyard chickens, and about animal handling practices and zoonotic disease awareness.

Results

There were 279 respondents from Ontario (85.9%). Reported reasons for having or wanting backyard chickens included for eggs (94.0%), as pets (49.6%), and as a hobby (62.4%). Interestingly, 8.1% wanted chickens for their meat. Just over 1/5 (21.1%) of those with current or recent flocks allowed the birds to come into their house. Just over 7% incorrectly indicated rabies virus could be transmitted by backyard chickens.

Conclusions

Reasons for having or wanting backyard chickens included food and companionship. Many owners reported allowing the chickens entry into their homes, highlighting increased opportunities for zoonotic pathogen transmission. There were misconceptions regarding pathogens transmissible by chickens.

Assessment of the knowledge and behavior of backyard and small-scale producers in California regarding disease prevention, biosecurity practices and antibiotics use

The number and popularity of backyard poultry and livestock farming have rapidly increased in California as well as other states in the United States following consumers' preference for local and organic products in the last few years. This study aimed to investigate current on-farm management and farmers' understanding of Veterinary Feed Directive (VFD) and California Senate Bill (SB) 27 implications for disease prevention, biosecurity procedures, and antimicrobial use in small-scale and backyard farms in California. The survey consisted of 38 questions. The responses of 242 backyard and small-scale livestock owners were investigated in this study. Descriptive statistics summarized survey responses, and multivariable logistic regression evaluated the association of antibiotics purchase and use, and the impact of VFD and SB27 on antibiotic use with demographics and on-farm management. Backyard and small-scale farmers in California mostly raised chickens or small ruminants with small herd sizes kept for personal use. Antibiotics were generally used for individual treatment of a sick animal with the guidance of a veterinarian. VFD and SB27 implementation promoted the judicious use of antibiotics, specifically, by enhancing the relationship between backyard and small-scale farmers with veterinarians and treating fewer animals with antibiotics under veterinary oversight. Therefore, better access to veterinary service in backyard and small-scale farms will improve the farmer's knowledge of good husbandry practices with judicious antimicrobial use in livestock and finally contribute to reducing the risk of antimicrobial resistance in California.

Evaluation of irish consumers' knowledge of salmonellosis and food-handling practices

Salmonella is one of numerous food-borne pathogens that could possibly pose a major threat to global food safety. Salmonella is primarily associated with foods such as poultry, eggs, vegetables, and some dairy products. However, infected food handlers and faecal contaminated environments are also significant sources and reservoirs of this pathogen. This study comprehensively evaluated the Irish consumers' food safety knowledge by exploring their knowledge level, practices and attitudes regarding raw meat handling, cross-contamination while handling different types of food products, and knowledge of Salmonella risk and associated food-handling practices. The online SurveyMonkey tool was used to distribute a quantitative survey titled "Evaluation of Knowledge and Food-handling practices of Irish Consumers" from July to November 2020 and generated a total of 1916 responses. Results indicated that 79.9% of the studied Irish population had a good knowledge of salmonellosis and risk perception related to food handling practices. Knowledge of cross-contamination, hygienic practices and pathogens associated with poultry were also considered high. However, knowledge of meat handling was low at 44.9%. It was also observed that age, gender, marital status, gross annual income, and nationality were influential factors regarding the food safety knowledge of consumers, while age, marital status and gender indicated significant differences regarding awareness of correct food hygiene practices.

Salmonella enterica frequency in backyard chickens in Vermont and biosecurity knowledge and practices of owners

The popularity of backyard chickens has been growing steadily over the past 10 years, with Covid-19 stay at home orders in 2020 yielding an added boost in popularity. Concurrently, cases of salmonellosis from live poultry exposure have also risen. Previous research on backyard chicken owners has focused primarily on urban chicken owners, which may have differing knowledge and biosecurity habits from rural backyard chicken owners. The goal of this study was to investigate the prevalence of S. enterica in rural and urban flocks of chickens in the state of Vermont and to determine what attitudes toward and knowledge about S. enterica owners had, as well as what biosecurity practices they used. We conducted two surveys in Vermont between 2019–2022; a pilot study tied to sampling for Salmonella enterica in backyard chicken flocks from 2019–2021 and a statewide study in 2022 to determine the prevalence of backyard chickens in Vermont and obtain representative survey data from backyard chicken owners. We found (i) overall, 19% (8/42) backyard chicken flocks from 2019–2021 had S. enterica, but S. enterica rates varied substantially by year; (ii) backyard chicken owners were wealthier and more educated than the average Vermonter and generally lived in rural areas; (iii) participants in the statewide survey had much lower uptake of good biosecurity habits compared to the pilot survey; (iv) despite increased messaging about backyard chicken-associated salmonellosis and good biosecurity measures over the past several years, uptake of biosecurity measures is inconsistent, and rates of unsafe practices such as kissing or cuddling chickens have increased in Vermont. Overall, the data indicate the need for improved messaging on biosecurity and risks associated with backyard chickens

Salmonella in eggs: From shopping to consumption-A review providing an evidence-based analysis of risk factors

Nontyphoidal salmonellae are among the most prevalent foodborne pathogens causing gastrointestinal infections worldwide. A high number of cases and outbreaks of salmonellosis are associated with the consumption of eggs and egg products, and several of these occur at the household level. The aim of the current study is to critically evaluate the current status of knowledge on Salmonella in eggs from a consumer's perspective, analyzing the hazard occurrence and the good practices that should be applied to reduce salmonellosis risk. Following a HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) based approach, some steps along the food journey were identified as Critical Consumer Handling (CCH)-steps in which consumers, through their behavior or choice, can significantly reduce the level of Salmonella in eggs and egg products. From shopping/collecting to consumption, each of these steps is discussed in this review to provide an evidence-based overview of risk factors of human salmonellosis related to egg consumption. The main message to consumers is to choose Salmonella-free eggs (those that some official entity or producer guarantees that does not contain Salmonella), when available, especially for dishes that are not fully heat treated. Second, as guaranteed Salmonella-free eggs are only available in a few countries, refrigerated storage from the point of collection and proper cooking will significantly reduce the risk of salmonellosis. This will require a revision of the actual recommendations/regulations, as not all ensure that eggs are maintained at temperatures that prevent growth of Salmonella from collection until the time of purchasing.

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS, AND HUSBANDRY AND BIOSECURITY PRACTICES OF SMALL POULTRY FLOCKS IN ONTARIO, CANADA

As part of a two-year, disease surveillance project of small poultry flocks, owners of birds submitted for postmortem examination to the Animal Health Laboratory were asked to complete a questionnaire designed to gather information on the characteristics of the flock and its environment, how the flock was managed, and biosecurity measures used. A total of 153 unique questionnaires were received. Personal consumption of meat or eggs was the most common reason for owning a small flock (69.3%). Almost all owners (97.4%) reported having chickens on their property, while 21.6% had waterfowl, 15.7% had turkeys, and 15.7% had game birds. Nearly seventy percent (69.9%) of the flocks had some degree of outdoor access. For those with indoor access, the most common bedding material provided was soft wood shavings (70.2%). Kitchen waste or leftovers were offered to 65.3% of flocks, and well water was the most common source of drinking water (80.6%). For flocks with indoor access, dedicated shoes and clothes were used when entering or cleaning the coop by less than half of owners, and shoes were rarely disinfected before or after contact with the flock. Most owners (93.8%) reported washing their hands after contact with their birds, although only 48.3% reported washing their hands before contact. Among owners who sourced birds from a hatchery, only 36.8% indicated that the birds had been vaccinated and 21.1% were unsure if vaccines had been administered. Among owners using medication (60.5%), the use of antibiotics was common (60.9%). Overall, questionnaire responses describe a wide range of husbandry and biosecurity practices, often suboptimal, and point out the need for educational material for Ontario small flock owners.

Assessment of veterinarians' engagement with backyard poultry and small-scale livestock operations in four western states

OBJECTIVE

To assess veterinarian engagement with owners of poultry and livestock in urban and peri-urban areas (UPAs) of 4 western states, to evaluate the knowledge and experience of veterinarians in UPAs for treating domestic poultry and livestock, and to identify barriers to the provision of veterinary services to backyard poultry and small-scale livestock operations.

SAMPLE

880 veterinarians in UPAs.

PROCEDURES

2,400 members of the veterinary medical associations of California, Colorado, Oregon, and Washington who worked in metropolitan areas with a population > 5,000 people were randomly selected and invited to participate in a needs assessment survey. Response data were analyzed with univariable logistic regression and multiple correspondence analysis.

RESULTS

880 (37%) invitees completed or partially completed the survey. Most respondents self-reported working in UPAs (686/825 [83%]) and companion animal only (n = 551) or predominant (211) practices. Although most (656/863 [76%]) respondents perceived an increase in backyard poultry and livestock in their practice areas, few were actively treating such animals primarily because of a lack of facilities, interest, or experience. Most respondents believed veterinarians have an important role in ensuring public health and preventing zoonotic disease.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Backyard poultry and livestock are increasing in popularity in UPAs of 4 western states, and veterinarians are needed to provide services to such animals. Further research and continuing education are necessary to encourage practitioners in UPAs to engage with owners of backyard poultry and livestock to ensure the health and welfare of those animals and guard public health. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2020;257:196-209).

The Protective Effect of E. faecium on S. typhimurium Infection Induced Damage to Intestinal Mucosa

Intensive farming is prone to induce large-scale outbreaks of infectious diseases, with increasing use of antibiotics, which deviate from the demand of organic farming. The high mortality rate of chickens infected with Salmonella caused huge economic losses; therefore, the promising safe prevention and treatment measures of Salmonella are in urgent need, such as probiotics. Probiotics are becoming an ideal alternative treatment option besides antibiotics, but the effective chicken probiotic strains with clear protective mechanism against Salmonella remain unclear. In this study, we found Enterococcus faecium YQH2 was effective in preventing Salmonella typhimurium infection in chickens. Salmonella typhimurium induced the loss of body weight, and liver and intestinal morphology damage. The inflammatory factor levels increased and intestinal proliferation inhibited. However, after treatment with Enterococcus faecium YQH2, broilers grew normally, the pathological changes of liver and intestine were reduced, and the colonization of Salmonella in the intestine was improved. Not only that, the length of villi and the depth of crypts were relatively normal, and the levels of inflammatory factors such as IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-8 were reduced. The number of PCNA cells of Enterococcus faecium YQH2 returned to normal under the action of Salmonella typhimurium infection, which was conducive to the normal proliferation of intestinal epithelial cells. The protective effect of Enterococcus faecium YQH2 may be due to the attribution to the activation of hypoxia and then induced the proliferation of intestinal stem cells to repair the damage of intestinal mucosa under Salmonella typhimurium infection. This study demonstrated that Enterococcus faecium YQH2 was effective in preventing Salmonella typhimurium infection, which could be further used in the chicken health breeding.

Sodium Butyrate Reduces Salmonella Enteritidis Infection of Chicken Enterocytes and Expression of Inflammatory Host Genes in vitro

Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) is a facultative intracellular pathogen that colonizes the chicken gut leading to contamination of carcasses during processing. A reduction in intestinal colonization by SE could result in reduced carcass contamination thereby reducing the risk of illnesses in humans. Short chain fatty acids such as butyrate are microbial metabolites produced in the gut that exert various beneficial effects. However, its effect on SE colonization is not well known. The present study investigated the effect of sub-inhibitory concentrations (SICs) of sodium butyrate on the adhesion and invasion of SE in primary chicken enterocytes and chicken macrophages. In addition, the effect of sodium butyrate on the expression of SE virulence genes and selected inflammatory genes in chicken macrophages challenged with SE were investigated. Based on the growth curve analysis, the two SICs of sodium butyrate that did not reduce SE growth were 22 and 45 mM, respectively. The SICs of sodium butyrate did not affect the viability and proliferation of chicken enterocytes and macrophage cells. The SICs of sodium butyrate reduced SE adhesion by ∼1.7 and 1.8 Log CFU/mL, respectively. The SE invasion was reduced by ∼2 and 2.93 Log CFU/mL, respectively in chicken enterocytes (P < 0.05). Sodium butyrate did not significantly affect the adhesion of SE to chicken macrophages. However, 45 mM sodium butyrate reduced invasion by ∼1.7 Log CFU/mL as compared to control (P < 0.05). Exposure to sodium butyrate did not change the expression of SE genes associated with motility (flgG, prot6E), invasion (invH), type 3 secretion system (sipB, pipB), survival in macrophages (spvB, mgtC), cell wall and membrane integrity (tatA), efflux pump regulator (mrr1) and global virulence regulation (lrp) (P > 0.05). However, a few genes contributing to type-3 secretion system (ssaV, sipA), adherence (sopB), macrophage survival (sodC) and oxidative stress (rpoS) were upregulated by at least twofold. The expression of inflammatory genes (Il1β, Il8, and Mmp9) that are triggered by SE for host colonization was significantly downregulated (at least 25-fold) by sodium butyrate as compared to SE (P < 0.05). The results suggest that sodium butyrate has an anti-inflammatory potential to reduce SE colonization in chickens.

The occurrence of Salmonella, extended-spectrum β-lactamase producing Escherichia coli and carbapenem resistant non-fermenting Gram-negative bacteria in a backyard poultry flock environment

Increase in the number of small-scale backyard poultry flocks in the USA has substantially increased human-to-live poultry contact, leading to increased public health risks of the transmission of multi-drug resistant (MDR) zoonotic and food-borne bacteria. The objective of this study was to detect the occurrence of Salmonella and MDR Gram-negative bacteria (GNB) in the backyard poultry flock environment. A total of 34 backyard poultry flocks in Washington State (WA) were sampled. From each flock, one composite coop sample and three drag swabs from nest floor, waterer-feeder, and a random site with visible faecal smearing, respectively, were collected. The samples were processed for isolation of Salmonella and other fermenting and non-fermenting GNB under ceftiofur selection. Each isolate was identified to species level using MALDI-TOFF and tested for resistance against 16 antibiotics belonging to eight antibiotic classes. Salmonella serovar 1,4,[5],12:i:- was isolated from one (3%) out of 34 flocks. Additionally, a total of 133 ceftiofur resistant (Cef^R ) GNB including Escherichia coli (53), Acinetobacter spp. (45), Pseudomonas spp. (22), Achromobacter spp. (8), Bordetella trematum (1), Hafnia alvei (1), Ochrobactrum intermedium (1), Raoultella ornithinolytica (1), and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia (1) were isolated. Of these, 110 (82%) isolates displayed MDR. Each flock was found positive for the presence of one or more Cef^R GNB. Several MDR E. coli (n = 15) were identified as extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) positive. Carbapenem resistance was detected in non-fermenting GNB including Acinetobacter spp. (n = 20), Pseudomonas spp. (n = 11) and Stenotrophomonas maltophila (n = 1). ESBL positive E. coli and carbapenem resistant non-fermenting GNB are widespread in the backyard poultry flock environment in WA State. These GNB are known to cause opportunistic infections, especially in immunocompromised hosts. Better understanding of the ecology and epidemiology of these GNB in the backyard poultry flock settings is needed to identify potential risks of transmission to people in proximity.

Zoonotic disease awareness survey of backyard poultry and swine owners in southcentral Pennsylvania

Owners of small backyard poultry and swine operations may be at higher risk of zoonotic diseases due to husbandry inexperience and/or a lack of knowledge. Backyard poultry and swine owners in southcentral Pennsylvania were surveyed regarding their knowledge and attitudes towards zoonotic disease prevention. One hundred and six backyard poultry and/or swine owners completed the survey (74 poultry, 15 swine, 17 both), which included questions on demographics, flock/herd characteristics, recognition of selected zoonotic diseases and clinical signs in animals, and biosecurity practices for visitors and owners. Most responded that they were aware of avian (92.2%) and swine (84.4%) influenza, and were less aware of other zoonotic diseases such as salmonellosis and brucellosis. The majority of backyard poultry and swine owners combined (62.9%) reported allowing visitors freely around their animals and did not require any special precautions. Backyard poultry and swine owners most commonly reported rarely (32.7%) or never (28.9%) wearing work gloves and never (57.1%) wearing nose/mouth coverings, such as a respirator mask, while handling animals or manure. The study findings indicated that veterinarians (61.5%) and the Internet (50.0%) are the main sources where small-scale farm producers seek animal disease information. Approximately one-third (34.9%) of the respondents reported receiving seasonal influenza vaccine. The findings of this study will be utilized to provide targeted veterinary and public health education for the prevention of zoonotic diseases in backyard farm animal settings in Pennsylvania.

Epidemiological characteristics of a salmonella outbreak among infants in Qatar, 2017

Purpose: This study was conducted to investigate the epidemiology behind the increased incidence of infant salmonella cases in Qatar during 2017 and identify the possible risk factors. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study using the notification reports of laboratory-confirmed infant salmonella cases received by the Ministry of Public Health during the year 2017. Furthermore, complementary phone interviews with the infants' mothers using a validated questionnaire were conducted. Results: The infant salmonella attack rate was calculated at approximately 3.23 cases per 1000 infants. Among the 89 confirmed infant salmonella cases, there were more girls (53%) than boys (47%) with a median age of 8 months. The most common type of salmonella species isolated was group B (50.5%). Among the 59 infant cases whose mothers were interviewed, the majority (94.9%) were symptomatic and diarrhea was the main reported symptom (90%), particularly bloody diarrhoea (62%). Regarding their dietary consumption, the majority (69.5%) of the infected infants were formula-fed. Moreover, the majority reported having no pets at home (91.6%) and were not enrolled in a day care center (93.3%). Conclusion: This study revealed a high incidence of salmonella infection among infants in the State of Qatar, which poses a public health concern. Therefore, targeted interventions and health awareness programs are required for outbreak prevention, detection and control.

Exploring the attitudes of backyard poultry keepers to health and biosecurity

Backyard poultry producers have been associated with outbreaks of exotic (e.g. avian influenza) and endemic (e.g. Salmonella) disease all over the world. Currently in the UK the registration of small flocks (less than 50 birds) with local authorities is voluntary therefore there is not an accurate record of how many keepers and birds there are or where they are located. This lack of information (e.g. how many birds they keep, what type of birds, biosecurity measures they implement, etc.) may compromise contingency planning in an outbreak. A questionnaire was designed and implemented to gather information that will allow some of the knowledge gaps to be filled. The questionnaire comprised a total of 63 questions divided into seven sections (characterisation of the keeper, location of the enterprise and interest in poultry, poultry husbandry, transport of poultry, details about the poultry enterprise, marketing of poultry products, and poultry health/biosecurity). The questionnaire was implemented through an online survey, which was promoted through web links in smallholders' websites, Facebook pages, the SRUC network, a course about poultry welfare, and leaflets at smallholders' festivals. The survey was open from 24th October 2016 to 10th April 2017 and 176 questionnaires were completed by target respondents. Overall, our results suggest that the level of disease identified by backyard poultry keepers is low but the majority of the backyard poultry keepers also keep other livestock species, with an associated increased risk for disease transmission between species. Almost all respondents reported implementing at least one biosecurity measure, although in the majority of cases the measures taken were not comprehensive. A lack of knowledge about the legislation concerning poultry-keeping activities was evidenced by the answers given to some questions, such as the feeding of kitchen scraps and how to dispose of dead stocks. This investigation fills gaps in knowledge which will allow industry stakeholders and policy makers to adapt their current disease programmes and contingency plans to the reality of the health and biosecurity status of backyard poultry. It also highlights that government could play a more active role in engaging with backyard poultry keepers and in finding ways to disseminate reliable information generally and about disease outbreaks specifically, to these keepers.

Small-scale and backyard livestock owners needs assessment in the western United States

The number of small-scale and backyard livestock and poultry owners in urban and peri-urban areas has increased greatly over the last 10 years in the U.S. However, these animal owners may live in areas without access to livestock and/or poultry veterinary care. The purpose of this study was to identify potential veterinary service needs of these animal owners in the western US, assess their use of management and husbandry practices with regards to disease prevention, and assess their attitudes about animal health and food safety. A semi-structured survey was made available to small-scale and backyard livestock and poultry owners in Washington State, California, Colorado and Oregon. The survey instrument included questions about types of animals reared, uses of the animals, veterinary services and information-seeking behaviors of owners, attitudes on animal health and food safety, and management practices. Four hundred thirty-five individuals completed at least some portion of the survey. Most described themselves as living in rural areas (76%). Most (86%) owned chickens, 53% owned small ruminants, and 31% owned cattle. Many individuals owned more than one species and most had fewer than 20 animals of a given species. About 74% of respondents utilized their animals’ products for their own consumption but 48% sold animal products (primarily through internet sales (35%) or farmers’ markets (25%)). Overwhelmingly, respondents gained information about animal health (82%) and animal treatment procedures (71%) from the internet. Respondents reported their veterinarian’s practice type as companion animal (26%) or a mixed animal or food animal predominant (66%). Overall, respondents were very satisfied with the level of care (82%), but 43% had not sought animal health care in last 12 months. However, the veterinarian’s primary practice type and owner’s satisfaction with veterinary care were associated with their location (state), species owned, and urban or peri-urban setting. Livestock species type (cattle, small ruminants and swine), and use (personal or commercial) were associated with implementation of different biosecurity practices. The results of this survey highlight some of the needs of these animal owners for veterinary care and information which are location- and species-specific. Veterinary care for these small-scale and backyard animals is vital to the health and welfare of the animals as well as for identification of zoonoses and assurance of the food safety of animal products.

Frequent human-poultry interactions and low prevalence of Salmonella in backyard chicken flocks in Massachusetts

The backyard chicken (BYC) movement in the USA has increased human contact with poultry and subsequently, human contact with the pathogen Salmonella. However, to date, there have been few studies assessing prevalence of Salmonella in backyard flocks, despite the known public health risk this zoonotic bacterium poses. The objective of this study was to characterize human-BYC interactions and assess the prevalence of Salmonella among BYC flocks. We interviewed 50 BYC owners using a structured questionnaire to determine flock and household characteristics that facilitate contact with BYC and that may be associated with Salmonella in the BYC environment. Composite faecal material, cloacal swabs and dust samples from 53 flocks housed on 50 residential properties in the Greater Boston, Massachusetts area were tested for Salmonella using standard culture techniques and confirmed using Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometer. Microbroth dilution and whole genome sequencing were used to determine phenotypic and genotypic resistance profiles, respectively, and sequence results were used to determine multilocus sequencing type. No owners self-reported a diagnosis of salmonellosis in the household. Over 75% of a subset of owners reported that they and their children consider BYC pets. This perception is evident in how owners reported interacting with their birds. Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serotype Kentucky ST152 (serogroup C)-a strain not commonly associated with human infection-was confirmed in one flock, or 2% of tested flocks, and demonstrated resistance to tetracycline and streptomycin. We detected Salmonella at low prevalence in BYC. Further study of the health effects of exposure to zoonotic gastrointestinal pathogens such as Salmonella among families with BYC is warranted.

Genomics of Salmonella contaminating backyard production systems reveals persistence and transmission of genetically related Salmonella on a farm basis

Animals raised in backyard productive systems (BPS) have been frequently associated with Salmonella outbreaks. Several serovars have caused these events, showing that different BPSs can be contaminated by distinct Salmonella serovars. The aim of this study was to characterize the genomic diversity of Salmonella isolates obtained from BPSs in Central Chile to understand their genomic relatedness. A whole-genome SNP-based phylogenetic analysis of 22 Salmonella isolates from 12 locations revealed that S. Typhimurium isolates clustered based on the BPS that they were originally isolated from, and the same was established for S. Enteritidis isolates. Furthermore, our genomic analysis shows that animals from different species (i.e., a chicken, a duck and a pig) carried genetically related S. Typhimurium strains within the same BPS. Moreover, some of these genetically related isolates were obtained in different years (2013 and 2014), indicating that farm-specific Salmonella can persist in BPSs for multiple years and that interspecies transmission is plausible in this environment. Understanding the dynamics of interspecies transmission of Salmonella serovars within a contaminated BPS is fundamental to the design of mitigation strategies to reduce outbreaks of human Salmonella associated with backyard production systems.