Impedance of the amphibian lens

N-acetylhistidine, a novel osmolyte in the lens of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)

Volume homeostasis is essential for the preservation of lens transparency and this is of particular significance to anadromous fish species where migration from freshwater to seawater presents severe osmotic challenges. In Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar L.), aqueous humor (AH) osmolality is greater in fish acclimated to seawater compared with young freshwater fish, and levels of lens N-acetylhistidine (NAH) are much higher in seawater fish. Here we investigate NAH as an osmolyte in the lenses of salmon receiving diets either with or without histidine supplementation. In the histidine-supplemented diet (HD) histidine content was 14.2 g/kg, and in the control diet (CD) histidine content was 8.9 g/kg. A transient increase in AH osmolality of 20 mmol/kg was observed in fish transferred from freshwater to seawater. In a lens culture model, temporary decreases in volume and transparency were observed when lenses were exposed to hyperosmotic conditions. A positive linear relationship between extracellular osmolality and lens NAH content was also observed, whereas there was no change in lens histidine content. Hypoosmotic exposure stimulated [14C]-histidine efflux by 9.2- and 2.6-fold in CD and HD lenses, respectively. NAH efflux, measured by HPLC, was stimulated by hypoosmotic exposure to a much greater extent in HD lenses. In vivo, lens NAH increased in response to elevated AH osmolality in HD but not CD fish. In conclusion, NAH has an important and novel role as a compatible osmolyte in salmon lens. Furthermore, it is the major osmolyte that balances increases in AH osmolality when fish move from freshwater to seawater. A deficiency in NAH would lead to a dysfunction of the normal osmoregulatory processes in the lens, and we propose that this would contribute to cataract formation in fish deficient in histidine.

Gap junction communication influences intercellular protein distribution in the lens

Lens transparency and high refractive index presumably depend on the appropriate arrangement and distribution of lens proteins among lens fiber cells. Intercellular gap junction channels formed by alpha3 and alpha8 connexins are known to transport small molecules, ions and water, but not proteins, in the lens. Mosaic expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP) in the lens is a useful marker for monitoring macromolecule distribution between fiber cells and for constructing three-dimensional images of living lens cells. In alpha3(-/-) alpha8(-/-) double knockout (DKO) lenses, three-dimensional images of GFP-positive cells demonstrate the changes of epithelial cell surfaces and insufficient elongation of inner fiber cells. Uniform distribution of GFP between inner lens fiber cells is observed in both wild-type and alpha3(-/-) lenses. In contrast, uniform GFP distribution is slightly delayed in alpha8(-/-) lenses and is abolished in DKO lenses. Without endogenous wild-type alpha3 and alpha8 connexins, knock-in alpha3 connexin (expressed under the alpha8 gene promoter) restores the uniform distribution of GFP protein in the lens. Thus, the presence of either alpha3 or alpha8 connexins seems sufficient to support the uniform distribution of GFP between differentiated lens fiber cells. Although the mechanism that drives GFP transport between fiber cells remains unknown, this work reveals that gap junction communication plays a novel role in the regulation of intercellular protein distribution in the lens.

Development of a macromolecular diffusion pathway in the lens

The mammalian lens consists of an aged core of quiescent cells enveloped by a layer of synthetically active cells. Abundant gap junctions within and between these cell populations ensure that the lens functions as an electrical syncytium and facilitates the exchange of small molecules between surface and core cells. In the present study, we utilized an in vivo mouse model to characterize the properties of an additional pathway, permeable to macromolecules, which co-exists with gap-junction-mediated communication in the lens core. The TgN(GFPU)5Nagy strain of mice carries a green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgene. In the lenses of hemizyous animals, GFP was expressed in a variegated fashion, allowing diffusion of GFP to be visualized directly. Early in development, GFP expression in scattered fiber cells resulted in a checkerboard fluorescence pattern in the lens. However, at E15 and later, the centrally located fiber cells became uniformly fluorescent. In the adult lens, a superficial layer of cells, approximately 100 microm thick, retained the original mosaic fluorescence pattern, but the remainder, and majority, of the tissue was uniformly fluorescent. We reasoned that at the border between the two distinct labeling patterns, a macromolecule-permeable intercellular pathway was established. To test this hypothesis, we microinjected 10 kDa fluorescent dextran into individual fiber cells and followed its diffusion by time-lapse microscopy. Injections at depths of >100 microm resulted in intercellular diffusion of dextran from injected cells. By contrast, when injections were made into superficial fiber cells, the injected cell invariably retained the dextran. Together, these data suggest that, in addition to being coupled by gap junctions, cells in the lens core are interconnected by a macromolecule-permeable pathway. At all ages examined, a significant proportion of the nucleated fiber cell population of the lens was located within this region of the lens.

Thapsigargin inhibits a potassium conductance and stimulates calcium influx in the intact rat lens

1. An increase in lens cell calcium has long been associated with cortical cataract. Recently, it has been shown that thapsigargin induces a rise in lens cell calcium by release from endoplasmic reticulum stores. The effects of this rise on the optical and membrane characteristics of the lens were studied in the isolated rat lens. 2. The electrical characteristics of the isolated, perifused rat lens were measured using a two-internal microelectrode technique that permits measurement of plasma membrane conductance (Gm), membrane potential (Vm) and junctional conductance in the intact lens. 3. Thapsigargin (1 microM) induced a rapid overall depolarization of Vm that was accompanied by first a decrease and then an increase in Gm. 4. Replacing external Na+ with tetraethylammonium (TEA) abolished the decrease in Gm. However, a transient increase phase was still observed. 5. The changes in conductance were further characterized by measuring 22Na+ and 45Ca2+ influxes into the isolated lens. Thapsigargin (1 microM) induced a transient increase in 45Ca2+, but did not affect Na+ influx. 6. The Ca2+ channel blocker La3+ (10 microM) totally inhibited the thapsigargin-induced Ca2+ influx. It also blocked the increase in Gm observed in control and in Na+-free-TEA medium. In the absence of external calcium, thapsigargin induced a small depolarization in Vm. 7. These data indicate that thapsigargin induces both a decrease in K+ conductance and an increase in Ca2+ conductance. These probably result from release of stored Ca2+ and subsequent activation of store-operated Ca2+ channels (capacitative Ca2+ entry). 8. Thapsigargin application over the time course of these experiments (24 h) had no effect on junctional conductance or on the transparency of the lens.

Internal acidification modulates membrane and junctional resistance in the isolated lens of the frog Rana pipiens

The normal internal pH (pHi) of the amphibian lens, measured using ion-sensitive microelectrodes, is 7.1 (pHo = 7.4) and the membranes appear to be relatively impermeable to hydrogen ions. Perifusing the lens with 100% CO2 appeared to be the most efficient way of decreasing pHi, which fell to 6.3 after an exposure lasting 30 min. Accompanying this acidification, there was a rapid depolarization of membrane potential (Em), a decrease in membrane resistance (Rm) and increase in internal or bulk resistance (Ri). These changes did not occur if the external pH alone was decreased. All changes were reversible, although the time course of Ri recovery was faster than the others. The decrease in membrane resistance could be prevented if the chloride concentration in the external solution was reduced, suggesting that internal acidification opens chloride channels in the amphibian lens. Since chloride ions are normally close to equilibrium across amphibian lens membranes, it is suggested that the pH-induced depolarization is due to a decrease in potassium conductance. The increase in internal resistance on perifusing with CO2 is most likely due to a closing of gap junctions between the fibre cells. The relationship between internal conductance and pHi was very similar to that obtained in other tissues and could be fitted by the Hill equation with n = 6 and pK = 6.9. Fibre junctional conductance seems sensitive to small changes in hydrogen ion concentration around the resting pH. Two agents, aspirin and cyanate, that are believed to influence cataract development, slowed the recovery of Em, Rm and Ri during recovery from an acid load.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Analysis of rat lens 45Ca2+ fluxes: evidence for Na(+)-Ca2+ exchange

The influx and efflux kinetics of 45Ca2+ were studied in the rat lens in vitro. Both data sets could be fitted by a multi-compartment mathematical model and were interpreted in terms of extracellular, cytosolic and slowly-exchanging (bound) components. At the end of a 16-hr influx period, when uptake into the extracellular and cytosolic compartments is complete, the 45Ca2+ exchanged fraction is less than 20% of the total calcium determined by atomic absorption. The bound compartment is therefore by far the largest in the lens. The efflux rate constant determined from the model for the cytosolic compartment was approximately 8 x 10(-3) min-1 and its origin was confirmed by its sensitivity to temperature, absence of external sodium and presence of the amiloride-analogue, dichlorobenzamil. A 55% reduction in efflux was obtained in sodium-free solution, indicating that Na(+)-Ca2+ exchange is responsible for a large proportion of calcium movement from the lens against its electrochemical gradient. This was confirmed in influx studies where, reduction of the lens sodium gradient by either exposure to sodium-free medium or 0.1 mM ouabain significantly elevated the 45Ca2+ content of the lens relative to the control level. Exposure to sodium-free conditions also rendered the lens opaque, which did not occur in the absence of external calcium. These experiments suggest a critical role for Na(+)-Ca2+ exchange in maintaining a low internal Ca2+ and hence transparency.

Contribution from a pH- and tonicity-sensitive K+ conductance to toad translens short-circuit current

Studies of toad (Bufo marinus) lenses mounted in Ussing-type chambers revealed that: (1) the translens short-circuit current (Isc) across the posterior surface is primarily carried by the movement of Na+ from the posterior bathing solution to the lens; (2) across the anterior face the majority of the Isc is mediated by Ba(2+)-sensitive channels and the remaining current is rapidly reduced by ouabain; (3) most of the anterior K+ conductance is of the tonicity-sensitive, quinidine-inhibitable type (i.e. hypotonic shifts increase Isc and hypertonic shifts decrease Isc; quinidine pretreatment eliminates such responses); (4) 86Rb+ uptake is stimulated by alkaline pH and occurs primarily across the anterior surface with quinidine the most potent inhibitor of this process; and (5) the Na(+)-K+ pump can maintain lens [Na+] and [K+] for at least 20 hr in a Ringer's solution near neutral pH but not at pH 8.7 (a pH used in some studies with this lens). It is concluded that the Isc can be viewed as a representation of the current across the epithelial basolateral membrane, a surface dominated by pH- and tonicity-sensitive K+ channels. The direction of the Isc response to tonicity changes suggests a role for these channels in epithelial volume regulation.

Mammalian lens inter-fiber resistance is modulated by calcium and calmodulin

The relationship between Ca2+ and lens fiber cell communication was investigated in the isolated intact rat lens by using radiotracer and electrophysiological techniques. The lens internal calcium was increased by adding the SH oxidant diamide (1 mM), by incubating in a sodium-free (n-methylglucamine) solution or by increasing external calcium from 1 to 10 mM. A 12 hours incubation in diamide produced a ten-fold increase in 45Ca uptake into the lens which was accompanied by a ten-fold increase in internal resistance. Incubation in Na-free solution or in 10 mM Ca2+ both produced a 5-fold increase in 45Ca content, while the increase in internal resistance was five and six fold respectively. This uncoupling was prevented in the diamide and Na-free treated lenses by omitting Ca2+ from the incubation medium. Fiber cell uncoupling was noticed in each of these experimental conditions after approximately 5 hours incubation, and good recovery was obtained in the high calcium solution if the stress was removed. The calmodulin antagonists calmidazolium (3 microM) and W7 (100 microM) both prevented uncoupling in the high calcium solution, provided there was a 2 hours preincubation period in calcium-free solution containing antagonist before the stress was applied. These data indicate that lens fiber cell communication is required by Ca2+ and calmodulin.

HCO3- transport in the toad lens epithelium is mediated by an electronegative Na(+)-dependent symport

The pH-sensitive cell-entrapable dye 2',7'-bis(carboxyethyl)-5,6-carboxyfluorescein (BCECF) was used to continuously monitor epithelial intracellular pH (pHi) of intact toad lenses, enabling a description of a HCO3- transport mechanism that contributes to pHi homeostasis of this organ. In physiological medium, pH 7.40, the steady-state pHi was 7.48 +/- 0.03 (SE; n = 93). Induction of cell depolarization by either elevation of [K+] to 50 mM, addition of 0.2 mM quinidine, a K(+)-channel blocker, or addition of 0.1 mM Li+ ionophore that equalizes Na+ and K+ permeabilities elicited pHi increases (delta pHi = 0.18 +/- 0.02; P less than 0.0005; n = 13, for K+). These increases could be blocked or reverted by DIDS and were not affected by amiloride. Removal of Na+ induced an amiloride-insensitive acidification. pHi recovery seen upon Na+ reintroduction in the presence of amiloride was inhibited by DIDS. Despite the effects of DIDS on induced pHi changes, the agent did not affect control pHi. Elevation of medium HCO3- (pH to 7.7) produced a pHi increase followed by a spontaneous reversal. This increase was both DIDS and Na+ sensitive. pHi was not affected in any condition by removal (or addition) of Cl-, unless the lens was pretreated with the artificial Cl(-)-HCO3- exchanger tributyltin. Collectively, these results suggest that the primary mechanism for HCO3- movement across the lens epithelial membrane is an electronegative Na+ cotransporter and that this system is near equilibrium under normal physiological conditions.

Diamide alters membrane Na+ and K+ conductances and increases internal resistance in the isolated rat lens

The voltage and conductance of the isolated rat lens were measured using a two-internal-microelectrode technique and the potassium permeability was calculated by applying Goldman theory to 86Rb efflux data. The SH oxidizing agent diamide induces a multiphasic response in lens voltage, conductance and potassium permeability. The initial response (less than or equal to 30 min) to 1 mM diamide consists of a small depolarization (approximately 10 mV) of membrane potential accompanied by a significant decrease in conductance. The 86Rb efflux and permeability data also show an initial decrease. As this initial response is abolished by TEA (20 mM) it is probably due to an inactivation of voltage-sensitive potassium channels. After 30 min exposure to 1 mM diamide both the electrical conductance and the rate of depolarization increase. The 86Rb permeability also increases. Since the conductance increase is abolished by replacing Na+ by methyl glucamine and as it is reduced by amiloride (10(-4) M) the second phase is probably due to the activation of nonspecific cation channels. The third phase is only apparent after prolonged (approximately 12 hr) incubation in 1 mM diamide and consists of a marked increase in the bulk resistance component of the lens impedance. It is suggested that this component arises from an increase in the resistance of the fibre cell gap junctions. This cellular uncoupling may be due to calcium entering the lens through the nonspecific cation channels.

p-chloro-mercuriphenyl sulphonate activates a quinine-sensitive potassium conductance in frog lens

1. The effects of the sulphydryl-complexing reagent p-chloro-mercuriphenyl sulphonate (pCMPS) on membrane voltage and electrical conductance were studied on the isolated frog lens. 2. At low concentrations (0.1-50 microM) pCMPS induced a rapid and graded hyperpolarization of the lens membrane potential which saturated at -97 mV. 3. The lens conductance also showed a graded increase, but the initial changes were apparent only at concentrations above 1 microM. 4. Decreasing the external potassium concentration from 2.5 to 0.5 mM had little effect on the membrane potential in the absence of pCMPS, but increased the voltage from -97 to -110 mV when pCMPS was present. 5. Quinine (300 microM) had no effect when added in control solution, but depolarized the membrane potential and decreased the conductance when added to a pCMPS-treated preparation. 6. These data suggest that pCMPS activates voltage-sensitive potassium channels that are quiescent at the frog resting potential in control solution. 7. At pCMPS concentrations greater than or equal to 100 microM, the initial hyperpolarization is followed by a marked but slow depolarization of the membrane potential and a further increase in lens conductance. These data suggest that non-specific cation channels are activated in this case. 8. Cysteine (5 mM) added to a pCMPS-treated lens leads to a rapid recovery of membrane potential and conductance to near their resting values whether the lens had previously been exposed to low or high concentrations of pCMPS. 9. All of these changes in lens voltage and conductance occurred without apparent alteration in the lens internal sulphydryl content.

Fresh and cultured human lens epithelial cells: an electrophysiological study of cell coupling and membrane properties

Microelectrode studies of fresh human and rabbit lens epithelia revealed stable membrane potentials [VR (human) = -36 mV; VR (rabbit) = -45 mV] and low input resistances [Ri (human) = 10 M omega; Ri (rabbit) = 20 M omega]. Coupling studies, using two voltage microelectrodes, demonstrated that the low input resistance of the fresh epithelial tissue was due to electrotonic coupling, which was found to be extremely labile and sensitive to perfusion of the apical (fibrefacing) surface of the epithelium. The intercellular coupling could be stabilized by raising the calcium concentration of the perfusate. Studies performed on confluent monolayers of cultured human lens epithelial (HLE) cells demonstrated a membrane potential (VR = -33 mV) and input resistance (Ri = 29 M omega) similar to their fresh counterparts. The intercellular coupling of these cells was found to be much more robust. Ultrastructural studies revealed that the apical junction of cultured HLE cells was less complex than that found in fresh tissue, the latter exhibiting multiple interdigitations and folds. The cultured monolayer was dissociated into single cells by a variety of methods and the membrane properties of individual cells were studied. Single cells were found to have a lower membrane potential (-20 to -25 mV) and an input resistance in the range 110-170 M omega, depending on the method of dissociation. Channel blocking and ion replacement studies revealed significant conductance pathways for potassium, sodium and chloride and a cell-attached patch clamp investigation revealed three distinct channel types. Of the two channels with inward currents at the resting potential, one, with a conductance of 25 pS, is identified as a non-selective cation channel, and the other, with a conductance of 14 pS and reversal potential of - 14 mV, is a possible candidate for a chloride channel but has yet to be characterized. A third channel with an outward current at the resting potential is identified as a potassium channel with a conductance of 49 pS. A link between epithelial uncoupling and certain types of cataract is proposed.

Oxidative cross-linking of fodrin parallels a membrane conductance increase in the mammalian lens

An oxidative cross-linking of the lens spectrin-like protein fodrin was induced by incubating WKY-rat lenses in the presence of the SH-reagent diamide. The oxidation of fodrin was paralleled by an increase in lens membrane conductance. The time relationship between these two events as well as the reversibility of both, achieved by incubating the lens in the presence of dithiothreitol, indicate that normal permeability characteristics of the lens membranes require the integrity of the membrane attached cytoskeleton.

Membrane and junctional properties of the isolated frog lens epithelium

The isolated frog lens epithelium can be maintained intact in both appearance and electrical properties for more than 24 hours. The mean resting membrane potential was -80 mV and the cells were depolarized by both high potassium and low calcium Ringer's solution in a manner very similar to that of the whole lens. The epithelial cells were found to be well coupled using both electrical and dye-injection techniques. Electrical coupling was measured using separate current-injection and voltage-measuring electrodes and the relationship between the induced voltage and distance from the current-passing electrode could be well fitted by a Bessel Function solution to the cable equation. The values obtained from the fit for the membrane and internal resistances were 1.95 omega m2 and 25 omega m, respectively. Exposure to octanol (500 microM) or low external Ca2+ (less than 1 microM) failed to disrupt significantly the intercellular flow of current. There was evidence to suggest that raised intracellular calcium does, however, uncouple the cells. Dye coupling was investigated by microinjecting Lucifer Yellow CH into single epithelial cells. Diffusion into surrounding cells was rapid and, in control medium, occurred in a radially symmetrical manner. In contrast to the electrical coupling data, dye transfer appeared to be blocked by exposure to 500 microM octanol and was severely restricted on perfusing with low external calcium. Differences between the electrical and dye-coupling experiments indicate either that there are two types of junction within the cell and only the larger type, permeable to Lucifer Yellow, is capable of being uncoupled or that there is only one large type of junction which can be partially closed by uncoupling agents.

Steady state voltages in the frog lens

Electro-chemical steady state in the lens depends on the transport properties of its various constituent cells. These transport properties, at a minimum, include the active transport of Na/K and the passive leak of Na, K and Cl through membrane channels. The work of Kinsey and Reddy (1), first localized active Na/K transport to the anterior surface cell membranes. In this paper, we estimate that the pump current density is 2 to 4 mu amp/cm2 of surface membrane, by measuring the change in intracellular voltage when the lens is exposed to 100 microM ouabain. Our impedance data suggest the passive leak of K is mostly across the membranes of surface cells, but whether these are anterior or posterior cells is not yet known. Membranes of the fiber cells throughout the volume of the lens appear to have channels that are selective for Na and Cl but few K channels. A simple model of electro-chemical steady state is derived to relate localized transport properties to the resting voltages in the lens. The above described localization of properties predicts radially circulating currents at steady state and spatial gradients in the intracellular and extracellular voltages. These predictions are compared to our measurements of steady state voltages and we find good agreement.

Effect of 8-methoxypsoralen on rat lens cations, membrane potential and protein levels

Systemic application of 8-methoxypsoralen to rats, followed by u.v.-irradiation, induces a minor change in the lens membrane potential after one week, and by this time marked histological changes have already occurred. Alterations in lens sodium and potassium concentrations followed these early changes and coincided with the appearance of small light-scattering vacuoles when the lenses were examined in vivo with a slit lamp. Dramatic changes in the dry weight, soluble protein and calcium content of the lenses were apparent only after eight weeks from the start of treatment, and these changes coincided with the appearance of very large vacuoles in slit-lamp examinations of the eye.

Raised intracellular free calcium within the lens causes opacification and cellular uncoupling in the frog

Ion-sensitive micro-electrodes were used to measure the levels of intracellular free Ca2+ within the intact amphibian lens. The free [Ca2+] was found to constitute 0.4% of the total lens calcium. The pCa measured at the anterior lens surface was found to 6.59, while that at the posterior was 5.70. An 8-fold anterior/posterior Ca2+ gradient thus exists along the optical axis. The intracellular free Ca2+ could be manipulated by incubating the lens in high-Ca2+ or cA2+-free EGTA Ringer solutions. Raising the intracellular free Ca2+ to 0.22 mM caused lens opacification and cellular uncoupling; the coupling ratio was reduced from 1 in control to 0.41 in high Ca2+.

The role of divalent cations in controlling amphibian lens membrane permeability; the mechanisms of toxic cataracts

The effects of a range of divalent ions on lens sodium and potassium permeability characteristics were studied in calcium competition and replacement experiments. Resting voltage and conductance were measured and also voltage-independent conductance. Strontium and manganese were the only divalent ions able to maintain, in the absence of calcium, both sodium and potassium permeability at or near the control level. Neither cobalt nor magnesium had any effect on lens voltage of conductance in the presence of calcium, but neither of these ions could maintain lens permeability properties in the absence of calcium. Cadmium and barium had little effect on sodium permeability, but the former increased potassium permeability while the latter reduced it. Barium was the only divalent studied that appeared to inactivate voltage-sensitive potassium channels in the presence of calcium. Nickel, zinc and copper increased both sodium and potassium permeability in the presence of calcium and so they are likely to be particularly damaging to the lens. Copper was extremely toxic since it was able to overturn the regulatory influence of calcium when it was present in concentrations as low as 10(-6)M.