Cytoplasmic calcium as the messenger for light adaptation in salamander rods

Phototransduction in Anuran Green Rods: Origins of Extra-Sensitivity

Green rods (GRs) represent a unique type of photoreceptor to be found in the retinas of anuran amphibians. These cells harbor a cone-specific blue-sensitive visual pigment but exhibit morphology of the outer segment typical for classic red rods (RRs), which makes them a perspective model object for studying cone–rod transmutation. In the present study, we performed detailed electrophysiological examination of the light sensitivity, response kinetics and parameters of discrete and continuous dark noise in GRs of the two anuran species: cane toad and marsh frog. Our results confirm that anuran GRs are highly specialized nocturnal vision receptors. Moreover, their rate of phototransduction quenching appeared to be about two-times slower than in RRs, which makes them even more efficient single photon detectors. The operating intensity ranges for two rod types widely overlap supposedly allowing amphibians to discriminate colors in the scotopic region. Unexpectedly for typical cone pigments but in line with some previous reports, the spontaneous isomerization rate of the GR visual pigment was found to be the same as for rhodopsin of RRs. Thus, our results expand the knowledge on anuran GRs and show that these are even more specialized single photon catchers than RRs, which allows us to assign them a status of “super-rods”.

Investigating the Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+-independent mechanisms for mammalian cone light adaptation

Vision is mediated by two types of photoreceptors: rods, enabling vision in dim light; and cones, which function in bright light. Despite many similarities in the components of their respective phototransduction cascades, rods and cones have distinct sensitivity, response kinetics, and adaptation capacity. Cones are less sensitive and have faster responses than rods. In addition, cones can function over a wide range of light conditions whereas rods saturate in moderately bright light. Calcium plays an important role in regulating phototransduction and light adaptation of rods and cones. Notably, the two dominant Ca²⁺-feedbacks in rods and cones are driven by the identical calcium-binding proteins: guanylyl cyclase activating proteins 1 and 2 (GCAPs), which upregulate the production of cGMP; and recoverin, which regulates the inactivation of visual pigment. Thus, the mechanisms producing the difference in adaptation capacity between rods and cones have remained poorly understood. Using GCAPs/recoverin-deficient mice, we show that mammalian cones possess another Ca²⁺-dependent mechanism promoting light adaptation. Surprisingly, we also find that, unlike in mouse rods, a unique Ca²⁺-independent mechanism contributes to cone light adaptation. Our findings point to two novel adaptation mechanisms in mouse cones that likely contribute to the great adaptation capacity of cones over rods.

Light adaptation and the evolution of vertebrate photoreceptors

KEY POINTS

Lamprey are cyclostomes, a group of vertebrates that diverged from lines leading to jawed vertebrates (including mammals) in the late Cambrian, 500 million years ago. It may therefore be possible to infer properties of photoreceptors in early vertebrate progenitors by comparing lamprey to other vertebrates. We show that lamprey rods and cones respond to light much like rods and cones in amphibians and mammals. They operate over a similar range of light intensities and adapt to backgrounds and bleaches nearly identically. These correspondences are pervasive and detailed; they argue for the presence of rods and cones very early in the evolution of vertebrates with properties much like those of rods and cones in existing vertebrate species.

ABSTRACT

The earliest vertebrates were agnathans - fish-like organisms without jaws, which first appeared near the end of the Cambrian radiation. One group of agnathans became cyclostomes, which include lamprey and hagfish. Other agnathans gave rise to jawed vertebrates or gnathostomes, the group including all other existing vertebrate species. Because cyclostomes diverged from other vertebrates 500 million years ago, it may be possible to infer some of the properties of the retina of early vertebrate progenitors by comparing lamprey to other vertebrates. We have previously shown that rods and cones in lamprey respond to light much like photoreceptors in other vertebrates and have a similar sensitivity. We now show that these affinities are even closer. Both rods and cones adapt to background light and to bleaches in a manner almost identical to other vertebrate photoreceptors. The operating range in darkness is nearly the same in lamprey and in amphibian or mammalian rods and cones; moreover background light shifts response-intensity curves downward and to the right over a similar range of ambient intensities. Rods show increment saturation at about the same intensity as mammalian rods, and cones never saturate. Bleaches decrease sensitivity in part by loss of quantum catch and in part by opsin activation of transduction. These correspondences are so numerous and pervasive that they are unlikely to result from convergent evolution but argue instead that early vertebrate progenitors of both cyclostomes and mammals had photoreceptors much like our own.

A novel Ca2+-feedback mechanism extends the operating range of mammalian rods to brighter light

A previously unidentified calcium-dependent mechanism contributes to light adaptation in mammalian rods.

Sensory cells adjust their sensitivity to incoming signals, such as odor or light, in response to changes in background stimulation, thereby extending the range over which they operate. For instance, rod photoreceptors are extremely sensitive in darkness, so that they are able to detect individual photons, but remain responsive to visual stimuli under conditions of bright ambient light, which would be expected to saturate their response given the high gain of the rod transduction cascade in darkness. These photoreceptors regulate their sensitivity to light rapidly and reversibly in response to changes in ambient illumination, thereby avoiding saturation. Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) play a major role in mediating the rapid, subsecond adaptation to light, and the Ca²⁺-binding proteins GCAP1 and GCAP2 (or guanylyl cyclase–activating proteins [GCAPs]) have been identified as important mediators of the photoreceptor response to changes in intracellular Ca²⁺. However, mouse rods lacking both GCAP1 and GCAP2 (GCAP^−/−) still show substantial light adaptation. Here, we determined the Ca²⁺ dependency of this residual light adaptation and, by combining pharmacological, genetic, and electrophysiological tools, showed that an unknown Ca²⁺-dependent mechanism contributes to light adaptation in GCAP^−/− mouse rods. We found that mimicking the light-induced decrease in intracellular [Ca²⁺] accelerated recovery of the response to visual stimuli and caused a fourfold decrease of sensitivity in GCAP^−/− rods. About half of this Ca²⁺-dependent regulation of sensitivity could be attributed to the recoverin-mediated pathway, whereas half of it was caused by the unknown mechanism. Furthermore, our data demonstrate that the feedback mechanisms regulating the sensitivity of mammalian rods on the second and subsecond time scales are all Ca²⁺ dependent and that, unlike salamander rods, Ca²⁺-independent background-induced acceleration of flash response kinetics is rather weak in mouse rods.

Activation and quenching of the phototransduction cascade in retinal cones as inferred from electrophysiology and mathematical modeling

PURPOSE

To experimentally identify and quantify factors responsible for the lower sensitivity of retinal cones compared to rods.

METHODS

Electrical responses of frog rods and fish (Carassius) cones to short flashes of light were recorded using the suction pipette technique. A fast solution changer was used to apply a solution that fixed intracellular Ca2+ concentration at the prestimulus level, thereby disabling Ca2+ feedback, to the outer segment (OS). The results were analyzed with a specially designed mathematical model of phototransduction. The model included all basic processes of activation and quenching of the phototransduction cascade but omitted unnecessary mechanistic details of each step.

RESULTS

Judging from the response versus intensity curves, Carassius cones were two to three orders of magnitude less sensitive than frog rods. There was a large scatter in sensitivity among individual cones, with red-sensitive cones being on average approximately two times less sensitive than green-sensitive ones. The scatter was mostly due to different signal amplification, since the kinetic parameters of the responses among cones were far less variable than sensitivity. We argue that the generally accepted definition of the biochemical amplification in phototransduction cannot be used for comparing amplification in rods and cones, since it depends on an irrelevant factor, that is, the cell's volume. We also show that the routinely used simplified parabolic curve fitting to an initial phase of the response leads to a few-fold underestimate of the amplification. We suggest a new definition of the amplification that only includes molecular parameters of the cascade activation, and show how it can be derived from experimental data. We found that the mathematical model with unrestrained parameters can yield an excellent fit to experimental responses. However, the fits with wildly different sets of parameters can be virtually indistinguishable, and therefore cannot provide meaningful data on underlying mechanisms. Based on results of Ca2+-clamp experiments, we developed an approach to strongly constrain the values of many key parameters that set the time course and sensitivity of the photoresponse (such as the dark turnover rate of cGMP, rates of turnoffs of the photoactivated visual pigment and phosphodiesterase, and kinetics of Ca2+ feedback). We show that applying these constraints to our mathematical model enables accurate determination of the biochemical amplification in phototransduction. It appeared that, contrary to many suggestions, maximum biochemical amplification derived for "best" Carassius cones was as high as in frog rods. On the other hand, all turnoff and recovery reactions in cones proceeded approximately 10 times faster than in rods.

CONCLUSIONS

The main cause of the differing sensitivity of rods and cones is cones' ability to terminate their photoresponse faster.

Difference in the gain in the phototransduction cascade between rods and cones in carp

In the vertebrate retina, there are two types of photoreceptors, rods and cones. Rods are highly light-sensitive and cones are less light-sensitive. One of the possible mechanisms accounting for the lower light-sensitivity in cones would be lower signal amplification, i.e., lower gain in the phototransduction cascade in cones. In this study, we compared the difference in the gain between rods and cones electrophysiologically in carp. The initial rising phases of the light responses were analyzed to determine an index of the gain, G, a parameter that can be used to compare the gain among cells of varying outer segment volumes. G (in fL · sec(-2)) was 91.2 ± 14.8 (n = 5) in carp rods and 25.3 ± 3.2 (n = 4) in carp red cones, so that the gain in carp red cones is ∼1/4 of that in carp rods. G was also determined in bullfrog rods and was 81.0 ± 17.2 (n = 3) which was very similar to that in carp rods. The difference in the gain between rods and cones in carp determined in this study (∼1/4 in cones compared with rods) is consistent with that we recently determined biochemically (∼1/5 in cones compared with rods). Together with the result obtained in bullfrog rods in this study and the results obtained by others, we concluded that the gain in the cascade is several-fold lower in cones than in rods in carp and probably in other animal species also.

Origin and control of the dominant time constant of salamander cone photoreceptors

Recovery of the light response in vertebrate photoreceptors requires the shutoff of both active intermediates in the phototransduction cascade: the visual pigment and the transducin–phosphodiesterase complex. Whichever intermediate quenches more slowly will dominate photoresponse recovery. In suction pipette recordings from isolated salamander ultraviolet- and blue-sensitive cones, response recovery was delayed, and the dominant time constant slowed when internal [Ca²⁺] was prevented from changing after a bright flash by exposure to 0Ca²⁺/0Na⁺ solution. Taken together with a similar prior observation in salamander red-sensitive cones, these observations indicate that the dominance of response recovery by a Ca²⁺-sensitive process is a general feature of amphibian cone phototransduction. Moreover, changes in the external pH also influenced the dominant time constant of red-sensitive cones even when changes in internal [Ca²⁺] were prevented. Because the cone photopigment is, uniquely, exposed to the external solution, this may represent a direct effect of protons on the equilibrium between its inactive Meta I and active Meta II forms, consistent with the notion that the process dominating recovery of the bright flash response represents quenching of the active Meta II form of the cone photopigment.

Speed, sensitivity, and stability of the light response in rod and cone photoreceptors: facts and models

The light responses of rod and cone photoreceptors in the vertebrate retina are quantitatively different, yet extremely stable and reproducible because of the extraordinary regulation of the cascade of enzymatic reactions that link photon absorption and visual pigment excitation to the gating of cGMP-gated ion channels in the outer segment plasma membrane. While the molecular scheme of the phototransduction pathway is essentially the same in rods and cones, the enzymes and protein regulators that constitute the pathway are distinct. These enzymes and regulators can differ in the quantitative features of their functions or in concentration if their functions are similar or both can be true. The molecular identity and distinct function of the molecules of the transduction cascade in rods and cones are summarized. The functional significance of these molecular differences is examined with a mathematical model of the signal-transducing enzymatic cascade. Constrained by available electrophysiological, biochemical and biophysical data, the model simulates photocurrents that match well the electrical photoresponses measured in both rods and cones. Using simulation computed with the mathematical model, the time course of light-dependent changes in enzymatic activities and second messenger concentrations in non-mammalian rods and cones are compared side by side.

Adaptation of mammalian photoreceptors to background light: putative role for direct modulation of phosphodiesterase

All sensory receptors adapt. As the mean level of light or sound or odor is altered, the sensitivity of the receptor is adjusted to permit the cell to function over as wide a range of ambient stimulation as possible. In a rod photoreceptor, adaptation to maintained background light produces a decrease (or "sag") in the response to the prolonged illumination, as well as an acceleration in response decay time and a Weber-Fechner-like decrease in sensitivity. Earlier work on salamander indicated that adaptation is controlled by the intracellular concentration of Ca(2+). Three Ca(2+)-dependent mechanisms were subsequently identified, namely, regulation of guanylyl cyclase, modulation of activated rhodopsin lifetime, and alteration of channel opening probability, with the contribution of the cyclase thought to be the most important. Later experiments on mouse that exploit the powerful techniques of molecular genetics have shown that cyclase does indeed play a significant role in mammalian rods, but that much of adaptation remains even when regulation of cyclase and both of the other proposed pathways have been genetically deleted. The identity of the missing mechanism or mechanisms is unclear, but recent speculation has focused on direct modulation of spontaneous and light-activated phosphodiesterase.

Variation in rhodopsin kinase expression alters the dim flash response shut off and the light adaptation in rod photoreceptors

PURPOSE

Rod photoreceptors are exquisitely sensitive light detectors that function in dim light. The timely inactivation of their light responses is critical for the ability of rods to reliably detect and count photons. A key step in the inactivation of the rod transduction is the phosphorylation of the rod visual pigment, rhodopsin, catalyzed by G-protein-dependent receptor kinase 1 (GRK1). Absence of GRK1 greatly prolongs the photoreceptors' light response and enhances their susceptibility to degeneration. This study examined the light responses from mouse rods expressing various levels of GRK1 to evaluate how their function is modulated by rhodopsin inactivation.

METHODS

Transretinal and single-cell rod electrophysiological recordings were obtained from several strains of mice expressing GRK1 at 0.3- to 3-fold the wild-type levels. The effect of GRK1 expression level on the function of mouse rods was examined in darkness and during background adaptation.

RESULTS

Altering the expression of GRK1 from 0.3- to 3-fold that in wild-type rods had little effect on the single photon response amplitude. Notably, increasing the expression level of GRK1 accelerated the dim flash response shut off but had no effect on the saturated response shut off. Additionally, GRK1 excess abolished the acceleration of saturated responses shut off during light adaptation.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that rhodopsin inactivation can modulate the kinetics of recovery from dim light stimulation. More importantly, the ratio of rhodopsin kinase to its modulator recoverin appears critical for the proper adaptation of rods and the acceleration of their response shut off in background light.

Olfactory response termination involves Ca2+-ATPase in vertebrate olfactory receptor neuron cilia

In vertebrate olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs), odorant-induced activation of the transduction cascade culminates in production of cyclic AMP, which opens cyclic nucleotide–gated channels in the ciliary membrane enabling Ca²⁺ influx. The ensuing elevation of the intraciliary Ca²⁺ concentration opens Ca²⁺-activated Cl⁻ channels, which mediate an excitatory Cl⁻ efflux from the cilia. In order for the response to terminate, the Cl⁻ channel must close, which requires that the intraciliary Ca²⁺ concentration return to basal levels. Hitherto, the extrusion of Ca²⁺ from the cilia has been thought to depend principally on a Na⁺–Ca²⁺ exchanger.

In this study, we show using simultaneous suction pipette recording and Ca²⁺-sensitive dye fluorescence measurements that in fire salamander ORNs, withdrawal of external Na⁺ from the solution bathing the cilia, which incapacitates Na⁺–Ca²⁺exchange, has only a modest effect on the recovery of the electrical response and the accompanying decay of intraciliary Ca²⁺ concentration. In contrast, exposure of the cilia to vanadate or carboxyeosin, a manipulation designed to block Ca²⁺-ATPase, has a substantial effect on response recovery kinetics. Therefore, we conclude that Ca²⁺-ATPase contributes to Ca²⁺ extrusion in ORNs, and that Na⁺–Ca²⁺exchange makes only a modest contribution to Ca²⁺ homeostasis in this species.

Photopigment quenching is Ca2+ dependent and controls response duration in salamander L-cone photoreceptors

The time scale of the photoresponse in photoreceptor cells is set by the slowest of the steps that quench the light-induced activity of the phototransduction cascade. In vertebrate photoreceptor cells, this rate-limiting reaction is thought to be either shutoff of catalytic activity in the photopigment or shutoff of the pigment's effector, the transducin-GTP–phosphodiesterase complex. In suction pipette recordings from isolated salamander L-cones, we found that preventing changes in internal [Ca²⁺] delayed the recovery of the light response and prolonged the dominant time constant for recovery. Evidence that the Ca²⁺-sensitive step involved the pigment itself was provided by the observation that removal of Cl⁻ from the pigment's anion-binding site accelerated the dominant time constant for response recovery. Collectively, these observations indicate that in L-cones, unlike amphibian rods where the dominant time constant is insensitive to [Ca²⁺], pigment quenching rate limits recovery and provides an additional mechanism for modulating the cone response during light adaptation.

Temperature dependence of dark-adapted sensitivity and light-adaptation in photoreceptors with A1 visual pigments: a comparison of frog L-cones and rods

Flash responses of L-cones and rods were recorded as ERG mass potentials in the frog retina at different temperatures (2-25 degrees C). The purpose was to elucidate factors that make cones faster and less sensitive than rods, particularly the possible role of thermal activation of L-cone visual pigment in maintaining a "light-adapted" state even in darkness. Up to ca. 15 degrees C, cones and rods were desensitized roughly equally by warming (Q(10) approximately 2.2-2.7), retaining a 5-fold sensitivity difference. In this range, the cone/rod difference must depend on factors other than thermal activation of the visual pigment. Above 15 degrees C, cones showed an additional component of desensitization compared with rods, coupled to accelerated response shut-off. This behavior is consistent with light-adaptation from temperature-dependent intrinsic activity (dark light). The apparent dark light as measured by the minimum background intensities needed to affect sensitivity and/or kinetics increased by ca. 10-fold between 15 and 25 degrees C, whereas reported increases in visual-pigment activation rates over this range are less than 5-fold. We conclude that the dark state of frog L-cones above 15 degrees C may be largely set by thermal activation of the phototransduction machinery, but only part of the experimentally determined dark light can be ascribed to the visual pigment.

Kinetics of turn-offs of frog rod phototransduction cascade

The time course of the light-induced activity of phototrandsuction effector enzyme cGMP-phosphodiesterase (PDE) is shaped by kinetics of rhodopsin and transducin shut-offs. The two processes are among the key factors that set the speed and sensitivity of the photoresponse and whose regulation contributes to light adaptation. The aim of this study was to determine time courses of flash-induced PDE activity in frog rods that were dark adapted or subjected to nonsaturating steady background illumination. PDE activity was computed from the responses recorded from solitary rods with the suction pipette technique in Ca²⁺-clamping solution.

A flash applied in the dark-adapted state elicits a wave of PDE activity whose rising and decaying phases have characteristic times near 0.5 and 2 seconds, respectively. Nonsaturating steady background shortens both phases roughly to the same extent. The acceleration may exceed fivefold at the backgrounds that suppress ≈70% of the dark current.

The time constant of the process that controls the recovery from super-saturating flashes (so-called dominant time constant) is adaptation independent and, hence, cannot be attributed to either of the processes that shape the main part of the PDE wave. We hypothesize that the dominant time constant in frog rods characterizes arrestin binding to rhodopsin partially inactivated by phosphorylation. A mathematical model of the cascade that considers two-stage rhodopsin quenching and transducin inactivation can mimic experimental PDE activity quite well. The effect of light adaptation on the PDE kinetics can be reproduced in the model by concomitant acceleration on both rhodopsin phosphorylation and transducin turn-off, but not by accelerated arrestin binding. This suggests that not only rhodopsin but also transducin shut-off is under adaptation control.

Modulation of phosphodiesterase6 turnoff during background illumination in mouse rod photoreceptors

In rod photoreceptors of wild-type mice, background light produces an acceleration of the decay of responses to brief flashes, accompanied by a decrease in the rate-limiting time constant for response decay. In rods in which phosphodiesterase gamma (PDEgamma) lacks one of its sites of phosphorylation (T35A rods), both the waveform of response decay and the rate-limiting time constant are nearly unaffected by backgrounds. These effects are not the result of the removal of the phosphorylation site per se, because rods lacking both of the phosphorylation sites of PDEgamma (T22A/T35A rods) adapt to light in a nearly normal manner. Because PDEgamma is one of the proteins of the GTPase activating protein (GAP) complex, our experiments argue for a novel mechanism of photoreceptor light adaptation produced by modulation of GAP-dependent hydrolysis of transducin alpha GTP. In PDEgamma T35A rods, a change in the conformation of the PDEgamma subunit may hinder or mask this mechanism, which in mammals appears to be primarily responsible for the quickening of the temporal resolution of the rod response in backgrounds. Modulation of PDE turnoff also helps to prevent premature saturation of the rod in bright backgrounds, thus making an important contribution to light adaptation. Our experiments provide evidence for modulation of GAP protein-dependent response turnoff, which may also play a role in controlling signal duration at hormone receptors and synapses in the CNS.

The effect of external sodium concentration on sodium-calcium exchange in frog olfactory receptor cells

During the response of vertebrate olfactory receptor cells to stimulation, Ca(2+) enters the cilia via cyclic nucleotide-gated channels and is extruded by Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchange. The rise in Ca(2+) concentration opens a Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) conductance which carries most of the inward receptor current. The dependence of Ca(2+) extrusion upon external Na(+) concentration was studied by using the falling phase of the Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) current following a brief exposure to the phosphodiesterase inhibitor IBMX to monitor indirectly the decay in intraciliary Ca(2+) concentration. External Na(+) concentration was reduced by partial substitution with guanidinium, an ion which permeates the cyclic nucleotide-gated channel but does not support Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchange. The time constant describing the decay in current following IBMX stimulation was surprisingly little affected by substitution of external Na(+), being substantially retarded only when its concentration was reduced to a third or less of its normal value in Ringer solution. When the cilia were returned to Ringer solution after a period in reduced-Na(+) solution, the time constant for the final decay of current was similar to that seen when returning immediately to IBMX-free Ringer solution. This observation suggests that Ca(2+) extrusion via Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchange dominates the falling phase of the response to IBMX, which can therefore be used to assess exchanger activity. Rate constants derived from the time constants for current decay at different external Na(+) concentrations could be fitted by the Hill equation with a K(d) of 54 +/- 4 mm and Hill coefficient of 3.7 +/- 0.4. The cooperativity of the dependence upon external Na(+) concentration indicates that at least three Na(+) ions enter for each exchanger cycle, while the high affinity for external Na(+) contrasts with the photoreceptor and cardiac exchangers. The functional importance of this observation is that the relative insensitivity of the Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchanger to external Na(+) concentration allows normal response termination even following partial dilution or concentration of the olfactory mucus.

Deactivation of phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated rhodopsin by arrestin splice variants

Arrestins constitute a family of small cytoplasmic proteins that mediate deactivation of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and are known to be essential for cascade inactivation and receptor desensitization. Alternative splicing produces an array of arrestin gene products that have widely different specificities for their cognate receptors in vitro, but the differential functions of these splice variants in vivo are essentially unknown. Bovine rod photoreceptors express two splice variants of visual arrestin (p44 and p48) that display different affinities for the GPCR rhodopsin. To determine the functions of these splice variants in intact cells, we expressed a transgene encoding either a truncated form of murine arrestin (mArr(1-369), or m44) or the long (p48) isoform in mouse rods lacking endogenous arrestin (Arr-/-). Morphological analysis showed that expression of either variant attenuated the light-induced degeneration that is thought to result from excessive cascade activity in Arr-/-rods. Suction electrode recordings from individual rods indicated that the expression of either m44 or p48 splice variants could restore normal kinetics to Arr-/- dim flash responses, indicating that both isoforms can bind to and quench phosphorylated rhodopsin rapidly. To our surprise, only the full-length variant was able to alter the kinetics of responses in rods lacking both arrestin and rhodopsin kinase, indicating that p48 can also quench the activity of nonphosphorylated rhodopsin.

Toward a unified model of vertebrate rod phototransduction

Recently, we introduced a phototransduction model that was able to account for the reproducibility of vertebrate rod single-photon responses (SPRs) (Hamer et al., 2003). The model was able to reproduce SPR statistics by means of stochastic activation and inactivation of rhodopsin (R*), transducin (G alpha ), and phosphodiesterase (PDE). The features needed to capture the SPR statistics were (1) multiple steps of R* inactivation by means of multiple phosphorylations (followed by arrestin capping) and (2) phosphorylation dependence of the affinity between R* and the three molecules competing to bind with R* (G alpha, arrestin, and rhodopsin kinase). The model was also able to account for several other rod response features in the dim-flash regime, including SPRs obtained from rods in which various elements of the cascade have been genetically disabled or disrupted. However, the model was not tested under high light-level conditions. We sought to evaluate the extent to which the multiple phosphorylation model could simultaneously account for single-photon response behavior, as well as responses to high light levels causing complete response saturation and/or significant light adaptation (LA). To date no single model, with one set of parameters, has been able to do this. Dim-flash responses and statistics were simulated using a hybrid stochastic/deterministic model and Monte-Carlo methods as in Hamer et al. (2003). A dark-adapted flash series, and stimulus paradigms from the literature eliciting various degrees of light adaptation (LA), were simulated using a full differential equation version of the model that included the addition of Ca2+-feedback onto rhodopsin kinase via recoverin. With this model, using a single set of parameters, we attempted to account for (1) SPR waveforms and statistics (as in Hamer et al., 2003); (2) a full dark-adapted flash-response series, from dim flash to saturating, bright flash levels, from a toad rod; (3) steady-state LA responses, including LA circulating current (as in Koutalos et al., 1995) and LA flash sensitivity measured in rods from four species; (4) step responses from newt rods ( Forti et al., 1989) over a large dynamic range; (5) dynamic LA responses, such as the step-flash paradigm of Fain et al. (1989), and the two-flash paradigm of Murnick and Lamb (1996); and (6) the salient response features from four knockout rod preparations. The model was able to meet this stringent test, accounting for almost all the salient qualitative, and many quantitative features, of the responses across this broad array of stimulus conditions, including SPR reproducibility. The model promises to be useful in testing hypotheses regarding both normal and abnormal photoreceptor function, and is a good starting point for development of a full-range model of cone phototransduction. Informative limitations of the model are also discussed.

Inverted photocurrent responses from amphibian rod photoreceptors: role of membrane voltage in response recovery

We recorded photocurrent responses of retinal rods isolated from cane toads Bufo marinus and clawed frogs Xenopus laevis. With the outer segment drawn part way into the suction pipette, presentation of flashes to the base of the outer segment (outside the pipette) elicited a slow inverted response. Stimulation of the same region, with the outer segment drawn fully in, gave a response of conventional polarity. For moderate to bright flashes a fast transient preceded the slow inverted response. Upon bleaching the tip of the outer segment, the slow inverted response was abolished but the fast initial transient remained, and we attribute this fast component to a capacitive current. Experiments employing simultaneous whole-cell patch-clamp and suction pipette recording revealed that both the fast and slow components of the inverted responses were absent in voltage-clamped cells. In current-clamped cells the slow inverted current response was delayed substantially with respect to the voltage response. We present a computational model for the slow component, in which hyperpolarization leads to increased activity of the Na+ -Ca2+, K+ exchanger, hence lowering the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration, activating guanylyl cyclase, raising cyclic GMP concentration, opening cyclic nucleotide-gated channels, and increasing circulating current in the unstimulated region. For the measured voltage response to stimulation of the base, we solve these equations to predict the photocurrent in the tip, and obtain an adequate explanation of the inverted responses. Our work suggests a novel role for membrane voltage in accelerating the inactivation phase of the response to light.

Recoverin regulates light-dependent phosphodiesterase activity in retinal rods

The Ca²⁺-binding protein recoverin may regulate visual transduction in retinal rods and cones, but its functional role and mechanism of action remain controversial. We compared the photoresponses of rods from control mice and from mice in which the recoverin gene was knocked out. Our analysis indicates that Ca²⁺-recoverin prolongs the dark-adapted flash response and increases the rod's sensitivity to dim steady light. Knockout rods had faster Ca²⁺ dynamics, indicating that recoverin is a significant Ca²⁺ buffer in the outer segment, but incorporation of exogenous buffer did not restore wild-type behavior. We infer that Ca²⁺-recoverin potentiates light-triggered phosphodiesterase activity, probably by effectively prolonging the catalytic activity of photoexcited rhodopsin.

Visual pigment phosphorylation but not transducin translocation can contribute to light adaptation in zebrafish cones

The ability of cone photoreceptors to adapt to light is extraordinary. In this study we evaluated two biochemical processes, visual pigment phosphorylation and transducin translocation, for their ability to contribute to light adaptation in zebrafish cones. Since cytoplasmic Ca2+ regulates light adaptation, the sensitivities of these processes to both light and Ca2+ were examined. Cytoplasmic Ca2+ regulates the sites of light-stimulated phosphorylation. Unexpectedly, we found that Ca2+ also regulates the extent of phosphorylation of unbleached cone pigments. Immunocytochemical analyses revealed that neither light nor cytoplasmic Ca2+ influences the localization of transducin in zebrafish cones.

Step response of mouse rod photoreceptors modeled in terms of elemental photic signals

The process of light adaptation in rod photoreceptors enables these sensory cells of the retina to remain responsive to photic stimuli over a broad range of light intensity. Recent studies have employed the technique of paired-flash electroretinography to determine properties of phototransduction, and of light and dark adaptation, in rod photoreceptors in the living eye. Building on these studies, we have developed a theoretical model aimed at explaining the rod electrical response to a step of light based on known physiology. The central feature of the model is its description of the macroscopic (i.e., measured) response in terms of a time-evolving, weighted sum of elemental responses determined under dark-adapted and near fully light-adapted conditions. The model yields a time-dependent function that describes the course of desensitization and putatively represents the cumulative dynamics of underlying biochemical processes involved in light adaptation of the rod.

Novel form of adaptation in mouse retinal rods speeds recovery of phototransduction

Photoreceptors of the retina adapt to ambient light in a manner that allows them to detect changes in illumination over an enormous range of intensities. We have discovered a novel form of adaptation in mouse rods that persists long after the light has been extinguished and the rod's circulating dark current has returned. Electrophysiological recordings from individual rods showed that the time that a bright flash response remained in saturation was significantly shorter if the rod had been previously exposed to bright light. This persistent adaptation did not decrease the rate of rise of the response and therefore cannot be attributed to a decrease in the gain of transduction. Instead, this adaptation was accompanied by a marked speeding of the recovery of the response, suggesting that the step that rate-limits recovery had been accelerated. Experiments on knockout rods in which the identity of the rate-limiting step is known suggest that this adaptive acceleration results from a speeding of G protein/effector deactivation.

Prolonged photoresponses and defective adaptation in rods of Gbeta5-/- mice

Timely deactivation of G-protein signaling is essential for the proper function of many cells, particularly neurons. Termination of the light response of retinal rods requires GTP hydrolysis by the G-protein transducin, which is catalyzed by a protein complex that includes regulator of G-protein signaling RGS9-1 and the G-protein beta subunit Gbeta5-L. Disruption of the Gbeta5 gene in mice (Gbeta5-/-) abolishes the expression of Gbeta5-L in the retina and also greatly reduces the expression level of RGS9-1. We examined transduction in dark- and light-adapted rods from wild-type and Gbeta5-/- mice. Responses of Gbeta5-/- rods were indistinguishable in all respects from those of RGS9-/- rods. Loss of Gbeta5-L (and RGS9-1) had no effect on the activation of the G-protein cascade, but profoundly slowed its deactivation and interfered with the speeding of incremental dim flashes during light adaptation. Both RGS9-/- and Gbeta5-/- responses were consistent with another factor weakly regulating GTP hydrolysis by transducin in a manner proportional to the inward current. Our results indicate that a complex containing RGS9-1-Gbeta5-L is essential for normal G-protein deactivation and rod function. In addition, our light adaptation studies support the notion than an additional weak GTPase-accelerating factor in rods is regulated by intracellular calcium and/or cGMP.

Prolonged photoresponses and defective adaptation in rods of Gbeta5-/- mice

Timely deactivation of G-protein signaling is essential for the proper function of many cells, particularly neurons. Termination of the light response of retinal rods requires GTP hydrolysis by the G-protein transducin, which is catalyzed by a protein complex that includes regulator of G-protein signaling RGS9-1 and the G-protein beta subunit Gbeta5-L. Disruption of the Gbeta5 gene in mice (Gbeta5-/-) abolishes the expression of Gbeta5-L in the retina and also greatly reduces the expression level of RGS9-1. We examined transduction in dark- and light-adapted rods from wild-type and Gbeta5-/- mice. Responses of Gbeta5-/- rods were indistinguishable in all respects from those of RGS9-/- rods. Loss of Gbeta5-L (and RGS9-1) had no effect on the activation of the G-protein cascade, but profoundly slowed its deactivation and interfered with the speeding of incremental dim flashes during light adaptation. Both RGS9-/- and Gbeta5-/- responses were consistent with another factor weakly regulating GTP hydrolysis by transducin in a manner proportional to the inward current. Our results indicate that a complex containing RGS9-1-Gbeta5-L is essential for normal G-protein deactivation and rod function. In addition, our light adaptation studies support the notion than an additional weak GTPase-accelerating factor in rods is regulated by intracellular calcium and/or cGMP.

The time course of light adaptation in vertebrate retinal rods

The photoresponse of a rod wanes over time in steady illumination, as light loses its efficacy in generating the response. Such desensitization is adaptive because it extends the range of ambient light levels over which the rod signals changes in light intensity by several orders of magnitude. Adaptation begins to unfold rapidly after the onset of light with a time constant of approximately 1 s, causing the rod's sensitivity to steady light to decrease by nearly two log units. Thereafter, a much slower phase of adaptation evolves with a time constant of 9 s. During this phase the rod's sensitivity decreases by an additional log unit. Both phases are dependent upon the light-induced fall in intracellular Ca2+. The fast phase of light adaptation can be attributed to Ca2+ feedback processes regulating the lifetime ofphotoactivated rhodopsin, cGMP synthesis and sensitivity of the cGMP-gated channel to cGMP. Although the mechanism(s) of the slow phase is not yet known, it appears to include further regulation of the lifetime of photoactivated rhodopsin.

Tuning outer segment Ca2+ homeostasis to phototransduction in rods and cones

Cone photoreceptors respond to light with less sensitivity, faster kinetics and adapt over a much wider range of intensities than do rods. These differences can be explained, in part, by the quantitative differences in the molecular processes that regulate the cytoplasmic free Ca2+ concentration in the outer segment of both receptor types. Ca2+ concentration is regulated through the kinetic balance between the ions' influx and efflux and the action of intracellular buffers. Influx is passive and mediated by the cyclic-GMP gated ion channels. In cones, Ca2+ ions carry about 35% of the ionic current flowing through the channels in darkness. In rods, in contrast, this fraction is about 20%. We present a kinetic rate model of the ion channels that helps explain the differences in their Ca2+ fractional flux. In cones, but not in rods, the cGMP-sensitivity of the cyclic GMP-gated ion channels changes with Ca2+ at the concentrations expected in dark-adapted photoreceptors. Ca2+ efflux is active and mediated by a Na+ and K+-dependent exchanger. The rate of Ca2+ clearance mediated by the exchanger in cones, regardless of the absolute size of their outer segment is of the order of tens of milliseconds. In rod outer segments, and again independently of their size, Ca2+ clearance rate is of the order of hundreds of milliseconds to seconds. We investigate the functional consequences of these differences in Ca2+ homeostasis using computational models of the phototransduction signal in rods and cones. Consistent with experimental observation, differences in Ca2+ homeostasis can make the cone's flash response faster and less sensitive to light than that of rods. In the simulations, however, changing Ca2+ homeostasis is not sufficient to recreate authentic cone responses. Accelerating the rate of inactivation (but NOT activation) of the enzymes of the transduction cascade, in addition, to changes in Ca2+ homeostasis are needed to explain the differences between rod and cone photosignals. The large gain and precise kinetic control of the electrical photoresponse of rod and cone retinal receptors suggested a long time back that phototransduction is mediated by cytoplasmic second messengers that, in turn, control membrane ionic conductance. (1) The unquestionable identification of cyclic GMP as the phototransduction messenger, however, did not come until the mid 1980's with the discovery that the light-regulated membrane conductance in both rods and cones is gated by this nucleotide (2-4) and is, in fact, an ion channel. (7) The cyclic nucleotide gated (CNG) channels, now we know, are not just the compliant targets of light-dependent change in cytoplasmic cGMP, but actively participate in the regulation transduction through Ca2+ feedback signals. The precise magnitude and time course of the concentration changes of cGMP and Ca2+ in either rods or cones remains controversial. It is clear, however, that whereas cGMP directly controls the opening and closing of the plasma membrane channels, Ca2+ controls the light-sensitivity and kinetics of the transduction signal. (8,9) The modulatory role of Ca2+ is particularly apparent in the process of light adaptation: in light-adapted rods or cones, the transduction signal generated by a given flash is lower in sensitivity and faster in time course than in dark-adapted cells. Light adaptation is compromised if Ca2+ concentration changes are attenuated by cytopiasmic Ca2+ buffers (8,10,11) and does not occur if Ca2+ concentration changes are prevented by manipulation of the solution bathing the cells. (2,4) Several Ca2+-dependent biochemical reactions have been identified in photoreceptors, among them: 1. ATP-dependent deactivation. (15,16) 2 Phodopsin phospshorylation, through the action of recoverin (S-modulin). (17-19) 3. Catalytic activity of guanylyl cyclase, (20-22) through the action of GCAP proteins. (23,24,25) 4. cGMP-sensitivity of the CNG channels. (26-29,30) A challenge in contemporary phototransduction research is to understand the details of these reactions and their role in the control of the phototransduction signal. Transduction signals in cone photoreceptors are faster, lower in light sensitivity, and more robust in their adaptation features than those in rods (for review see refs. 31;32). A detailed molecular explanation for these differences is not at hand. However, biochemical and electrophysiological (33) studies indicate that the elements in the light-activated pathway that hydrolyzes cGMP are quantitatively similar in their function in rods and cones and unlikely to account for the functional differences. Also, within the limited exploration completed todate, the Ca2+-dependence of guanylyl cyclase (34) and visual pigment phosphorylation (19) do not differ in rods and cones. On the other hand, data accumulated over the past few years indicate that cytoplasmic Ca2+ homeostasis, while controlled through essentially identical mechanisms it is quantitatively very different in its features in the two photoreceptor types. Both Ca2+ influx through CNG channels and the rate of Ca2+ clearance from the outer segment differ between the two receptor cells. Also, the Ca2+-dependent modulation of cGMP sensitivity is larger in extent in cones than in rods. Most significantly, the concentration range of this Ca2+ dependence overlaps the physiological range of light-dependent changes in cytoplasmic Ca2+ level in cones, but not in rods. We briefly review some of the evidence that supports these assertions and we then provide a quantitative analysis of the possible significance of these known differences. We conclude that while differences in Ca2+ homeostasis contribute importantly to explaining the differences between the two receptor types, they are alone not sufficient to explain the differences in the photoreceptor's response. It is likely that Ca2+-independent inactivation of the transduction cascade enzymes is more rapid in cones than in rods.

Dynamics of cyclic GMP synthesis in retinal rods

In retinal rods, Ca(2+) exerts negative feedback control on cGMP synthesis by guanylate cyclase (GC). This feedback loop was disrupted in mouse rods lacking guanylate cyclase activating proteins GCAP1 and GCAP2 (GCAPs(-/-)). Comparison of the behavior of wild-type and GCAPs(-/-) rods allowed us to investigate the role of the feedback loop in normal rod function. We have found that regulation of GC is apparently the only Ca(2+) feedback loop operating during the single photon response. Analysis of the rods' light responses and cellular dark noise suggests that GC normally responds to light-driven changes in [Ca(2+)] rapidly and highly cooperatively. Rapid feedback to GC speeds the rod's temporal responsiveness and improves its signal-to-noise ratio by minimizing fluctuations in cGMP.

Time course and magnitude of the calcium release induced by bright light in salamander rods

Changes in fluorescence were measured with an argon ion laser from the outer segments of isolated salamander rods containing the Ca(2+)-sensitive fluorescent dye fluo-5F. When the outer segments were exposed to a 0Ca(2+)/0Na(+) solution designed to minimise surface membrane Ca(2+) fluxes, exposure to intense light from the laser evoked a slow increase in fluorescence, reflecting a light-induced rise in outer segment [Ca(2+)](i). The time course of this slow fluorescence rise could be fitted with the sum of two asymptotic exponential functions of approximately equal amplitude, having time constants of approximately 200 ms and 5.7 s. When rods were exposed to saturating background light to reduce outer segment [Ca(2+)](i) before laser illumination, the relative amplitude of the two exponentials was altered so as to reduce the contribution from the one with the shorter time constant. Examination of the initial time course of fluorescence when recording at high temporal resolution revealed a further rapid rise with a time constant of 1-2 ms, which could be observed even from rods in Ringer solution. This initial rapid rise could be abolished by pre-exposing the rod to bleaching illumination, whether the bleach was given in Ringer solution or in 0Ca(2+)/0Na(+) solution. It would therefore appear that the rapid rise in fluorescence is generated in some way by the bleaching of the photopigment. Unlike the slower components of fluorescence increase, the rapid initial rise was virtually unaffected in waveform or amplitude when rods were pre-exposed in Ringer solution to light which was bright enough to suppress completely the circulating current but which bleached a negligible fraction of the photopigment. Furthermore, pre-incubation with the AM ester of the Ca(2+) chelator BAPTA, although completely abolishing the slower components of fluorescence increase, had virtually no effect on the rapid rise. These results indicate that the rapid component, though triggered by rhodopsin bleaching, does not reflect an increase in outer segment [Ca(2+)](i). Neither the rapid nor the slower components of fluorescence increase were affected by exposure of the outer segment to 10 microM of the membrane-permeant compound N,N,N',N'-tetrakis(2-pyridyl-methyl)ethylenediamine (TPEN), which chelates heavy metals such as Zn(2+), or 100 microM 2-aminoethoxydiphenylborate (2-APB), a membrane-permeant blocker of IP(3) receptors. These results appear to exclude a role for changes in heavy metal concentration or Ca(2+) release via IP(3) receptors in the light-induced increases in dye fluorescence. Estimates of absolute Ca(2+) concentration and of rod buffering capacity suggest that the slower components of fluorescence increase represent the release of around 10-50 micromoles Ca(2+) per litre cytoplasmic volume from bound or sequestered stores after bleaching.

G proteins and phototransduction

Phototransduction is the process by which a photon of light captured by a molecule of visual pigment generates an electrical response in a photoreceptor cell. Vertebrate rod phototransduction is one of the best-studied G protein signaling pathways. In this pathway the photoreceptor-specific G protein, transducin, mediates between the visual pigment, rhodopsin, and the effector enzyme, cGMP phosphodiesterase. This review focuses on two quantitative features of G protein signaling in phototransduction: signal amplification and response timing. We examine how the interplay between the mechanisms that contribute to amplification and those that govern termination of G protein activity determine the speed and the sensitivity of the cellular response to light.

Effects of lithium on basal and modulated activities of the particulate and soluble guanylate cyclases in retinal rod outer segments

A large amount of information regarding the kinetics of biochemical reactions involved in visual transduction was derived from electrophysiological studies on dark-adapted rod outer segments. Hodgkin et al. [(1985) J. Physiol. 358, 447-468] observed that when Na was replaced with Li in the perfusion solution bathing the rod outer segment, the dark current slowly declined to zero. This decline was thought to result from a rise in intracellular calcium which was hypothesized to inhibit guanylate cyclase activity and reduce the cyclic GMP concentration. Rod outer segments contain membrane and soluble guanylate cyclase activities, and we show here that Li directly inhibits both types of activities very strongly. Both the basal (at high calcium) and the stimulated (at low calcium) activities of the membrane enzyme were inhibited by Li. Half-maximal inhibition of the stimulated enzyme was at 30 mM Li while for the basal activity it was at 100 mM. Over 80% of the activated enzyme was inhibited at 110 mM Li. The soluble guanylate cyclase activity was stimulated by nitroprusside. One hundred millimolar Li inhibited the basal activity by 20-30%, but the inhibition of the nitroprusside-stimulated (soluble) enzyme was much stronger, resembling that of the activated membrane enzyme. Half-maximal inhibition occurred at 30 mM, and about 80% inhibition was found at 100 mM Li. Stimulation of the soluble enzyme by nitroprusside was independent of calcium in the physiological range. The inhibition of the stimulated enzyme by Li was similarly independent of calcium, except at unphysiologically high concentrations.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Two temporal phases of light adaptation in retinal rods

Vertebrate rod photoreceptors adjust their sensitivity as they adapt during exposure to steady light. Light adaptation prevents the rod from saturating and significantly extends its dynamic range. We examined the time course of the onset of light adaptation in bullfrog rods and compared it with the projected onset of feedback reactions thought to underlie light adaptation on the molecular level. We found that adaptation developed in two distinct temporal phases: (1) a fast phase that operated within seconds after the onset of illumination, which is consistent with most previous reports of a 1-2-s time constant for the onset of adaptation; and (2) a slow phase that engaged over tens of seconds of continuous illumination. The fast phase desensitized the rods as much as 80-fold, and was observed at every light intensity tested. The slow phase was observed only at light intensities that suppressed more than half of the dark current. It provided an additional sensitivity loss of up to 40-fold before the rod saturated. Thus, rods achieved a total degree of adaptation of approximately 3,000-fold. Although the fast adaptation is likely to originate from the well characterized Ca(2+)-dependent feedback mechanisms regulating the activities of several phototransduction cascade components, the molecular mechanism underlying slow adaptation is unclear. We tested the hypothesis that the slow adaptation phase is mediated by cGMP dissociation from noncatalytic binding sites on the cGMP phosphodiesterase, which has been shown to reduce the lifetime of activated phosphodiesterase in vitro. Although cGMP dissociated from the noncatalytic binding sites in intact rods with kinetics approximating that for the slow adaptation phase, this hypothesis was ruled out because the intensity of light required for cGMP dissociation far exceeded that required to evoke the slow phase. Other possible mechanisms are discussed.

Prolongation of actions of Ca2+ early in phototransduction by 9-demethylretinal

During adaptation Ca2+ acts on a step early in phototransduction, which is normally available for only a brief period after excitation. To investigate the identity of this step, we studied the effect of the light-induced decline in intracellular Ca2+ concentration on the response to a bright flash in normal rods, and in rods bleached and regenerated with 11-cis 9-demethylretinal, which forms a photopigment with a prolonged photoactivated lifetime. Changes in cytoplasmic Ca2+ were opposed by rapid superfusion of the outer segment with a 0Na+/0Ca2+ solution designed to minimize Ca2+ fluxes across the surface membrane. After regeneration of a bleached rod with 9-demethlyretinal, the response in Ringer's to a 440-nm bright flash was prolonged in comparison with the unbleached control, and the response remained in saturation for 10-15s. If the dynamic fall in Ca2+i induced by the flash was delayed by stepping the outer segment to 0Na+/0Ca2+ solution just before the flash and returning it to Ringer's shortly before recovery, then the response saturation was prolonged further, increasing linearly by 0.41 +/- 0.01 of the time spent in this solution. In contrast, even long exposures to 0Na+/0Ca2+ solution of rods containing native photopigment evoked only a modest response prolongation on the return to Ringer's. Furthermore, if the rod was preexposed to steady subsaturating light, thereby reducing the cytoplasmic calcium concentration, then the prolongation of the bright flash response evoked by 0Na+/0Ca2+ solution was reduced in a graded manner with increasing background intensity. These results indicate that altering the chromophore of rhodopsin prolongs the time course of the Ca2+-dependent step early in the transduction cascade so that it dominates response recovery, and suggest that it is associated with photopigment quenching by phosphorylation.

Dynamic and steady-state light adaptation of mouse rod photoreceptors in vivo

1. Electroretinographic (ERG) methods were used to investigate the effects of background illumination on the responses of mouse rod photoreceptors in vivo. A paired-flash procedure, involving the recording and analysis of the ERG a-wave response to a bright probe flash presented after a brief test flash, was used to derive the rod response to the test flash in steady background light. A related, step-plus-probe procedure was used to derive the step response of the rods to backgrounds of defined strength. 2. Steady background light produced a maintained derived response that was graded with background strength. Determinations of the full time course of the derived weak-flash response in steady background light, and of the effect of background strength on the flash response at fixed post-test-flash times, showed that moderate backgrounds reduce the peak amplitude and duration of the flash response. 3. The response to stepped onset of an approximately half-saturating background (1.2 sc cd m(-2)) exhibited a gradual rise over the first 200-300 ms, and an apparent subsequent relaxation to plateau amplitude within 1 s after background onset. Determinations of normalized amplitudes of the derived response to a test flash presented at 50 or 700 ms after background onset indicated substantial development of background-induced shortening of the test flash response within this 1 s period. These findings indicate a time scale of approximately 1 s or less for the near-completion of light adaptation at this background strength. 4. Properties of the derived response to a stepped background and to test flashes presented in steady background light are in general agreement with photocurrent data obtained from mammalian rods in vitro and suggest that the present results describe, to good approximation, the in vivo desensitization of mouse rods by background light.

A light-dependent increase in free Ca2+ concentration in the salamander rod outer segment

1. The Ca(2+) indicator dye fluo-5F was excited by an argon ion laser to measure changes in free Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca2+]i) in the outer segments of isolated salamander rods rapidly exposed to a 0 Ca(2+), 0 Na(+) solution designed to minimise surface membrane Ca(2+) fluxes. Over 30-60 s of laser illumination, the fluorescence first increased rapidly and then declined at a rate that was much slower than in Ringer solution and consistent with previous physiological evidence that 0 Ca(2+), 0 Na(+) solution greatly retards light-induced changes in [Ca(2+)]i. 2. The initial increase in fluorescence was investigated with a sequence of 100 ms laser flashes presented at 5 s intervals. The fluorescence evoked by the second laser flash was on average 30 % larger than the first, and subsequent responses exhibited a slow decline like that measured with continuous laser exposures. The initial increase in fluorescence did not depend upon the timing of exposure to 0 Ca(2+), 0 Na(+) solution but appeared to be evoked by exposure to the laser light. 3. Both the increase and subsequent decline in fluorescence measured with brief laser flashes could be reduced by incorporation of the Ca(2+) chelator BAPTA. This and other results indicate that the fluorescence increase was unlikely to have been caused by a change in the affinity of fluo-5F for Ca(2+) or an increase in the quantity of incorporated dye available to bind Ca(2+) but reflects an actual release of intracellular Ca(2+) within the outer segment. 4. The pool of Ca(2+) available to be released could be decreased if, before the first laser flash, the rod was exposed to light bright enough to bleach a substantial fraction of the photopigment. The releasable pool could also be depleted by exposure to saturating light of much lower intensity if delivered in Ringer solution but not if delivered in 0 Ca(2+), 0 Na(+) solution. We conclude that Ca(2+) can be released within the outer segment both by the bleaching of rhodopsin and by the reduction in [Ca(2+)]i which normally accompanies illumination in Ringer solution. 5. The activation of rhodopsin appears somehow to induce the release of Ca(2+) from a binding site or store within the outer segment. Substantial release, however, required stimulating light of an intensity sufficient to bleach a considerable fraction of the visual pigment. It therefore seems unlikely that such release contributes to the normal Ca(2+)-mediated modulation of transduction during light adaptation. The mechanism and physiological function of light-induced Ca(2+) release are unknown.

Adaptation in vertebrate photoreceptors

When light is absorbed within the outer segment of a vertebrate photoreceptor, the conformation of the photopigment rhodopsin is altered to produce an activated photoproduct called metarhodopsin II or Rh(*). Rh(*) initiates a transduction cascade similar to that for metabotropic synaptic receptors and many hormones; the Rh(*) activates a heterotrimeric G protein, which in turn stimulates an effector enzyme, a cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase. The phosphodiesterase then hydrolyzes cGMP, and the decrease in the concentration of free cGMP reduces the probability of opening of channels in the outer segment plasma membrane, producing the electrical response of the cell. Photoreceptor transduction can be modulated by changes in the mean light level. This process, called light adaptation (or background adaptation), maintains the working range of the transduction cascade within a physiologically useful region of light intensities. There is increasing evidence that the second messenger responsible for the modulation of the transduction cascade during background adaptation is primarily, if not exclusively, Ca(2+), whose intracellular free concentration is decreased by illumination. The change in free Ca(2+) is believed to have a variety of effects on the transduction mechanism, including modulation of the rate of the guanylyl cyclase and rhodopsin kinase, alteration of the gain of the transduction cascade, and regulation of the affinity of the outer segment channels for cGMP. The sensitivity of the photoreceptor is also reduced by previous exposure to light bright enough to bleach a substantial fraction of the photopigment in the outer segment. This form of desensitization, called bleaching adaptation (the recovery from which is known as dark adaptation), seems largely to be due to an activation of the transduction cascade by some form of bleached pigment. The bleached pigment appears to activate the G protein transducin directly, although with a gain less than Rh(*). The resulting decrease in intracellular Ca(2+) then modulates the transduction cascade, by a mechanism very similar to the one responsible for altering sensitivity during background adaptation.

Analysis of Ca++-dependent gain changes in PDE activation in vertebrate rod phototransduction

PURPOSE

Recent biochemical and physiological data point to the existence of one or more Ca++-mediated feedback mechanisms modulating gain at stages early in the vertebrate phototransduction cascade, i.e., prior to activation of cGMP-phosphodiesterase (PDE). The present study is a computational analysis that combines quantitative optimization to key data with a qualitative evaluation of each candidate model's ability to capture "signature" features of representative rod responses obtained under a broad range of dark- (DA) and light-adapted (LA) conditions. The primary data motivating the analyses were the two-flash data of Murnick & Lamb. These data exhibited strikingly nonlinear behavior: the period of complete photocurrent saturation (Tsat) in response to a Test flash was reduced substantially when preceded by a less-intense saturating Pre-flash. Depending on the delay between Pre- and Test flashes, the change in Tsat (DTsat) could exceed the magnitude of the delay, and could be reduced by as much as approximately 50%, corresponding to a large reduction in gain by a factor of 10-15. The overall goal of the study was to evaluate what model structure(s) were commensurate with both the Murnick & Lamb data and the salient qualitative features of rod responses obtained under a broad range of DA and LA conditions.

METHODS

Three candidate models were quantitatively optimized to the Murnick & Lamb saturated toad rod flash responses and, simultaneously, to a set of sub-saturated flash responses. Using the parameters from these optimizations, each candidate model was then used to simulate a suite of DA and LA responses.

RESULTS

The analyses showed that: (1) Within the context of a model with Ca++ feedback onto rhodopsin (R*) lifetime (tR), the salient features of the Murnick & Lamb data can only be accounted for if the rate-limiting step is not the Ca++-sensitive step in the early cascade reactions, i.e., if PDE* lifetime, and not tR, is rate-limiting. (2) With tR rate-limiting, the model cannot account for DTsat exceeding the delay. (3) The Ca++-dependent reduction in tR required to effect the large gain is incommensurate with the empirical dynamics of dim-flash responses. (4) Regardless of which reaction is rate-limiting, a model using solely modulation of R* lifetime puts strong constraints on the domain of biochemical parameters commensurate with the large gain changes Murnick & Lamb observed. (5) The analyses show that, in principle, the Murnick & Lamb data can be accounted for when tR is both rate-limiting and Ca++-sensitive if, in addition to the feedback onto tR, there is an earlier, stronger Ca++ feedback that does not affect R* inactivation kinetics (e.g., gain at R* activation or transducin (T*) activation). (6) Ca++-modulation of R* activation or T* activation as the sole early gain mechanism can also account for the Murnick & Lamb data, but fails to predict the data of Matthews, and can thus be rejected along with any model of comparable form.

CONCLUSIONS

The results imply that the Murnick & Lamb data per se are insufficient to rule out rate-limitation by (Ca++-sensitive) R* lifetime; evaluation of a broader set of responses is required. The analyses illustrate the importance of evaluating candidate models in relation to sets of data obtained under the broadest possible range of DA and LA conditions. The analyses are aided by the presence of reproducible signature, qualitative features in the data since these tend to constrain the domain of acceptable model structures and/or parameter sets. Some implications for vertebrate photoreceptor light-adaptation are discussed.

The role of steady phosphodiesterase activity in the kinetics and sensitivity of the light-adapted salamander rod photoresponse

We investigated the kinetics and sensitivity of photocurrent responses of salamander rods, both in darkness and during adaptation to steady backgrounds producing 20-3,000 photoisomerizations per second, using suction pipet recordings. The most intense backgrounds suppressed 80% of the circulating dark current and decreased the flash sensitivity approximately 30-fold. To investigate the underlying transduction mechanism, we expressed the responses as a fraction of the steady level of cGMP-activated current recorded in the background. The fractional responses to flashes of any fixed intensity began rising along a common trajectory, regardless of background intensity. We interpret these invariant initial trajectories to indicate that, at these background intensities, light adaptation does not alter the gain of any of the amplifying steps of phototransduction. For subsaturating flashes of fixed intensity, the fractional responses obtained on backgrounds of different intensity were found to "peel off" from their common initial trajectory in a background-dependent manner: the more intense the background, the earlier the time of peeling off. This behavior is consistent with a background-induced reduction in the effective lifetime of at least one of the three major integrating steps in phototransduction; i.e., an acceleration of one or more of the following: (1) the inactivation of activated rhodopsin (R*); (2) the inactivation of activated phosphodiesterase (E*, representing the complex G(alpha)-PDE of phosphodiesterase with the transducin alpha-subunit); or (3) the hydrolysis of cGMP, with rate constant beta. Our measurements show that, over the range of background intensities we used, beta increased on average to approximately 20 times its dark-adapted value; and our theoretical analysis indicates that this increase in beta is the primary mechanism underlying the measured shortening of time-to-peak of the dim-flash response and the decrease in sensitivity of the fractional response.

Activation of Ca2+--calmodulin kinase II induces desensitization by background light in dogfish retinal 'on' bipolar cells

Retinal 'on' bipolar cells possess a metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR6) linked to the control of a G-protein and cGMP-activated channels which functions to generate high synaptic amplification of rod signals under dark-adapted conditions. Desensitization of 'on' bipolar cells is initiated by a rise in Ca2+ during background light too weak to adapt rod photoreceptors. Desensitization could also be elicited by raising intracellular Ca2+ above 1 microM. In order to investigate the mechanism of desensitization, whole-cell current responses to brief flashes and to steps of light were obtained from voltage-clamped 'on' bipolar cells in dark-adapted dogfish retinal slices. The inclusion of Ca2+-calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII) inhibitor peptides in the patch pipette solutions not only blocked desensitization of 'on' bipolar cells by dim background light and by 50 microM Ca2+, but also increased their flash sensitivity. The substrate of phosphorylation by CaMKII is the 'on' bipolar cell cGMP-activated channels. Desensitization probably results from a reduction in their sensitivity to cGMP and a voltage-dependent decrease in their conductance. A role for protein kinase C (PKC) in this process was excluded since activating PKC independently of Ca2+ with the phorbol ester PMA failed to induce desensitization of 'on' bipolar cells.