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Zhang F, Armando I, Jose PA, Zeng C, Yang J. G protein-coupled receptor kinases in hypertension: physiology, pathogenesis, and therapeutic targets. Hypertens Res 2024:10.1038/s41440-024-01763-y. [PMID: 38961282 DOI: 10.1038/s41440-024-01763-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/06/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) mediate cellular responses to a myriad of hormones and neurotransmitters that play vital roles in the regulation of physiological processes such as blood pressure. In organs such as the artery and kidney, hormones or neurotransmitters, such as angiotensin II (Ang II), dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine exert their functions via their receptors, with the ultimate effect of keeping normal vascular reactivity, normal body sodium, and normal blood pressure. GPCR kinases (GRKs) exert their biological functions, by mediating the regulation of agonist-occupied GPCRs, non-GPCRs, or non-receptor substrates. In particular, increasing number of studies show that aberrant expression and activity of GRKs in the cardiovascular system and kidney inhibit or stimulate GPCRs (e.g., dopamine receptors, Ang II receptors, and α- and β-adrenergic receptors), resulting in hypertension. Current studies focus on the effect of selective GRK inhibitors in cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension. Moreover, genetic studies show that GRK gene variants are associated with essential hypertension, blood pressure response to antihypertensive medicines, and adverse cardiovascular outcomes of antihypertensive treatment. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of GRK-mediated regulation of blood pressure, role of GRKs in the pathogenesis of hypertension, and highlight potential strategies for the treatment of hypertension. Schematic representation of GPCR desensitization process. Activation of GPCRs begins with the binding of an agonist to its corresponding receptor. Then G proteins activate downstream effectors that are mediated by various signaling pathways. GPCR signaling is halted by GRK-mediated receptor phosphorylation, which causes receptor internalization through β-arrestin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuwei Zhang
- Research Center for Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, PR China
- Department of Nutrition, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, PR China
- Department of Cardiology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, PR China
| | - Ines Armando
- Division of Renal Diseases & Hypertension, Department of Medicine and Department of Physiology/Pharmacology, The George Washington University School of Medicine & Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Pedro A Jose
- Division of Renal Diseases & Hypertension, Department of Medicine and Department of Physiology/Pharmacology, The George Washington University School of Medicine & Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Chunyu Zeng
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, PR China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Hypertension Research, Chongqing Cardiovascular Clinical Research Center, Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, PR China
| | - Jian Yang
- Research Center for Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, PR China.
- Department of Nutrition, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, PR China.
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2
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Plateau V, Baufreton J, Le Bon-Jégo M. Age-Dependent Modulation of Layer V Pyramidal Neuron Excitability in the Mouse Primary Motor Cortex by D1 Receptor Agonists and Antagonists. Neuroscience 2024; 536:21-35. [PMID: 37952579 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2023.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
The primary motor cortex (M1) receives dopaminergic (DAergic) projections from the midbrain which play a key role in modulating motor and cognitive processes, such as motor skill learning. However, little is known at the level of individual neurons about how dopamine (DA) and its receptors modulate the intrinsic properties of the different neuronal subpopulations in M1 and if this modulation depends on age. Using immunohistochemistry, we first mapped the cells expressing the DA D1 receptor across the different layers in M1, and quantified the number of pyramidal neurons (PNs) expressing the D1 receptor in the different layers, in young and adult mice. This work reveals that the spatial distribution and the molecular profile of D1 receptor-expressing neurons (D1+) across M1 layers do not change with age. Then, combining whole-cell patch-clamp recordings and pharmacology, we explored ex vivo in young and adult mice the impact of activation or blockade of D1 receptors on D1+ PN intrinsic properties. While the bath application of the D1 receptor agonist induced an increase in the excitability of layer V PNs both in young and adult, we identified a distinct modulation of intrinsic electrical properties of layer V D1+ PNs by D1 receptor antagonist depending on the age of the animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin Plateau
- Université de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, 33076 Bordeaux, France; CNRS UMR 5293, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Jérôme Baufreton
- Université de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, 33076 Bordeaux, France; CNRS UMR 5293, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Morgane Le Bon-Jégo
- Université de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, 33076 Bordeaux, France; CNRS UMR 5293, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, 33076 Bordeaux, France.
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3
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Zeghal M, Laroche G, Freitas JD, Wang R, Giguère PM. Profiling of basal and ligand-dependent GPCR activities by means of a polyvalent cell-based high-throughput platform. Nat Commun 2023; 14:3684. [PMID: 37407564 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-39132-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Representing the most attractive and successful druggable receptors of the proteome, GPCRs regulate a myriad of physiological and pathophysiological functions. Although over half of present pharmaceuticals target GPCRs, the advancement of drug discovery is hampered by a lack of adequate screening tools, the majority of which are limited to probing agonist-induced G-protein and β-arrestin-2-mediated events as a measure of receptor activation. Here, we develop Tango-Trio, a comprehensive cell-based high-throughput platform comprising cumate-inducible expression of transducers, capable of the parallelized profiling of both basal and agonist-dependent GPCR activities. We capture the functional diversity of GPCRs, reporting β-arrestin-1/2 couplings, selectivities, and receptor internalization signatures across the GPCRome. Moreover, we present the construction of cumate-induced basal activation curves at approximately 200 receptors, including over 50 orphans. Overall, Tango-Trio's robustness is well-suited for the functional characterization and screening of GPCRs, especially for parallel interrogation, and is a valuable addition to the pharmacological toolbox.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manel Zeghal
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1H8M5, Canada
| | - Geneviève Laroche
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1H8M5, Canada
| | - Julia Douglas Freitas
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1H8M5, Canada
| | - Rebecca Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1H8M5, Canada
| | - Patrick M Giguère
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1H8M5, Canada.
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1H8M5, Canada.
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Moritz AE, Madaras NS, Rankin ML, Inbody LR, Sibley DR. Delineation of G Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase Phosphorylation Sites within the D 1 Dopamine Receptor and Their Roles in Modulating β-Arrestin Binding and Activation. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:6599. [PMID: 37047571 PMCID: PMC10095280 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The D1 dopamine receptor (D1R) is a G protein-coupled receptor that signals through activating adenylyl cyclase and raising intracellular cAMP levels. When activated, the D1R also recruits the scaffolding protein β-arrestin, which promotes receptor desensitization and internalization, as well as additional downstream signaling pathways. These processes are triggered through receptor phosphorylation by G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs), although the precise phosphorylation sites and their role in recruiting β-arrestin to the D1R remains incompletely described. In this study, we have used detailed mutational and in situ phosphorylation analyses to completely identify the GRK-mediated phosphorylation sites on the D1R. Our results indicate that GRKs can phosphorylate 14 serine and threonine residues within the C-terminus and the third intracellular loop (ICL3) of the receptor, and that this occurs in a hierarchical fashion, where phosphorylation of the C-terminus precedes that of the ICL3. Using β-arrestin recruitment assays, we identified a cluster of phosphorylation sites in the proximal region of the C-terminus that drive β-arrestin binding to the D1R. We further provide evidence that phosphorylation sites in the ICL3 are responsible for β-arrestin activation, leading to receptor internalization. Our results suggest that distinct D1R GRK phosphorylation sites are involved in β-arrestin binding and activation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - David R. Sibley
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Gerhards J, Maerz LD, Matthees ESF, Donow C, Moepps B, Premont RT, Burkhalter MD, Hoffmann C, Philipp M. Kinase Activity Is Not Required for G Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase 4 Restraining mTOR Signaling during Cilia and Kidney Development. J Am Soc Nephrol 2023; 34:590-606. [PMID: 36810260 PMCID: PMC10103308 DOI: 10.1681/asn.0000000000000082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 (GRK4) regulates renal sodium and water reabsorption. Although GRK4 variants with elevated kinase activity have been associated with salt-sensitive or essential hypertension, this association has been inconsistent among different study populations. In addition, studies elucidating how GRK4 may modulate cellular signaling are sparse. In an analysis of how GRK4 affects the developing kidney, the authors found that GRK4 modulates mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling. Loss of GRK4 in embryonic zebrafish causes kidney dysfunction and glomerular cysts. Moreover, GRK4 depletion in zebrafish and cellular mammalian models results in elongated cilia. Rescue experiments suggest that hypertension in carriers of GRK4 variants may not be explained solely by kinase hyperactivity; instead, elevated mTOR signaling may be the underlying cause. BACKGROUND G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 (GRK4) is considered a central regulator of blood pressure through phosphorylation of renal dopaminergic receptors and subsequent modulation of sodium excretion. Several nonsynonymous genetic variants of GRK4 have been only partially linked to hypertension, although these variants demonstrate elevated kinase activity. However, some evidence suggests that function of GRK4 variants may involve more than regulation of dopaminergic receptors alone. Little is known about the effects of GRK4 on cellular signaling, and it is also unclear whether or how altered GRK4 function might affect kidney development. METHODS To better understand the effect of GRK4 variants on the functionality of GRK4 and GRK4's actions in cellular signaling during kidney development, we studied zebrafish, human cells, and a murine kidney spheroid model. RESULTS Zebrafish depleted of Grk4 develop impaired glomerular filtration, generalized edema, glomerular cysts, pronephric dilatation, and expansion of kidney cilia. In human fibroblasts and in a kidney spheroid model, GRK4 knockdown produced elongated primary cilia. Reconstitution with human wild-type GRK4 partially rescues these phenotypes. We found that kinase activity is dispensable because kinase-dead GRK4 (altered GRK4 that cannot result in phosphorylation of the targeted protein) prevented cyst formation and restored normal ciliogenesis in all tested models. Hypertension-associated genetic variants of GRK4 fail to rescue any of the observed phenotypes, suggesting a receptor-independent mechanism. Instead, we discovered unrestrained mammalian target of rapamycin signaling as an underlying cause. CONCLUSIONS These findings identify GRK4 as novel regulator of cilia and of kidney development independent of GRK4's kinase function and provide evidence that the GRK4 variants believed to act as hyperactive kinases are dysfunctional for normal ciliogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Gerhards
- Section of Pharmacogenomics, Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, Eberhard-Karls-University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Lars D. Maerz
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Edda S. F. Matthees
- Institute for Molecular Cell Biology, University Hospital Jena, Friedrich-Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Cornelia Donow
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Barbara Moepps
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Richard T. Premont
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Martin D. Burkhalter
- Section of Pharmacogenomics, Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, Eberhard-Karls-University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Carsten Hoffmann
- Institute for Molecular Cell Biology, University Hospital Jena, Friedrich-Schiller University of Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Melanie Philipp
- Section of Pharmacogenomics, Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, Eberhard-Karls-University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Jiang H, Galtes D, Wang J, Rockman HA. G protein-coupled receptor signaling: transducers and effectors. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2022; 323:C731-C748. [PMID: 35816644 PMCID: PMC9448338 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00210.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are of considerable interest due to their importance in a wide range of physiological functions and in a large number of Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs as therapeutic entities. With continued study of their function and mechanism of action, there is a greater understanding of how effector molecules interact with a receptor to initiate downstream effector signaling. This review aims to explore the signaling pathways, dynamic structures, and physiological relevance in the cardiovascular system of the three most important GPCR signaling effectors: heterotrimeric G proteins, GPCR kinases (GRKs), and β-arrestins. We will first summarize their prominent roles in GPCR pharmacology before transitioning into less well-explored areas. As new technologies are developed and applied to studying GPCR structure and their downstream effectors, there is increasing appreciation for the elegance of the regulatory mechanisms that mediate intracellular signaling and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoran Jiang
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Daniella Galtes
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Jialu Wang
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Howard A Rockman
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
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7
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Interactions between the intrarenal dopaminergic and the renin-angiotensin systems in the control of systemic arterial pressure. Clin Sci (Lond) 2022; 136:1205-1227. [PMID: 35979889 DOI: 10.1042/cs20220338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Systemic arterial hypertension is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in the general population, being a risk factor for many cardiovascular diseases. Although its pathogenesis is complex and still poorly understood, some systems appear to play major roles in its development. This review aims to update the current knowledge on the interaction of the intrarenal renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and dopaminergic system in the development of hypertension, focusing on recent scientific hallmarks in the field. The intrarenal RAS, composed of several peptides and receptors, has a critical role in the regulation of blood pressure (BP) and, consequently, the development of hypertension. The RAS is divided into two main intercommunicating axes: the classical axis, composed of angiotensin-converting enzyme, angiotensin II, and angiotensin type 1 receptor, and the ACE2/angiotensin-(1-7)/Mas axis, which appears to modulate the effects of the classical axis. Dopamine and its receptors are also increasingly showing an important role in the pathogenesis of hypertension, as abnormalities in the intrarenal dopaminergic system impair the regulation of renal sodium transport, regardless of the affected dopamine receptor subtype. There are five dopamine receptors, which are divided into two major subtypes: the D1-like (D1R and D5R) and D2-like (D2R, D3R, and D4R) receptors. Mice deficient in any of the five dopamine receptor subtypes have increased BP. Intrarenal RAS and the dopaminergic system have complex interactions. The balance between both systems is essential to regulate the BP homeostasis, as alterations in the control of both can lead to hypertension.
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8
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G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 causes renal angiotensin II type 2 receptor dysfunction by increasing its phosphorylation. Clin Sci (Lond) 2022; 136:989-1003. [PMID: 35695067 PMCID: PMC9793447 DOI: 10.1042/cs20220236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Activation of the angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT2R) induces diuresis and natriuresis. Increased expression or/and activity of G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 (GRK4) or genetic variants (e.g., GRK4γ142V) cause sodium retention and hypertension. Whether GRK4 plays a role in the regulation of AT2R in the kidney remains unknown. In the present study, we found that spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) had increased AT2R phosphorylation and impaired AT2R-mediated diuretic and natriuretic effects, as compared with normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats. The regulation by GRK4 of renal AT2R phosphorylation and function was studied in human (h) GRK4γ transgenic mice. hGRK4γ142V transgenic mice had increased renal AT2R phosphorylation and impaired AT2R-mediated natriuresis, relative to hGRK4γ wild-type (WT) littermates. These were confirmed in vitro; AT2R phosphorylation was increased and AT2R-mediated inhibition of Na+-K+-ATPase activity was decreased in hGRK4γ142V, relative to hGRK4γ WT-transfected renal proximal tubule (RPT) cells. There was a direct physical interaction between renal GRK4 and AT2R that was increased in SHRs, relative to WKY rats. Ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction of renal GRK4 decreased the renal AT2R phosphorylation and restored the impaired AT2R-mediated diuresis and natriuresis in SHRs. In vitro studies showed that GRK4 siRNA reduced AT2R phosphorylation and reversed the impaired AT2R-mediated inhibition of Na+-K+-ATPase activity in SHR RPT cells. Our present study shows that GRK4, at least in part, impairs renal AT2R-mediated diuresis and natriuresis by increasing its phosphorylation; inhibition of GRK4 expression and/or activity may be a potential strategy to improve the renal function of AT2R.
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9
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Pearce A, Redfern-Nichols T, Harris M, Poyner DR, Wigglesworth M, Ladds G. Determining the Effects of Differential Expression of GRKs and β-arrestins on CLR-RAMP Agonist Bias. Front Physiol 2022; 13:840763. [PMID: 35422711 PMCID: PMC9001978 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.840763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Signalling of the calcitonin-like receptor (CLR) is multifaceted, due to its interaction with receptor activity modifying proteins (RAMPs), and three endogenous peptide agonists. Previous studies have focused on the bias of G protein signalling mediated by the receptor and receptor internalisation of the CLR-RAMP complex has been assumed to follow the same pattern as other Class B1 G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs). Here we sought to measure desensitisation of the three CLR-RAMP complexes in response to the three peptide agonists, through the measurement of β-arrestin recruitment and internalisation. We then delved further into the mechanism of desensitisation through modulation of β-arrestin activity and the expression of GPCR kinases (GRKs), a key component of homologous GPCR desensitisation. First, we have shown that CLR-RAMP1 is capable of potently recruiting β-arrestin1 and 2, subsequently undergoing rapid endocytosis, and that CLR-RAMP2 and -RAMP3 also utilise these pathways, although to a lesser extent. Following this we have shown that agonist-dependent internalisation of CLR is β-arrestin dependent, but not required for full agonism. Overexpression of GRK2-6 was then found to decrease receptor signalling, due to an agonist-independent reduction in surface expression of the CLR-RAMP complex. These results represent the first systematic analysis of the importance of β-arrestins and GRKs in CLR-RAMP signal transduction and pave the way for further investigation regarding other Class B1 GPCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Pearce
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Matthew Harris
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David R. Poyner
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Wigglesworth
- Hit Discovery, Discovery Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, London, United Kingdom
| | - Graham Ladds
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Graham Ladds,
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10
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Jordan CJ, Xi ZX. Identification of the Risk Genes Associated With Vulnerability to Addiction: Major Findings From Transgenic Animals. Front Neurosci 2022; 15:811192. [PMID: 35095405 PMCID: PMC8789752 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.811192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding risk factors for substance use disorders (SUD) can facilitate medication development for SUD treatment. While a rich literature exists discussing environmental factors that influence SUD, fewer articles have focused on genetic factors that convey vulnerability to drug use. Methods to identify SUD risk genes include Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) and transgenic approaches. GWAS have identified hundreds of gene variants or single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). However, few genes identified by GWAS have been verified by clinical or preclinical studies. In contrast, significant progress has been made in transgenic approaches to identify risk genes for SUD. In this article, we review recent progress in identifying candidate genes contributing to drug use and addiction using transgenic approaches. A central hypothesis is if a particular gene variant (e.g., resulting in reduction or deletion of a protein) is associated with increases in drug self-administration or relapse to drug seeking, this gene variant may be considered a risk factor for drug use and addiction. Accordingly, we identified several candidate genes such as those that encode dopamine D2 and D3 receptors, mGluR2, M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, and α5 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which appear to meet the risk-gene criteria when their expression is decreased. Here, we describe the role of these receptors in drug reward and addiction, and then summarize major findings from the gene-knockout mice or rats in animal models of addiction. Lastly, we briefly discuss future research directions in identifying addiction-related risk genes and in risk gene-based medication development for the treatment of addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe J. Jordan
- Division of Alcohol, Drugs and Addiction, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Chloe J. Jordan,
| | - Zheng-Xiong Xi
- Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Zheng-Xiong Xi,
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11
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Kaya AI, Perry NA, Gurevich VV, Iverson TM. Phosphorylation barcode-dependent signal bias of the dopamine D1 receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:14139-14149. [PMID: 32503917 PMCID: PMC7321966 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1918736117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Agonist-activated G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) must correctly select from hundreds of potential downstream signaling cascades and effectors. To accomplish this, GPCRs first bind to an intermediary signaling protein, such as G protein or arrestin. These intermediaries initiate signaling cascades that promote the activity of different effectors, including several protein kinases. The relative roles of G proteins versus arrestins in initiating and directing signaling is hotly debated, and it remains unclear how the correct final signaling pathway is chosen given the ready availability of protein partners. Here, we begin to deconvolute the process of signal bias from the dopamine D1 receptor (D1R) by exploring factors that promote the activation of ERK1/2 or Src, the kinases that lead to cell growth and proliferation. We found that ERK1/2 activation involves both arrestin and Gαs, while Src activation depends solely on arrestin. Interestingly, we found that the phosphorylation pattern influences both arrestin and Gαs coupling, suggesting an additional way the cells regulate G protein signaling. The phosphorylation sites in the D1R intracellular loop 3 are particularly important for directing the binding of G protein versus arrestin and for selecting between the activation of ERK1/2 and Src. Collectively, these studies correlate functional outcomes with a physical basis for signaling bias and provide fundamental information on how GPCR signaling is directed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali I Kaya
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Nicole A Perry
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232
| | | | - T M Iverson
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232;
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232
- Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232
- Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232
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12
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Zhao P, Furness SGB. The nature of efficacy at G protein-coupled receptors. Biochem Pharmacol 2019; 170:113647. [PMID: 31585071 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2019.113647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) participate in many pathophysiological processes as well as almost all aspects of normal physiology. They are present at the surface of all cell types making them amenable and attractive targets for pharmaceutical therapeutics. GPCRs possess complex pharmacology with the ability to be turned on to various extents, have their constitutive activity suppressed and even switch between signaling pathways to which they couple. Underlying this complex pharmacology is GPCR signaling efficacy, and differences in efficacy promoted by alternative ligands and in different tissues is of great interest to biology in general and also the pharmaceutical industry. In this review we hope to discuss what the molecular foundations of efficacy are and whether a new approach utilizing a rate-dependent model may provide new insights into this phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peishen Zhao
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
| | - Sebastian G B Furness
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
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13
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Perez de la Mora M, Hernandez-Mondragon C, Crespo-Ramirez M, Rejon-Orantes J, Borroto-Escuela DO, Fuxe K. Conventional and Novel Pharmacological Approaches to Treat Dopamine-Related Disorders: Focus on Parkinson's Disease and Schizophrenia. Neuroscience 2019; 439:301-318. [PMID: 31349007 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The dopaminergic system integrated by cell groups distributed in several brain regions exerts a modulatory role in brain. Particularly important for this task are the mesencephalic dopamine neurons, which from the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area project to the dorsal striatum and the cortical/subcortical limbic systems, respectively. Dopamine released from these neurons operates mainly via the short distance extrasynaptic volume transmission and activates five different dopaminergic receptor subtypes modulating synaptic GABA and glutamate transmission. To accomplish this task dopaminergic neurons keep mutual modulating interactions with neurons of other neurotransmitter systems, including allosteric receptor-receptor interactions in heteroreceptor complexes. As a result of its modulatory role dopaminergic mechanisms are involved in either the etiology or physiopathology of many brain diseases such as Parkinsońs disease and schizophrenia. The aim of this work is to review some novel and conventional approaches that either have been used or are currently employed to treat these diseases. Particular attention is paid to the approaches derived from the knowledge recently acquired in the realm of receptor-receptor interactions taking place through multiple dopamine heteroreceptor complexes in the plasma membrane. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Honoring Ricardo Miledi - outstanding neuroscientist of XX-XXI centuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Perez de la Mora
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | | | - Minerva Crespo-Ramirez
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - José Rejon-Orantes
- Pharmacobiology Experimental laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas
| | | | - Kjell Fuxe
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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14
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Silva AR, Grosso C, Delerue-Matos C, Rocha JM. Comprehensive review on the interaction between natural compounds and brain receptors: Benefits and toxicity. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 174:87-115. [PMID: 31029947 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Given their therapeutic activity, natural products have been used in traditional medicines throughout the centuries. The growing interest of the scientific community in phytopharmaceuticals, and more recently in marine products, has resulted in a significant number of research efforts towards understanding their effect in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's (AD), Parkinson (PD) and Huntington (HD). Several studies have shown that many of the primary and secondary metabolites of plants, marine organisms and others, have high affinities for various brain receptors and may play a crucial role in the treatment of diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS) in mammalians. Actually, such compounds may act on the brain receptors either by agonism, antagonism, allosteric modulation or other type of activity aimed at enhancing a certain effect. The current manuscript comprehensively reviews the state of the art on the interactions between natural compounds and brain receptors. This information is of foremost importance when it is intended to investigate and develop cutting-edge drugs, more effective and with alternative mechanisms of action to the conventional drugs presently used for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, we reviewed the effect of 173 natural products on neurotransmitter receptors, diabetes related receptors, neurotrophic factor related receptors, immune system related receptors, oxidative stress related receptors, transcription factors regulating gene expression related receptors and blood-brain barrier receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana R Silva
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology (CBMA), Department of Biology (DB), University of Minho (UM), Campus Gualtar, P-4710-057, Braga, Portugal
| | - Clara Grosso
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 431, P-4249-015, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Cristina Delerue-Matos
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 431, P-4249-015, Porto, Portugal
| | - João M Rocha
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology (CBMA), Department of Biology (DB), University of Minho (UM), Campus Gualtar, P-4710-057, Braga, Portugal; REQUIMTE/LAQV, Grupo de investigação de Química Orgânica Aplicada (QUINOA), Laboratório de polifenóis alimentares, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica (DQB), Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto (FCUP), Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, P-4169-007, Porto, Portugal
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15
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Gurevich VV, Gurevich EV. GPCR Signaling Regulation: The Role of GRKs and Arrestins. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:125. [PMID: 30837883 PMCID: PMC6389790 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 330] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Every animal species expresses hundreds of different G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that respond to a wide variety of external stimuli. GPCRs-driven signaling pathways are involved in pretty much every physiological function and in many pathologies. Therefore, GPCRs are targeted by about a third of clinically used drugs. The signaling of most GPCRs via G proteins is terminated by the phosphorylation of active receptor by specific kinases (GPCR kinases, or GRKs) and subsequent binding of arrestin proteins, that selectively recognize active phosphorylated receptors. In addition, GRKs and arrestins play a role in multiple signaling pathways in the cell, both GPCR-initiated and receptor-independent. Here we focus on the mechanisms of GRK- and arrestin-mediated regulation of GPCR signaling, which includes homologous desensitization and redirection of signaling to additional pathways by bound arrestins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vsevolod V Gurevich
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Eugenia V Gurevich
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
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16
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Sun D, Chen K, Wang J, Zhou L, Zeng C. In-utero cold stress causes elevation of blood pressure via impaired vascular dopamine D1 receptor in offspring. Clin Exp Hypertens 2019; 42:99-104. [PMID: 30698033 DOI: 10.1080/10641963.2019.1571603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dongdong Sun
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Ken Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Department of Cardiology, Chengdu Military General Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Jialiang Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Lin Zhou
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Chunyu Zeng
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, P.R. China
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17
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Cunningham MR, Aungraheeta R, Mundell SJ. Pathophysiological consequences of receptor mistraffic: Tales from the platelet P2Y 12 receptor. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017; 449:74-81. [PMID: 28212842 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 02/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Genetic variations in G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) genes can disrupt receptor function in a wide variety of human genetic diseases, including platelet bleeding disorders. Platelets are critical for haemostasis with inappropriate platelet activation leading to the development of arterial thrombosis, which can result in heart attack and stroke whilst decreased platelet activity is associated with an increased risk of bleeding. GPCRs expressed on the surface of platelets play key roles in regulating platelet activity and therefore function. Receptors include purinergic receptors (P2Y1 and P2Y12), proteinase-activated receptor (PAR1 and PAR4) and thromboxane receptors (TPα), among others. Pharmacological blockade of these receptors forms a powerful therapeutic tool in the treatment and prevention of arterial thrombosis. With the advance of genomic technologies, there has been a substantial increase in the identification of naturally occurring rare and common GPCR variants. These variants include single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and insertion or deletions that have the potential to alter GPCR expression or function. A number of defects in platelet GPCRs that disrupt receptor function have now been characterized in patients with mild bleeding disorders. This review will focus on rare, function-disrupting variants of platelet GPCRs with particular emphasis upon mutations in the P2Y12 receptor gene that affect receptor traffic to modulate platelet function. Further this review will outline how the identification and characterization of function-disrupting GPCR mutations provides an essential link in translating our detailed understanding of receptor traffic and function in cell line studies into relevant human biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret R Cunningham
- Strathclyde Institute for Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences (SIPBS), University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Riyaad Aungraheeta
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Stuart J Mundell
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
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18
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Okamoto Y, Shikano S. Differential phosphorylation signals control endocytosis of GPR15. Mol Biol Cell 2017; 28:2267-2281. [PMID: 28615320 PMCID: PMC5555655 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e16-09-0627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Revised: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
GPR15 undergoes a ligand-independent endocytosis, which requires phosphorylation of a distal C-terminal Ser-357 mediated by multiple basophilic kinases. The functional role of Ser-357 in endocytosis is distinct from that of a conserved Ser/Thr cluster, which is more responsible for the use of GRKs and β-arrestin. GPR15 is an orphan G protein–coupled receptor (GPCR) that serves for an HIV coreceptor and was also recently found as a novel homing receptor for T-cells implicated in colitis. We show that GPR15 undergoes a constitutive endocytosis in the absence of ligand. The endocytosis was clathrin dependent and partially dependent on β-arrestin in HEK293 cells, and nearly half of the internalized GPR15 receptors were recycled to the plasma membrane. An Ala mutation of the distal C-terminal Arg-354 or Ser-357, which forms a consensus phosphorylation site for basophilic kinases, markedly reduced the endocytosis, whereas phosphomimetic mutation of Ser-357 to Asp did not. Ser-357 was phosphorylated in vitro by multiple kinases, including PKA and PKC, and pharmacological activation of these kinases enhanced both phosphorylation of Ser-357 and endocytosis of GPR15. These results suggested that Ser-357 phosphorylation critically controls the ligand-independent endocytosis of GPR15. The functional role of Ser-357 in endocytosis was distinct from that of a conserved Ser/Thr cluster in the more proximal C-terminus, which was responsible for the β-arrestin– and GPCR kinase–dependent endocytosis of GPR15. Thus phosphorylation signals may differentially control cell surface density of GPR15 through endocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukari Okamoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607-7170
| | - Sojin Shikano
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607-7170
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19
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Yang Z, Yang F, Zhang D, Liu Z, Lin A, Liu C, Xiao P, Yu X, Sun JP. Phosphorylation of G Protein-Coupled Receptors: From the Barcode Hypothesis to the Flute Model. Mol Pharmacol 2017; 92:201-210. [DOI: 10.1124/mol.116.107839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
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20
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Gurevich EV, Gainetdinov RR, Gurevich VV. G protein-coupled receptor kinases as regulators of dopamine receptor functions. Pharmacol Res 2016; 111:1-16. [PMID: 27178731 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Revised: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Actions of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain are mediated by dopamine receptors that belong to the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Mammals have five dopamine receptor subtypes, D1 through D5. D1 and D5 couple to Gs/olf and activate adenylyl cyclase, whereas D2, D3, and D4 couple to Gi/o and inhibit it. Most GPCRs upon activation by an agonist are phosphorylated by GPCR kinases (GRKs). The GRK phosphorylation makes receptors high-affinity binding partners for arrestin proteins. Arrestin binding to active phosphorylated receptors stops further G protein activation and promotes receptor internalization, recycling or degradation, thereby regulating their signaling and trafficking. Four non- visual GRKs are expressed in striatal neurons. Here we describe known effects of individual GRKs on dopamine receptors in cell culture and in the two in vivo models of dopamine-mediated signaling: behavioral response to psychostimulants and L-DOPA- induced dyskinesia. Dyskinesia, associated with dopamine super-sensitivity of striatal neurons, is a debilitating side effect of L-DOPA therapy in Parkinson's disease. In vivo, GRK subtypes show greater receptor specificity than in vitro or in cultured cells. Overexpression, knockdown, and knockout of individual GRKs, particularly GRK2 and GRK6, have differential effects on signaling of dopamine receptor subtypes in the brain. Furthermore, deletion of GRK isoforms in select striatal neuronal types differentially affects psychostimulant-induced behaviors. In addition, anti-dyskinetic effect of GRK3 does not require its kinase activity: it is mediated by the binding of its RGS-like domain to Gαq/11, which suppresses Gq/11 signaling. The data demonstrate that the dopamine signaling in defined neuronal types in vivo is regulated by specific and finely orchestrated actions of GRK isoforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia V Gurevich
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37221, USA.
| | - Raul R Gainetdinov
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, 199034, Russia; Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Skolkovo, 143025, Moscow, Russia
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21
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Gurevich EV, Gainetdinov RR, Gurevich VV. Regulation of Dopamine-Dependent Behaviors by G Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinases. METHODS IN PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3798-1_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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22
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“Barcode” and Differential Effects of GPCR Phosphorylation by Different GRKs. METHODS IN PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3798-1_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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23
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Inagaki S, Ghirlando R, Vishnivetskiy SA, Homan KT, White JF, Tesmer JJG, Gurevich VV, Grisshammer R. G Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase 2 (GRK2) and 5 (GRK5) Exhibit Selective Phosphorylation of the Neurotensin Receptor in Vitro. Biochemistry 2015; 54:4320-9. [PMID: 26120872 PMCID: PMC4512254 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.5b00285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
![]()
G protein-coupled
receptor kinases (GRKs) play an important role
in the desensitization of G protein-mediated signaling of G protein-coupled
receptors (GPCRs). The level of interest in mapping their phosphorylation
sites has increased because recent studies suggest that the differential
pattern of receptor phosphorylation has distinct biological consequences. In vitro phosphorylation experiments using well-controlled
systems are useful for deciphering the complexity of these physiological
reactions and understanding the targeted event. Here, we report on
the phosphorylation of the class A GPCR neurotensin receptor 1 (NTSR1)
by GRKs under defined experimental conditions afforded by nanodisc
technology. Phosphorylation of NTSR1 by GRK2 was agonist-dependent,
whereas phosphorylation by GRK5 occurred in an activation-independent
manner. In addition, the negatively charged lipids in the immediate
vicinity of NTSR1 directly affect phosphorylation by GRKs. Identification
of phosphorylation sites in agonist-activated NTSR1 revealed that
GRK2 and GRK5 target different residues located on the intracellular
receptor elements. GRK2 phosphorylates only the C-terminal Ser residues,
whereas GRK5 phosphorylates Ser and Thr residues located in intracellular
loop 3 and the C-terminus. Interestingly, phosphorylation assays using
a series of NTSR1 mutants show that GRK2 does not require acidic residues
upstream of the phospho-acceptors for site-specific phosphorylation,
in contrast to the β2-adrenergic and μ-opioid
receptors. Differential phosphorylation of GPCRs by GRKs is thought
to encode a particular signaling outcome, and our in vitro study revealed NTSR1 differential phosphorylation by GRK2 and GRK5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sayaka Inagaki
- †Membrane Protein Structure Function Unit, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, Maryland 20852, United States
| | - Rodolfo Ghirlando
- ‡Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Sergey A Vishnivetskiy
- §Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Kristoff T Homan
- ∥Departments of Pharmacology and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Jim F White
- †Membrane Protein Structure Function Unit, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, Maryland 20852, United States
| | - John J G Tesmer
- ∥Departments of Pharmacology and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Vsevolod V Gurevich
- §Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Reinhard Grisshammer
- †Membrane Protein Structure Function Unit, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, Maryland 20852, United States
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24
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Allen SJ, Parthasarathy G, Darke PL, Diehl RE, Ford RE, Hall DL, Johnson SA, Reid JC, Rickert KW, Shipman JM, Soisson SM, Zuck P, Munshi SK, Lumb KJ. Structure and Function of the Hypertension Variant A486V of G Protein-coupled Receptor Kinase 4. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:20360-73. [PMID: 26134571 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.648907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) kinases (GRKs) bind to and phosphorylate GPCRs, initiating the process of GPCR desensitization and internalization. GRK4 is implicated in the regulation of blood pressure, and three GRK4 polymorphisms (R65L, A142V, and A486V) are associated with hypertension. Here, we describe the 2.6 Å structure of human GRK4α A486V crystallized in the presence of 5'-adenylyl β,γ-imidodiphosphate. The structure of GRK4α is similar to other GRKs, although slight differences exist within the RGS homology (RH) bundle subdomain, substrate-binding site, and kinase C-tail. The RH bundle subdomain and kinase C-terminal lobe form a strikingly acidic surface, whereas the kinase N-terminal lobe and RH terminal subdomain surfaces are much more basic. In this respect, GRK4α is more similar to GRK2 than GRK6. A fully ordered kinase C-tail reveals interactions linking the C-tail with important determinants of kinase activity, including the αB helix, αD helix, and the P-loop. Autophosphorylation of wild-type GRK4α is required for full kinase activity, as indicated by a lag in phosphorylation of a peptide from the dopamine D1 receptor without ATP preincubation. In contrast, this lag is not observed in GRK4α A486V. Phosphopeptide mapping by mass spectrometry indicates an increased rate of autophosphorylation of a number of residues in GRK4α A486V relative to wild-type GRK4α, including Ser-485 in the kinase C-tail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J Allen
- From Screening and Protein Sciences, Merck Research Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania 19454 and
| | - Gopal Parthasarathy
- Structural Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, Pennsylvania 19486
| | - Paul L Darke
- From Screening and Protein Sciences, Merck Research Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania 19454 and
| | - Ronald E Diehl
- From Screening and Protein Sciences, Merck Research Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania 19454 and
| | - Rachael E Ford
- From Screening and Protein Sciences, Merck Research Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania 19454 and
| | - Dawn L Hall
- From Screening and Protein Sciences, Merck Research Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania 19454 and
| | - Scott A Johnson
- Structural Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, Pennsylvania 19486
| | - John C Reid
- Structural Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, Pennsylvania 19486
| | - Keith W Rickert
- From Screening and Protein Sciences, Merck Research Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania 19454 and
| | - Jennifer M Shipman
- From Screening and Protein Sciences, Merck Research Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania 19454 and
| | - Stephen M Soisson
- Structural Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, Pennsylvania 19486
| | - Paul Zuck
- From Screening and Protein Sciences, Merck Research Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania 19454 and
| | - Sanjeev K Munshi
- From Screening and Protein Sciences, Merck Research Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania 19454 and
| | - Kevin J Lumb
- From Screening and Protein Sciences, Merck Research Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania 19454 and
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25
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Li F, Yang J, Jones JE, Villar VAM, Yu P, Armando I, Felder RA, Jose PA. Sorting nexin 5 and dopamine d1 receptor regulate the expression of the insulin receptor in human renal proximal tubule cells. Endocrinology 2015; 156:2211-21. [PMID: 25825816 PMCID: PMC4430625 DOI: 10.1210/en.2014-1638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Sorting nexin 5 (SNX5) belongs to the SNX family, which is composed of a diverse group of proteins that mediate trafficking of plasma membrane proteins, receptors, and transporters. SNX5 is important in the resensitization of the dopamine D1-like receptor (D1R). D1R is uncoupled from its effector proteins in hypertension and diabetes, and treatment of diabetes restores D1R function and insulin receptor (IR) expression. We tested the hypothesis that the D1R and SNX5 regulate IR by studying the expression, distribution, dynamics, and functional consequences of their interaction in human renal proximal tubule cells (hRPTCs). D1R, SNX5, and IR were expressed and colocalized in the brush border of RPTs. Insulin promoted the colocalization of SNX5 and IR at the perinuclear area of hRPTCs. Unlike SNX5, the D1R colocalized and coimmunoprecipitated with IR, and this interaction was enhanced by insulin. To evaluate the role of SNX5 and D1R on IR signaling, we silenced via RNA interference the endogenous expression of SNX5 or the D1R gene DRD1 in hRPTCs. We observed a decrease in IR expression and abundance of phosphorylated IR substrate and phosphorylated protein kinase B, which are crucial components of the IR signal transduction pathway. Our data indicate that SNX5 and D1R are necessary for normal IR expression and activity. It is conceivable that D1R and SNX5 may interact to increase the sensitivity to insulin via a positive regulation of IR and insulin signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengmin Li
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics (F.L., P.A.J.), Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20057; Liver Disease Branch (F.L.), National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; Department of Nutrition (J.Y.), Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, People's Republic of China; Division of Nephrology (J.Y.J.E.J., V.A.M.V., P.Y., I.A., P.A.J.), Department of Medicine, and Department of Physiology (P.A.J.), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201; and University of Virginia Health Sciences Center (R.A.F.), Charlottesville, Virginia 22908
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26
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Yang J, Villar VAM, Jones JE, Jose PA, Zeng C. G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4: role in hypertension. Hypertension 2015; 65:1148-55. [PMID: 25870190 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.115.05189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2015] [Accepted: 03/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Yang
- From the Departments of Cardiology (J.Y., C.Z.) and Nutrition (J.Y.), Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; and Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine (V.A.M.V., J.E.J., P.A.J.) and Department of Physiology (P.A.J.), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore
| | - Van Anthony M Villar
- From the Departments of Cardiology (J.Y., C.Z.) and Nutrition (J.Y.), Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; and Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine (V.A.M.V., J.E.J., P.A.J.) and Department of Physiology (P.A.J.), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore
| | - John E Jones
- From the Departments of Cardiology (J.Y., C.Z.) and Nutrition (J.Y.), Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; and Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine (V.A.M.V., J.E.J., P.A.J.) and Department of Physiology (P.A.J.), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore
| | - Pedro A Jose
- From the Departments of Cardiology (J.Y., C.Z.) and Nutrition (J.Y.), Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; and Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine (V.A.M.V., J.E.J., P.A.J.) and Department of Physiology (P.A.J.), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore
| | - Chunyu Zeng
- From the Departments of Cardiology (J.Y., C.Z.) and Nutrition (J.Y.), Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China; and Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine (V.A.M.V., J.E.J., P.A.J.) and Department of Physiology (P.A.J.), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore.
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Sato PY, Chuprun JK, Schwartz M, Koch WJ. The evolving impact of g protein-coupled receptor kinases in cardiac health and disease. Physiol Rev 2015; 95:377-404. [PMID: 25834229 PMCID: PMC4551214 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00015.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are important regulators of various cellular functions via activation of intracellular signaling events. Active GPCR signaling is shut down by GPCR kinases (GRKs) and subsequent β-arrestin-mediated mechanisms including phosphorylation, internalization, and either receptor degradation or resensitization. The seven-member GRK family varies in their structural composition, cellular localization, function, and mechanism of action (see sect. II). Here, we focus our attention on GRKs in particular canonical and novel roles of the GRKs found in the cardiovascular system (see sects. III and IV). Paramount to overall cardiac function is GPCR-mediated signaling provided by the adrenergic system. Overstimulation of the adrenergic system has been highly implicated in various etiologies of cardiovascular disease including hypertension and heart failure. GRKs acting downstream of heightened adrenergic signaling appear to be key players in cardiac homeostasis and disease progression, and herein we review the current data on GRKs related to cardiac disease and discuss their potential in the development of novel therapeutic strategies in cardiac diseases including heart failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila Y Sato
- Center for Translational Medicine and Department of Pharmacology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, South Korea
| | - J Kurt Chuprun
- Center for Translational Medicine and Department of Pharmacology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, South Korea
| | - Mathew Schwartz
- Center for Translational Medicine and Department of Pharmacology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, South Korea
| | - Walter J Koch
- Center for Translational Medicine and Department of Pharmacology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Advanced Institutes of Convergence Technology, Suwon, South Korea
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Li L, Homan KT, Vishnivetskiy SA, Manglik A, Tesmer JJG, Gurevich VV, Gurevich EV. G Protein-coupled Receptor Kinases of the GRK4 Protein Subfamily Phosphorylate Inactive G Protein-coupled Receptors (GPCRs). J Biol Chem 2015; 290:10775-90. [PMID: 25770216 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.644773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) kinases (GRKs) play a key role in homologous desensitization of GPCRs. It is widely assumed that most GRKs selectively phosphorylate only active GPCRs. Here, we show that although this seems to be the case for the GRK2/3 subfamily, GRK5/6 effectively phosphorylate inactive forms of several GPCRs, including β2-adrenergic and M2 muscarinic receptors, which are commonly used as representative models for GPCRs. Agonist-independent GPCR phosphorylation cannot be explained by constitutive activity of the receptor or membrane association of the GRK, suggesting that it is an inherent ability of GRK5/6. Importantly, phosphorylation of the inactive β2-adrenergic receptor enhanced its interactions with arrestins. Arrestin-3 was able to discriminate between phosphorylation of the same receptor by GRK2 and GRK5, demonstrating preference for the latter. Arrestin recruitment to inactive phosphorylated GPCRs suggests that not only agonist activation but also the complement of GRKs in the cell regulate formation of the arrestin-receptor complex and thereby G protein-independent signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingyong Li
- From the Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Kristoff T Homan
- the Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2216, and
| | | | - Aashish Manglik
- the Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305
| | - John J G Tesmer
- the Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2216, and
| | - Vsevolod V Gurevich
- From the Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Eugenia V Gurevich
- From the Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232,
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Wang X, Luo H, Chen C, Chen K, Wang J, Cai Y, Zheng S, Yang X, Zhou L, Jose PA, Zeng C. Prenatal lipopolysaccharide exposure results in dysfunction of the renal dopamine D1 receptor in offspring. Free Radic Biol Med 2014; 76:242-50. [PMID: 25236748 PMCID: PMC6873924 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2014] [Revised: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Adverse environment in early life can modulate the adult phenotype, including blood pressure. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) exposure in utero results in increased blood pressure in the offspring, but the exact mechanisms are not clear. Studies have shown that the renal dopamine D1 receptor (D1R) plays an important role in maintaining sodium homeostasis and normal blood pressure; dysfunction of D1R is associated with oxidative stress and hypertension. In this study, we determined if dysfunction of the renal D1R is involved in fetal-programmed hypertension, and if oxidative stress contributes to this process. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were intraperitoneally injected with LPS (0.79 mg/kg) or saline at gestation days 8, 10, and 12. As compared with saline-injected (control) dams, offspring of LPS-treated dams had increased blood pressure, decreased renal sodium excretion, and increased markers of oxidative stress. In addition, offspring of LPS-treated dams had decreased renal D1R expression, increased D1R phosphorylation, and G protein-coupled receptor kinase type 2 (GRK2) and type 4 (GRK4) protein expression, and impaired D1R-mediated natriuresis and diuresis. All of the findings in the offspring of LPS-treated dams were normalized after treatment with TEMPOL, an oxygen free radical scavenger. In conclusion, prenatal LPS exposure, via an increase in oxidative stress, impairs renal D1R function and leads to hypertension in the offspring. Normalization of renal D1R function by amelioration of oxidative stress may be a therapeutic target of fetal programming of hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinquan Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, People's Republic of China; Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Luo
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, People's Republic of China; Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Caiyu Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, People's Republic of China; Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Ken Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, People's Republic of China; Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jialiang Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, People's Republic of China; Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Cai
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, People's Republic of China; Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuo Zheng
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, People's Republic of China; Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoli Yang
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, People's Republic of China; Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Lin Zhou
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, People's Republic of China; Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, People's Republic of China.
| | - Pedro A Jose
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Chunyu Zeng
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, People's Republic of China; Chongqing Institute of Cardiology, Chongqing, People's Republic of China.
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Roosterman D. Agonist-dependent and -independent dopamine-1-like receptor signalling differentially regulates downstream effectors. FEBS J 2014; 281:4792-804. [PMID: 25154512 DOI: 10.1111/febs.13018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2013] [Revised: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 08/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
De-regulation of energy metabolism by the dopaminergic system is linked to neurological diseases such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Inverse agonists are thought to be more beneficial in treating neurological diseases than neutral antagonists, but only limited experimental data are available regarding the impact of constitutive signalling on energy metabolism. The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of constitutive dopamine-1 receptor (D1R) and dopamine-5 receptor (D5R) signalling on downstream targets in transiently and stably transfected HEK293T cells. The high constitutive activity of D5R was accompanied by increased Na(+)/H(+) exchanger (NHE) activity and accelerated glucose degradation due to increased transcription and translation of the Na, K-ATPase-α3 and NHE-2. Chronic treatment with an agonist increased the mRNA levels of the α2 Na,K-ATPase, NHE-2 and NHE-3. Constitutive D5R activation of a cAMP response element-based reporter was regulated by G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2, but this did not affect the cell-surface abundance of the receptor. Our data suggest that constitutive and agonist-induced activity of D5R differentially regulates the activity and expression of proteins.
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Arnaldo FB, Villar VAM, Konkalmatt PR, Owens SA, Asico LD, Jones JE, Yang J, Lovett DL, Armando I, Jose PA, Concepcion GP. D1-like dopamine receptors downregulate Na+-K+-ATPase activity and increase cAMP production in the posterior gills of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2014; 307:R634-42. [PMID: 25080496 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00555.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Dopamine-mediated regulation of Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase activity in the posterior gills of some crustaceans has been reported to be involved in osmoregulation. The dopamine receptors of invertebrates are classified into three groups based on their structure and pharmacology: D1- and D2-like receptors and a distinct invertebrate receptor subtype (INDR). We tested the hypothesis that a D1-like receptor is expressed in the blue crab Callinectes sapidus and regulates Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase activity. RT-PCR, using degenerate primers, showed the presence of D1βR mRNA in the posterior gill. The blue crab posterior gills showed positive immunostaining for a dopamine D5 receptor (D5R or D1βR) antibody in the basolateral membrane and cytoplasm. Confocal microscopy showed colocalization of Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase and D1βR in the basolateral membrane. To determine the effect of D1-like receptor stimulation on Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase activity, intact crabs acclimated to low salinity for 6 days were given an intracardiac infusion of the D1-like receptor agonist fenoldopam, with or without the D1-like receptor antagonist SCH23390. Fenoldopam increased cAMP production twofold and decreased Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase activity by 50% in the posterior gills. This effect was blocked by coinfusion with SCH23390, which had no effect on Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase activity by itself. Fenoldopam minimally decreased D1βR protein expression (10%) but did not affect Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase α-subunit protein expression. This study shows the presence of functional D1βR in the posterior gills of euryhaline crabs chronically exposed to low salinity and highlights the evolutionarily conserved function of the dopamine receptors on sodium homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francis B Arnaldo
- The Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines; Department of Pediatrics, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Van Anthony M Villar
- Department of Pediatrics, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, District of Columbia; Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Prasad R Konkalmatt
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Shaun A Owens
- Department of Pediatrics, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Laureano D Asico
- Department of Pediatrics, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, District of Columbia; Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - John E Jones
- Department of Pediatrics, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, District of Columbia; Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Jian Yang
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Donald L Lovett
- Department of Biology, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, New Jersey; and
| | - Ines Armando
- Department of Pediatrics, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, District of Columbia; Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Pedro A Jose
- Department of Pediatrics, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, District of Columbia; Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Gisela P Concepcion
- The Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
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G protein-coupled receptor accessory proteins and signaling: pharmacogenomic insights. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1175:121-52. [PMID: 25150869 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0956-8_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The identification and characterization of the genes encoding G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and the proteins necessary for the processes of ligand binding, GPCR activation, inactivation, and receptor trafficking to the membrane are discussed in the context of human genetic disease. In addition to functional GPCR variants, the identification of genetic disruptions affecting proteins necessary to GPCR functions have provided insights into the function of these pathways. Gsα and Gβ subunit polymorphisms have been found to result in complex phenotypes. Disruptions in accessory proteins that normally modify or organize heterotrimeric G-protein coupling may also result in disease states. These include the contribution of variants of the regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) protein to hypertension; the role variants of the activator of G protein signaling (AGS) proteins to phenotypes (such as the type III AGS8 variant to hypoxia); the contribution of G protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK) proteins, such as GRK4, in disorders such as hypertension. The role of accessory proteins in GPCR structure and function is discussed in the context of genetic disorders associated with disruption of the genes that encode them. An understanding of the pharmacogenomics of GPCR and accessory protein signaling provides the basis for examining both GPCR pharmacogenetics and the genetics of monogenic disorders that result from disruption of given receptor systems.
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33
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Zhang B, Albaker A, Plouffe B, Lefebvre C, Tiberi M. Constitutive activities and inverse agonism in dopamine receptors. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2014; 70:175-214. [PMID: 24931197 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-417197-8.00007-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The concept of activation in the absence of agonists has been demonstrated for many GPCRs and is now solidified as one of the principal aspects of GPCR signaling. In this chapter, we review how dopamine receptors demonstrate this ability. Although difficult to prove in vivo due to the presence of endogenous dopamine and lack of subtype-selective inverse agonists and "pure" antagonists (neutral ligands), in vitro assays such as measuring intracellular cAMP, [(35)S]GTPγS binding, and [(3)H]thymidine incorporation have uncovered the constitutive activation of D1- and D2-class receptors. Nevertheless, because of limited and inconsistent findings, the existence of constitutive activity for D2-class receptors is currently not well established. Mutagenesis studies have shown that basal signaling, notably by D1-class receptors, is governed by the collective contributions of transmembrane domains and extracellular/intracellular loops, such as the third extracellular loop, the third intracellular loop, and C-terminal tail. Furthermore, constitutive activities of D1-class receptors are subjected to regulation by kinases. Among the dopamine receptor family, the D5 receptor subtype exhibits a higher basal signaling and bears resemblance to constitutively active mutant forms of GPCRs. The presence of its constitutive activity in vivo and its pathophysiological relevance, with a brief mention of other subtypes, are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyang Zhang
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute (Neuroscience Program), Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Departments of Medicine, Cellular & Molecular Medicine, Psychiatry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Awatif Albaker
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute (Neuroscience Program), Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Departments of Medicine, Cellular & Molecular Medicine, Psychiatry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Bianca Plouffe
- Department of Biochemistry, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada; Institut de recherche en immunologie, cancer, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Caroline Lefebvre
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute (Neuroscience Program), Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Departments of Medicine, Cellular & Molecular Medicine, Psychiatry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mario Tiberi
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute (Neuroscience Program), Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Departments of Medicine, Cellular & Molecular Medicine, Psychiatry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
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Chen K, Fu C, Chen C, Liu L, Ren H, Han Y, Yang J, He D, Zhou L, Yang Z, Zhang L, Jose PA, Zeng C. Role of GRK4 in the regulation of arterial AT1 receptor in hypertension. Hypertension 2013; 63:289-96. [PMID: 24218433 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.113.01766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 (GRK4) gene variants, via impairment of renal dopamine receptor and enhancement of renin-angiotensin system functions, cause sodium retention and increase blood pressure. Whether GRK4 and the angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT(1)R) interact in the aorta is not known. We report that GRK4 is expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells of the aorta. Heterologous expression of the GRK4γ variant 142V in A10 cells increased AT(1)R protein expression and AT(1)R-mediated increase in intracellular calcium concentration. The increase in AT(1)R expression was related to an increase in AT(1)R mRNA expression via the NF-κB pathway. As compared with control, cells expressing GRK4γ 142V had greater NF-κB activity with more NF-κB bound to the AT(1)R promoter. The increased AT(1)R expression in cells expressing GRK4γ 142V was also associated with decreased AT(1)R degradation, which may be ascribed to lower AT(1)R phosphorylation. There was a direct interaction between GRK4γ and AT(1)R that was decreased by GRK4γ 142V. The regulation of AT(1)R expression by GRK4γ 142V in A10 cells was confirmed in GRK4γ 142V transgenic mice; AT(1)R expression was higher in the aorta of GRK4γ 142V transgenic mice than control GRK4γ wild-type mice. Angiotensin II-mediated vasoconstriction of the aorta was also higher in GRK4γ 142V than in wild-type transgenic mice. This study provides a mechanism by which GRK4, via regulation of arterial AT(1)R expression and function, participates in the pathogenesis of conduit vessel abnormalities in hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, PR China.
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35
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Gildea JJ, Tran HT, Van Sciver RE, Bigler Wang D, Carlson JM, Felder RA. A novel role for c-Myc in G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 (GRK4) transcriptional regulation in human kidney proximal tubule cells. Hypertension 2013; 61:1021-7. [PMID: 23509080 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.111.00321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 (GRK4) negatively regulates the dopaminergic system by desensitizing the dopamine-1-receptor. The expressional control of GRK4 has not been reported, but here we show that the transcription factor c-Myc binds to the promoter of GRK4 and positively regulates GRK4 protein expression in human renal proximal tubule cells (RPTCs). Addition of phorbol esters to RPTCs not only increased c-Myc binding to the GRK4 promoter but also increased both phospho-c-Myc and GRK4 expression. The phorbol ester-mediated increase in GRK4 expression was completely blocked by the c-Myc inhibitor, 10074-G5, indicating that GRK4 is downstream of phospho-c-Myc. The autocrine production of angiotensin II (Ang II) in RPTCs increased the phosphorylation and activation of c-Myc and subsequently GRK4 expression. 3-Amino-4-thio-butyl sulfonate, an inhibitor of aminopeptidase A, increased RPTC secretion of Ang II. 3-Amino-4-thio-butyl sulfonate or Ang II increased the expression of both phospho-c-Myc and GRK4, which was blocked by 10074-G5. Blockade of the Ang II type 1 receptor with losartan decreased phospho-c-Myc and GRK4 expression. Both inhibition of c-Myc activity and blockade of Ang II type 1 receptor restored the coupling of dopamine-1-receptor to adenylyl cyclase stimulation in uncoupled RPTCs, whereas phorbol esters or Ang II caused the uncoupling of normally coupled RPTCs. We suggest that the Ang II type 1 receptor impairs dopamine-1-receptor function via c-Myc activation of GRK4. This novel pathway may be involved in the increase in blood pressure in hypertension that is mediated by increased activity of the renin-angiotensin system and decreased activity of the renal dopaminergic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Gildea
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
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Villar VAM, Armando I, Sanada H, Frazer LC, Russo CM, Notario PM, Lee H, Comisky L, Russell HA, Yang Y, Jurgens JA, Jose PA, Jones JE. Novel role of sorting nexin 5 in renal D(1) dopamine receptor trafficking and function: implications for hypertension. FASEB J 2012. [PMID: 23195037 DOI: 10.1096/fj.12-208439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The D1 dopamine receptor (D1R) is widely expressed in the kidney and plays a crucial role in blood pressure regulation. Although much is known about D1R desensitization, especially through G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 (GRK4), comparatively little is known about other aspects of D1R trafficking and the proteins involved in the process. We now report the discovery of a dynamic interaction between sorting nexin 5 (SNX5), a component of the mammalian retromer, and D1R in human renal epithelial cells. We show that internalization of agonist-activated D1R is regulated by both SNX5 and GRK4, and that SNX5 is critical to the recycling of the receptor to the plasma membrane. SNX5 depletion increases agonist-activated D1R phosphorylation (>50% at basal condition), prevents D1R internalization and cAMP response, and delays receptor recycling compared to mock siRNA-transfected controls. Moreover, renal restricted subcapsular infusion of Snx5-specific siRNA (vs. mock siRNA) decreases sodium excretion (Δ=-0.2±0.005 mEq/mg creatinine) and further elevates the systolic blood pressure (Δ=48±5 mm Hg) in spontaneously hypertensive rats, indicating that SNX5 depletion impairs renal D1R function. These studies demonstrate an essential role for SNX5 in regulating D1R function, which may have important diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic implications in the management of essential hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van Anthony M Villar
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 20 Penn St., Ste. S003C, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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37
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Wani KA, Catanese M, Normantowicz R, Herd M, Maher KN, Chase DL. D1 dopamine receptor signaling is modulated by the R7 RGS protein EAT-16 and the R7 binding protein RSBP-1 in Caenoerhabditis elegans motor neurons. PLoS One 2012; 7:e37831. [PMID: 22629462 PMCID: PMC3357403 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2012] [Accepted: 04/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Dopamine signaling modulates voluntary movement and reward-driven behaviors by acting through G protein-coupled receptors in striatal neurons, and defects in dopamine signaling underlie Parkinson's disease and drug addiction. Despite the importance of understanding how dopamine modifies the activity of striatal neurons to control basal ganglia output, the molecular mechanisms that control dopamine signaling remain largely unclear. Dopamine signaling also controls locomotion behavior in Caenorhabditis elegans. To better understand how dopamine acts in the brain we performed a large-scale dsRNA interference screen in C. elegans for genes required for endogenous dopamine signaling and identified six genes (eat-16, rsbp-1, unc-43, flp-1, grk-1, and cat-1) required for dopamine-mediated behavior. We then used a combination of mutant analysis and cell-specific transgenic rescue experiments to investigate the functional interaction between the proteins encoded by two of these genes, eat-16 and rsbp-1, within single cell types and to examine their role in the modulation of dopamine receptor signaling. We found that EAT-16 and RSBP-1 act together to modulate dopamine signaling and that while they are coexpressed with both D1-like and D2-like dopamine receptors, they do not modulate D2 receptor signaling. Instead, EAT-16 and RSBP-1 act together to selectively inhibit D1 dopamine receptor signaling in cholinergic motor neurons to modulate locomotion behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khursheed A. Wani
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Mary Catanese
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Robyn Normantowicz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Muriel Herd
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Kathryn N. Maher
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Daniel L. Chase
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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38
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Chugh G, Lokhandwala MF, Asghar M. Altered functioning of both renal dopamine D1 and angiotensin II type 1 receptors causes hypertension in old rats. Hypertension 2012; 59:1029-36. [PMID: 22411927 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.112.192302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Activation of renal dopamine D1 (D1R) and angiotensin II type 1 receptors (AT(1)Rs) influences the activity of proximal tubular sodium transporter Na,K-ATPase and maintains sodium homeostasis and blood pressure. We reported recently that diminished D1R and exaggerated AT(1)R functions are associated with hypertension in old Fischer 344 × Brown Norway F1 (FBN) rats, and oxidative stress plays a central role in this phenomenon. Here we studied the mechanisms of age-associated increase in oxidative stress on diminished D1R and exaggerated AT(1)R functions in the renal proximal tubules of control and antioxidant Tempol-treated adult and old FBN rats. Although D1R numbers and D1R agonist SKF38393-mediated stimulation of [(35)S]-GTPγS binding (index of D1R activation) were lower, G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 (kinase that uncouples D1R) levels were higher in old FBN rats. Tempol treatment restored D1R numbers and G protein coupling and reduced G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 levels in old FBN rats. Angiotensin II-mediated stimulation of [(35)S]-GTPγS binding and Na,K-ATPase activity were higher in old FBN rats, which were also restored with Tempol treatment. We also measured renal AT(1)R function in adult and old Fischer 344 (F344) rats, which, despite exhibiting an age-related increase in oxidative stress and diminished renal D1R function, are normotensive. We found that diuretic and natriuretic responses to candesartan (indices of AT(1)R function) were similar in F344 rats, a likely explanation for the absence of age-associated hypertension in these rats. Perhaps, alterations in both D1R (diminished) and AT(1)R (exaggerated) functions are necessary for the development of age-associated hypertension, as seen in old FBN rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav Chugh
- Heart and Kidney Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
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39
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The connection between GRKs and various signaling pathways involved in diabetic nephropathy. Mol Biol Rep 2012; 39:7717-26. [PMID: 22350265 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-012-1608-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a known microvascular complication in patients with diabetes mellitus. DN has become one of the main causes of death in diabetic patients. The occurrence and development of DN results from the comprehensive action of multi-factors, though the exact mechanism is not very clear. Recently, a study found that numerous pathways are activated during the course of the disease, including the PGE2-EP-G protein system, the renin-angiotensin system, protein kinase C, MAPK and oxidative stress, and transforming growth factor-β. G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs), specifically recognize and phosphorylate agonist-activated G protein-coupled receptors, which play a major role in the above-mentioned pathways. The purpose of this paper is to review current information concerning the connection between GRKs and various signaling pathways involved in DN.
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Gurevich EV, Tesmer JJG, Mushegian A, Gurevich VV. G protein-coupled receptor kinases: more than just kinases and not only for GPCRs. Pharmacol Ther 2011; 133:40-69. [PMID: 21903131 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2011.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 319] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2011] [Accepted: 08/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) kinases (GRKs) are best known for their role in homologous desensitization of GPCRs. GRKs phosphorylate activated receptors and promote high affinity binding of arrestins, which precludes G protein coupling. GRKs have a multidomain structure, with the kinase domain inserted into a loop of a regulator of G protein signaling homology domain. Unlike many other kinases, GRKs do not need to be phosphorylated in their activation loop to achieve an activated state. Instead, they are directly activated by docking with active GPCRs. In this manner they are able to selectively phosphorylate Ser/Thr residues on only the activated form of the receptor, unlike related kinases such as protein kinase A. GRKs also phosphorylate a variety of non-GPCR substrates and regulate several signaling pathways via direct interactions with other proteins in a phosphorylation-independent manner. Multiple GRK subtypes are present in virtually every animal cell, with the highest expression levels found in neurons, with their extensive and complex signal regulation. Insufficient or excessive GRK activity was implicated in a variety of human disorders, ranging from heart failure to depression to Parkinson's disease. As key regulators of GPCR-dependent and -independent signaling pathways, GRKs are emerging drug targets and promising molecular tools for therapy. Targeted modulation of expression and/or of activity of several GRK isoforms for therapeutic purposes was recently validated in cardiac disorders and Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia V Gurevich
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, 2200 Pierce Avenue, Preston Research Building, Rm. 454, Nashville, TN 37232, United States.
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41
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Abstract
Dopamine is an important regulator of systemic blood pressure via multiple mechanisms. It affects fluid and electrolyte balance by its actions on renal hemodynamics and epithelial ion and water transport and by regulation of hormones and humoral agents. The kidney synthesizes dopamine from circulating or filtered L-DOPA independently from innervation. The major determinants of the renal tubular synthesis/release of dopamine are probably sodium intake and intracellular sodium. Dopamine exerts its actions via two families of cell surface receptors, D1-like receptors comprising D1R and D5R, and D2-like receptors comprising D2R, D3R, and D4R, and by interactions with other G protein-coupled receptors. D1-like receptors are linked to vasodilation, while the effect of D2-like receptors on the vasculature is variable and probably dependent upon the state of nerve activity. Dopamine secreted into the tubular lumen acts mainly via D1-like receptors in an autocrine/paracrine manner to regulate ion transport in the proximal and distal nephron. These effects are mediated mainly by tubular mechanisms and augmented by hemodynamic mechanisms. The natriuretic effect of D1-like receptors is caused by inhibition of ion transport in the apical and basolateral membranes. D2-like receptors participate in the inhibition of ion transport during conditions of euvolemia and moderate volume expansion. Dopamine also controls ion transport and blood pressure by regulating the production of reactive oxygen species and the inflammatory response. Essential hypertension is associated with abnormalities in dopamine production, receptor number, and/or posttranslational modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Armando
- Children’s National Medical Center—Center for Molecular Physiology Research, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Van Anthony M. Villar
- Children’s National Medical Center—Center for Molecular Physiology Research, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Pedro A. Jose
- Children’s National Medical Center—Center for Molecular Physiology Research, Washington, District of Columbia
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42
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Beaulieu JM, Gainetdinov RR. The physiology, signaling, and pharmacology of dopamine receptors. Pharmacol Rev 2011; 63:182-217. [PMID: 21303898 DOI: 10.1124/pr.110.002642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1784] [Impact Index Per Article: 137.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled dopamine receptors (D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5) mediate all of the physiological functions of the catecholaminergic neurotransmitter dopamine, ranging from voluntary movement and reward to hormonal regulation and hypertension. Pharmacological agents targeting dopaminergic neurotransmission have been clinically used in the management of several neurological and psychiatric disorders, including Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, Huntington's disease, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD(1)), and Tourette's syndrome. Numerous advances have occurred in understanding the general structural, biochemical, and functional properties of dopamine receptors that have led to the development of multiple pharmacologically active compounds that directly target dopamine receptors, such as antiparkinson drugs and antipsychotics. Recent progress in understanding the complex biology of dopamine receptor-related signal transduction mechanisms has revealed that, in addition to their primary action on cAMP-mediated signaling, dopamine receptors can act through diverse signaling mechanisms that involve alternative G protein coupling or through G protein-independent mechanisms via interactions with ion channels or proteins that are characteristically implicated in receptor desensitization, such as β-arrestins. One of the future directions in managing dopamine-related pathologic conditions may involve a transition from the approaches that directly affect receptor function to a precise targeting of postreceptor intracellular signaling modalities either directly or through ligand-biased signaling pharmacology. In this comprehensive review, we discuss dopamine receptor classification, their basic structural and genetic organization, their distribution and functions in the brain and the periphery, and their regulation and signal transduction mechanisms. In addition, we discuss the abnormalities of dopamine receptor expression, function, and signaling that are documented in human disorders and the current pharmacology and emerging trends in the development of novel therapeutic agents that act at dopamine receptors and/or on related signaling events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Martin Beaulieu
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval–Centre de Recherche de l'Université Laval Robert-Giffard, Québec-City, Québec, Canada
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43
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Abstract
G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 (GRK4) was originally identified in the brain and was initially thought to have a limited expression pattern and functionality; however, more recent studies have found that GRK4 is expressed in multiple tissues and cell types and that it contributes to cardiovascular disease. Additionally, human GRK4 exists as four splice variants and each variant can harbor at least three functionally relevant polymorphisms. The primary role of GRK4 is to phosphorylate G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR), which leads to desensitization of the G protein signaling mechanism while simultaneously recruiting β-arrestins and initializing the internalization of the receptor. Interestingly, GRK4 has been shown to be constitutively active in some, but not all, cases. A constitutive active GRK could lead to increased β-arrestin-mediated signaling while inhibiting traditional/canonical GPCR-mediated signaling mechanisms. Therefore, it is important to determine if GRK4 is constitutively active in a system. Measuring agonist-mediated activity of GRK4 is relatively straightforward since it inhibits second messenger signaling; however, only a few studies have directly examined the constitutive activity of GRK4 which requires techniques without an agonist. Since GRK4 has significant biological effects, identifying the mechanism underlying GRK4's constitutive activity and ligand-stimulated activity becomes increasingly important. Therefore, the methods provided here are designed to aid researchers in determining if GRK4 is expressed, and if so which GRK4 species is expressed, followed by procedures to identify if GRK4 is constitutively active in its model system. Last, procedures are explained for identifying if GRK4 is involved in its system in a nonconstitutive manner. The protocols described here are designed to be accessible to a wide range of scientists, which should allow for more laboratories to examine GRK4 constitutive activity as well as agonist-mediated activity.
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44
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Rankin ML, Sibley DR. Constitutive phosphorylation by protein kinase C regulates D1 dopamine receptor signaling. J Neurochem 2010; 115:1655-67. [PMID: 20969574 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07074.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The D(1) dopamine receptor (D(1) DAR) is robustly phosphorylated by multiple protein kinases, yet the phosphorylation sites and functional consequences of these modifications are not fully understood. Here, we report that the D(1) DAR is phosphorylated by protein kinase C (PKC) in the absence of agonist stimulation. Phosphorylation of the D(1) DAR by PKC is constitutive in nature, can be induced by phorbol ester treatment or through activation of Gq-mediated signal transduction pathways, and is abolished by PKC inhibitors. We demonstrate that most, but not all, isoforms of PKC are capable of phosphorylating the receptor. To directly assess the functional role of PKC phosphorylation of the D(1) DAR, a site-directed mutagenesis approach was used to identify the PKC sites within the receptor. Five serine residues were found to mediate the PKC phosphorylation. Replacement of these residues had no effect on D(1) DAR expression or agonist-induced desensitization; however, G protein coupling and cAMP accumulation were significantly enhanced in PKC-null D(1) DAR. Thus, constitutive or heterologous PKC phosphorylation of the D(1) DAR dampens dopamine activation of the receptor, most likely occurring in a context-specific manner, mediated by the repertoire of PKC isozymes within the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele L Rankin
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-9405, USA
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45
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Thompson D, Whistler JL. Dopamine D(3) receptors are down-regulated following heterologous endocytosis by a specific interaction with G protein-coupled receptor-associated sorting protein-1. J Biol Chem 2010; 286:1598-608. [PMID: 21030592 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.158345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The D(3) dopamine receptor is endocytosed through a heterologous mechanism mediated by phorbol esters. Here, we show that following this endocytosis the D(3) dopamine receptors fail to recycle and are instead targeted for degradation through an interaction with the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-associated sorting protein-1 (GASP-1). Furthermore, we identified a specific binding motif in the C terminus common to the D(3) and D(2) that confers GASP-1 binding. shRNA knockdown of GASP-1 delayed post-endocytic degradation of both the D(2) and D(3) dopamine receptors. In addition, mutation of the D(2) and D(3) receptor C termini to resemble the D(4), which does not interact with GASP-1, not only inhibited GASP-1 binding but slowed degradation after endocytosis. Conversely, mutation of the C terminus of the D(4) to resemble that of the D(2) and D(3) facilitated GASP-1 binding and promoted post-endocytic degradation of the mutant D(4) receptor. Thus, we have identified a motif that is both necessary and sufficient to promote GASP-1 binding and receptor degradation. In addition, these data demonstrated that GASP-1 can mediate post-endocytic degradation of dopamine receptors that have been endocytosed not only as a consequence of dopamine activation but also as a consequence of activation by phorbol esters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawn Thompson
- Ernest Gallo Clinic and Research Center, University of California, San Francisco, Emeryville, California 94608, USA
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46
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Rex EB, Rankin ML, Yang Y, Lu Q, Gerfen CR, Jose PA, Sibley DR. Identification of RanBP 9/10 as interacting partners for protein kinase C (PKC) gamma/delta and the D1 dopamine receptor: regulation of PKC-mediated receptor phosphorylation. Mol Pharmacol 2010; 78:69-80. [PMID: 20395553 DOI: 10.1124/mol.110.063727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We reported previously that ethanol treatment regulates D(1) receptor phosphorylation and signaling in a protein kinase C (PKC) delta- and PKCgamma-dependent fashion by a mechanism that may involve PKC isozyme-specific interacting proteins. Using a PKC isozyme-specific coimmunoprecipitation approach coupled to mass spectrometry, we report the identification of RanBP9 and RanBP10 as novel interacting proteins for both PKCgamma and PKCdelta. Both RanBP9 and RanBP10 were found to specifically coimmunoprecipitate with both PKCgamma and PKCdelta; however, this association did not seem to mediate the ethanol regulation of the PKCs. It is noteworthy that the D(1) receptor was also found to specifically coimmunoprecipitate with RanBP9/10 from human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293T cells and with endogenous RanBP9 from rat kidney. RanBP9 and RanBP10 were also found to colocalize at the cellular level with the D(1) receptor in both kidney and brain tissue. Although overexpression of RanBP9 or RanBP10 in HEK293T cells did not seem to alter the kinase activities of either PKCdelta or PKCgamma, both RanBP proteins regulated D(1) receptor phosphorylation, signaling, and, in the case of RanBP9, expression. Specifically, overexpression of either RanBP9 or RanBP10 enhanced basal D(1) receptor phosphorylation, which was associated with attenuation of D(1) receptor-stimulated cAMP accumulation. Moreover, treatment of cells with select PKC inhibitors blocked the RanBP9/10-dependent increase in basal receptor phosphorylation, suggesting that phosphorylation of the receptor by PKC is regulated by RanBP9/10. These data support the idea that RanBP9 and RanBP10 may function as signaling integrators and dictate the efficient regulation of D(1) receptor signaling by PKCdelta and PKCgamma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth B Rex
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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47
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Jose PA, Soares-da-Silva P, Eisner GM, Felder RA. Dopamine and G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 in the kidney: role in blood pressure regulation. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2010; 1802:1259-67. [PMID: 20153824 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2010.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2009] [Revised: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 02/07/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Complex interactions between genes and environment result in a sodium-induced elevation in blood pressure (salt sensitivity) and/or hypertension that lead to significant morbidity and mortality affecting up to 25% of the middle-aged adult population worldwide. Determining the etiology of genetic and/or environmentally-induced high blood pressure has been difficult because of the many interacting systems involved. Two main pathways have been implicated as principal determinants of blood pressure since they are located in the kidney (the key organ responsible for blood pressure regulation), and have profound effects on sodium balance: the dopaminergic and renin-angiotensin systems. These systems counteract or modulate each other, in concert with a host of intracellular second messenger pathways to regulate sodium and water balance. In particular, the G protein-coupled receptor kinase type 4 (GRK4) appears to play a key role in regulating dopaminergic-mediated natriuresis. Constitutively activated GRK4 gene variants (R65L, A142V, and A486V), by themselves or by their interaction with other genes involved in blood pressure regulation, are associated with essential hypertension and/or salt-sensitive hypertension in several ethnic groups. GRK4γ 142Vtransgenic mice are hypertensive on normal salt intake while GRK4γ 486V transgenic mice develop hypertension only with an increase in salt intake. GRK4 gene variants have been shown to hyperphosphorylate, desensitize, and internalize two members of the dopamine receptor family, the D(1) (D(1)R) and D(3) (D(3)R) dopamine receptors, but also increase the expression of a key receptor of the renin-angiotensin system, the angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT(1)R). Knowledge of the numerous blood pressure regulatory pathways involving angiotensin and dopamine may provide new therapeutic approaches to the pharmacological regulation of sodium excretion and ultimately blood pressure control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro A Jose
- Children's National Medical Center, George Washington University for the Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA.
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48
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Xiao MF, Xu JC, Tereshchenko Y, Novak D, Schachner M, Kleene R. Neural cell adhesion molecule modulates dopaminergic signaling and behavior by regulating dopamine D2 receptor internalization. J Neurosci 2009; 29:14752-63. [PMID: 19940170 PMCID: PMC6666007 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4860-09.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2009] [Accepted: 10/01/2009] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The dopaminergic system plays an important role in the etiology of schizophrenia, and most antipsychotic drugs exert their functions by blocking dopamine D(2) receptors (D(2)Rs). Since the signaling strength mediated by D(2)Rs is regulated by internalization and degradation processes, it is crucial to identify molecules that modulate D(2)R localization at the cell surface. Here, we show that the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) promotes D(2)R internalization/desensitization and subsequent degradation via direct interaction with a short peptide in the third intracellular loop of the D(2)R. NCAM deficiency in mice leads to increased numbers of D(2)Rs at the cell surface and augmented D(2)R signaling as a result of impaired D(2)R internalization. Furthermore, NCAM-deficient mice show higher sensitivity to the psychostimulant apomorphine and exaggerated activity of dopamine-related locomotor behavior. These results demonstrate that, in addition to its classical function in cell adhesion, NCAM is involved in regulating the trafficking of the neurotransmitter receptor D(2)R as well as receptor-mediated signaling and behavior, thus implicating NCAM as modulator of the dopaminergic system and a potential pharmacological target for dopamine-related neurological and psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Fang Xiao
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jin-Chong Xu
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Yuliya Tereshchenko
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Daniel Novak
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Melitta Schachner
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany
- Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience and Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, and
- Center for Neuroscience, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China
| | - Ralf Kleene
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany
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49
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Villar VAM, Jones JE, Armando I, Palmes-Saloma C, Yu P, Pascua AM, Keever L, Arnaldo FB, Wang Z, Luo Y, Felder RA, Jose PA. G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 (GRK4) regulates the phosphorylation and function of the dopamine D3 receptor. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:21425-34. [PMID: 19520868 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.003665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
During conditions of moderate sodium excess, the dopaminergic system regulates blood pressure and water and electrolyte balance by engendering natriuresis. Dopamine exerts its effects on dopamine receptors, including the dopamine D(3) receptor. G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 (GRK4), whose gene locus (4p16.3) is linked to essential hypertension, desensitizes the D(1) receptor, another dopamine receptor. This study evaluated the role of GRK4 on D(3) receptor function in human proximal tubule cells. D(3) receptor co-segregated in lipid rafts and co-immunoprecipitated and co-localized in human proximal tubule cells and in proximal and distal tubules and glomeruli of kidneys of Wistar Kyoto rats. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation and confocal microscopy revealed that agonist activation of the receptor initiated the interaction between D(3) receptor and GRK4 at the cell membrane and promoted it intracellularly, presumably en route to endosomal trafficking. Of the four GRK4 splice variants, GRK4-gamma and GRK4-alpha mediated a 3- and 2-fold increase in the phosphorylation of agonist-activated D(3) receptor, respectively. Inhibition of GRK activity with heparin or knockdown of GRK4 expression via RNA interference completely abolished p44/42 phosphorylation and mitogenesis induced by D(3) receptor stimulation. These data demonstrate that GRK4, specifically the GRK4-gamma and GRK4-alpha isoforms, phosphorylates the D(3) receptor and is crucial for its signaling in human proximal tubule cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van Anthony M Villar
- National Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines.
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Namkung Y, Dipace C, Javitch JA, Sibley DR. G protein-coupled receptor kinase-mediated phosphorylation regulates post-endocytic trafficking of the D2 dopamine receptor. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:15038-51. [PMID: 19332542 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m900388200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the role of G protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK)-mediated phosphorylation in agonist-induced desensitization, arrestin association, endocytosis, and intracellular trafficking of the D(2) dopamine receptor (DAR). Agonist activation of D(2) DARs results in rapid and sustained receptor phosphorylation that is solely mediated by GRKs. A survey of GRKs revealed that only GRK2 or GRK3 promotes D(2) DAR phosphorylation. Mutational analyses resulted in the identification of eight serine/threonine residues within the third cytoplasmic loop of the receptor that are phosphorylated by GRK2/3. Simultaneous mutation of these eight residues results in a receptor construct, GRK(-), that is completely devoid of agonist-promoted GRK-mediated receptor phosphorylation. We found that both wild-type (WT) and GRK(-) receptors underwent a similar degree of agonist-induced desensitization as assessed using [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding assays. Similarly, both receptor constructs internalized to the same extent in response to agonist treatment. Furthermore, using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer assays to directly assess receptor association with arrestin3, we found no differences between the WT and GRK(-) receptors. Thus, phosphorylation is not required for arrestin-receptor association or agonist-induced desensitization or internalization. In contrast, when we examined recycling of the D(2) DARs to the cell surface, subsequent to agonist-induced endocytosis, the GRK(-) construct exhibited less recycling in comparison with the WT receptor. This impairment appears to be due to a greater propensity of the GRK(-) receptors to down-regulate once internalized. In contrast, if the receptor is highly phosphorylated, then receptor recycling is promoted. These results reveal a novel role for GRK-mediated phosphorylation in regulating the post-endocytic trafficking of a G protein-coupled receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoon Namkung
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Section, NINDS, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-9405, USA
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