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Krishna Kumar K, Wang H, Habrian C, Latorraca NR, Xu J, O'Brien ES, Zhang C, Montabana E, Koehl A, Marqusee S, Isacoff EY, Kobilka BK. Stepwise activation of a metabotropic glutamate receptor. Nature 2024; 629:951-956. [PMID: 38632403 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07327-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Metabotropic glutamate receptors belong to a family of G protein-coupled receptors that are obligate dimers and possess a large extracellular ligand-binding domain that is linked via a cysteine-rich domain to their 7-transmembrane domain1. Upon activation, these receptors undergo a large conformational change to transmit the ligand binding signal from the extracellular ligand-binding domain to the G protein-coupling 7-transmembrane domain2. In this manuscript, we propose a model for a sequential, multistep activation mechanism of metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5. We present a series of structures in lipid nanodiscs, from inactive to fully active, including agonist-bound intermediate states. Further, using bulk and single-molecule fluorescence imaging, we reveal distinct receptor conformations upon allosteric modulator and G protein binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaavya Krishna Kumar
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Haoqing Wang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Sarafan ChEM-H, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Chris Habrian
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Naomi R Latorraca
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Jun Xu
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Evan S O'Brien
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Chensong Zhang
- Division of CryoEM and Bioimaging, Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, USA
| | - Elizabeth Montabana
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Antoine Koehl
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Susan Marqusee
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- QB3 Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Ehud Y Isacoff
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Brian K Kobilka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
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2
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Dupont AC, Arlicot N, Vercouillie J, Serrière S, Maia S, Bonnet-Brilhault F, Santiago-Ribeiro MJ. Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor Subtype 5 Positron-Emission-Tomography Radioligands as a Tool for Central Nervous System Drug Development: Between Progress and Setbacks. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1127. [PMID: 37631042 PMCID: PMC10458693 DOI: 10.3390/ph16081127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGluR5) is a class C G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that has been implicated in various neuronal processes and, consequently, in several neuropsychiatric or neurodevelopmental disorders. Over the past few decades, mGluR5 has become a major focus for pharmaceutical companies, as an attractive target for drug development, particularly through the therapeutic potential of its modulators. In particular, allosteric binding sites have been targeted for better specificity and efficacy. In this context, Positron Emission Tomography (PET) appears as a useful tool for making decisions along a drug candidate's development process, saving time and money. Thus, PET provides quantitative information about a potential drug candidate and its target at the molecular level. However, in this area, particular attention has to be given to the interpretation of the PET signal and its conclusions. Indeed, the complex pharmacology of both mGluR5 and radioligands, allosterism, the influence of endogenous glutamate and the choice of pharmacokinetic model are all factors that may influence the PET signal. This review focuses on mGluR5 PET radioligands used at several stages of central nervous system drug development, highlighting advances and setbacks related to the complex pharmacology of these radiotracers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Claire Dupont
- Radiopharmacie, CHRU de Tours, 37000 Tours, France
- UMR 1253, iBrain, Tours University, INSERM, 37000 Tours, France
| | - Nicolas Arlicot
- Radiopharmacie, CHRU de Tours, 37000 Tours, France
- UMR 1253, iBrain, Tours University, INSERM, 37000 Tours, France
- CIC 1415, Tours University, INSERM, 37000 Tours, France
| | | | - Sophie Serrière
- UMR 1253, iBrain, Tours University, INSERM, 37000 Tours, France
| | - Serge Maia
- Radiopharmacie, CHRU de Tours, 37000 Tours, France
- UMR 1253, iBrain, Tours University, INSERM, 37000 Tours, France
| | - Frédérique Bonnet-Brilhault
- UMR 1253, iBrain, Tours University, INSERM, 37000 Tours, France
- Excellence Center for Autism and Neurodevelopmental Disorders, CHRU de Tours, 37000 Tours, France
| | - Maria-Joao Santiago-Ribeiro
- UMR 1253, iBrain, Tours University, INSERM, 37000 Tours, France
- Nuclear Medicine Department, CHRU de Tours, 37000 Tours, France
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3
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Fabian CB, Seney ML, Joffe ME. Sex differences and hormonal regulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor synaptic plasticity. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2022; 168:311-347. [PMID: 36868632 PMCID: PMC10392610 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2022.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Striking sex differences exist in presentation and incidence of several psychiatric disorders. For example, major depressive disorder is more prevalent in women than men, and women who develop alcohol use disorder progress through drinking milestones more rapidly than men. With regards to psychiatric treatment responses, women respond more favorably to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors than men, whereas men have better outcomes when prescribed tricyclic antidepressants. Despite such well-documented biases in incidence, presentation, and treatment response, sex as a biological variable has long been neglected in preclinical and clinical research. An emerging family of druggable targets for psychiatric diseases, metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors are G-protein coupled receptors broadly distributed throughout the central nervous system. mGlu receptors confer diverse neuromodulatory actions of glutamate at the levels of synaptic plasticity, neuronal excitability, and gene transcription. In this chapter, we summarize the current preclinical and clinical evidence for sex differences in mGlu receptor function. We first highlight basal sex differences in mGlu receptor expression and function and proceed to describe how gonadal hormones, notably estradiol, regulate mGlu receptor signaling. We then describe sex-specific mechanisms by which mGlu receptors differentially modulate synaptic plasticity and behavior in basal states and models relevant for disease. Finally, we discuss human research findings and highlight areas in need of further research. Taken together, this review emphasizes how mGlu receptor function and expression can differ across sex. Gaining a more complete understanding of how sex differences in mGlu receptor function contribute to psychiatric diseases will be critical in the development of novel therapeutics that are effective in all individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carly B Fabian
- Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States; Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Marianne L Seney
- Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States; Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Max E Joffe
- Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States; Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.
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4
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Yuan G, Dhaynaut M, Guehl NJ, Afshar S, Huynh D, Moon SH, Iyengar SM, Jain MK, Pickett JE, Kang HJ, Ondrechen MJ, El Fakhri G, Normandin MD, Brownell AL. Design, Synthesis, and Characterization of [ 18F]mG2P026 as a High-Contrast PET Imaging Ligand for Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 2. J Med Chem 2022; 65:9939-9954. [PMID: 35802702 PMCID: PMC9434700 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c00593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
An array of triazolopyridines based on JNJ-46356479 (6) were synthesized as potential positron emission tomography radiotracers for metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 (mGluR2). The selected candidates 8-10 featured enhanced positive allosteric modulator (PAM) activity (20-fold max.) and mGluR2 agonist activity (25-fold max.) compared to compound 6 in the cAMP GloSensor assays. Radiolabeling of compounds 8 and 9 (mG2P026) was achieved via Cu-mediated radiofluorination with satisfactory radiochemical yield, >5% (non-decay-corrected); high molar activity, >180 GBq/μmol; and excellent radiochemical purity, >98%. Preliminary characterization of [18F]8 and [18F]9 in rats confirmed their excellent brain permeability and binding kinetics. Further evaluation of [18F]9 in a non-human primate confirmed its superior brain heterogeneity in mapping mGluR2 and higher affinity than [18F]6. Pretreatment with different classes of PAMs in rats and a primate led to similarly enhanced brain uptake of [18F]9. As a selective ligand, [18F]9 has the potential to be developed for translational studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gengyang Yuan
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 3rd Avenue, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Maeva Dhaynaut
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 3rd Avenue, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Nicolas J Guehl
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 3rd Avenue, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Sepideh Afshar
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 3rd Avenue, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Dalena Huynh
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 3rd Avenue, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Sung-Hyun Moon
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 3rd Avenue, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Suhasini M Iyengar
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Manish Kumar Jain
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Julie E Pickett
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Hye Jin Kang
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Mary Jo Ondrechen
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Georges El Fakhri
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 3rd Avenue, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Marc D Normandin
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 3rd Avenue, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Anna-Liisa Brownell
- Gordon Center for Medical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 3rd Avenue, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
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5
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Liauw BWH, Foroutan A, Schamber MR, Lu W, Samareh Afsari H, Vafabakhsh R. Conformational fingerprinting of allosteric modulators in metabotropic glutamate receptor 2. eLife 2022; 11:e78982. [PMID: 35775730 PMCID: PMC9299836 DOI: 10.7554/elife.78982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is an allosteric process. It involves conformational coupling between the orthosteric ligand binding site and the G protein binding site. Factors that bind at non-cognate ligand binding sites to alter the allosteric activation process are classified as allosteric modulators and represent a promising class of therapeutics with distinct modes of binding and action. For many receptors, how modulation of signaling is represented at the structural level is unclear. Here, we developed fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) sensors to quantify receptor modulation at each of the three structural domains of metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 (mGluR2). We identified the conformational fingerprint for several allosteric modulators in live cells. This approach enabled us to derive a receptor-centric representation of allosteric modulation and to correlate structural modulation to the standard signaling modulation metrics. Single-molecule FRET analysis revealed that a NAM (egative allosteric modulator) increases the occupancy of one of the intermediate states while a positive allosteric modulator increases the occupancy of the active state. Moreover, we found that the effect of allosteric modulators on the receptor dynamics is complex and depend on the orthosteric ligand. Collectively, our findings provide a structural mechanism of allosteric modulation in mGluR2 and suggest possible strategies for design of future modulators.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Arash Foroutan
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern UniversityEvanstonUnited States
| | - Michael R Schamber
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern UniversityEvanstonUnited States
| | - Weifeng Lu
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern UniversityEvanstonUnited States
| | - Hamid Samareh Afsari
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern UniversityEvanstonUnited States
| | - Reza Vafabakhsh
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern UniversityEvanstonUnited States
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6
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Agonists and allosteric modulators promote signaling from different metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 conformations. Cell Rep 2021; 36:109648. [PMID: 34469715 PMCID: PMC8424648 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are dimeric G-protein-coupled receptors activated by the main excitatory neurotransmitter, L-glutamate. mGluR activation by agonists binding in the venus flytrap domain is regulated by positive (PAM) or negative (NAM) allosteric modulators binding to the 7-transmembrane domain (7TM). We report the cryo-electron microscopy structures of fully inactive and intermediate-active conformations of mGlu5 receptor bound to an antagonist and a NAM or an agonist and a PAM, respectively, as well as the crystal structure of the 7TM bound to a photoswitchable NAM. The agonist induces a large movement between the subunits, bringing the 7TMs together and stabilizing a 7TM conformation structurally similar to the inactive state. Using functional approaches, we demonstrate that the PAM stabilizes a 7TM active conformation independent of the conformational changes induced by agonists, representing an alternative mode of mGlu activation. These findings provide a structural basis for different mGluR activation modes. Cryo-EM analysis of thermostabilized mGlu5 receptor bound to inhibitors or activators X-ray structure of trans-Alloswitch-1 bound to thermostable mGlu5 7TMs Photopharmacology provides insight into allosteric regulation of mGlu5 7TMs Multiple conformations of mGlu5 receptor activate G protein
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7
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Orgován Z, Ferenczy GG, Keserű GM. Allosteric Molecular Switches in Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors. ChemMedChem 2021; 16:81-93. [PMID: 32686363 PMCID: PMC7818470 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202000444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu) are class C G protein-coupled receptors of eight subtypes that are omnipresently expressed in the central nervous system. mGlus have relevance in several psychiatric and neurological disorders, therefore they raise considerable interest as drug targets. Allosteric modulators of mGlus offer advantages over orthosteric ligands owing to their increased potential to achieve subtype selectivity, and this has prompted discovery programs that have produced a large number of reported allosteric mGlu ligands. However, the optimization of allosteric ligands into drug candidates has proved to be challenging owing to induced-fit effects, flat or steep structure-activity relationships and unexpected changes in theirpharmacology. Subtle structural changes identified as molecular switches might modulate the functional activity of allosteric ligands. Here we review these switches discovered in the metabotropic glutamate receptor family..
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoltán Orgován
- Medicinal Chemistry Research GroupResearch Centre for Natural SciencesMagyar tudósok krt. 2Budapest1117Hungary
| | - György G. Ferenczy
- Medicinal Chemistry Research GroupResearch Centre for Natural SciencesMagyar tudósok krt. 2Budapest1117Hungary
| | - György M. Keserű
- Medicinal Chemistry Research GroupResearch Centre for Natural SciencesMagyar tudósok krt. 2Budapest1117Hungary
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8
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Sengmany K, Hellyer SD, Christopoulos A, Lapinsky DJ, Leach K, Gregory KJ. Differential contribution of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 common allosteric binding site residues to biased allosteric agonism. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 177:114011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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9
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Probe dependence and biased potentiation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 is mediated by differential ligand interactions in the common allosteric binding site. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 177:114013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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10
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Nuara SG, Hamadjida A, Kwan C, Bédard D, Frouni I, Gourdon JC, Huot P. Combined mGlu2 orthosteric stimulation and positive allosteric modulation alleviates l-DOPA-induced psychosis-like behaviours and dyskinesia in the parkinsonian marmoset. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2020; 127:1023-1029. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-020-02185-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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11
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Berizzi AE, Goudet C. Strategies and considerations of G-protein-coupled receptor photopharmacology. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2020; 88:143-172. [PMID: 32416866 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2019.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) pharmacology tends to be complex and at times poorly understood. This has led to the development of GPCR-targeting agents that often demonstrate poor pharmacokinetic properties and poor selectivity for their target receptors. One approach that is emerging as a means of addressing these limitations is the use of molecules whose activity can be controlled by light. Photopharmacology involves the incorporation of a photoswitch into the structure of a given compound, cage or linker and following irradiation with light, undergoes a structural rearrangement, which changes its biological activity. The use of light-regulated ligands offers the opportunity to modulate and understand GPCR signaling in a more spatiotemporal manner than classical pharmacological approaches. In this chapter we will discuss some of the advancements that have been made in photopharmacology, particularly in developing photoswitchable ligands that target class A GPCRs, e.g., muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, class B GPCRs, e.g., glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor, and class C GPCRs, e.g., metabotrobic glutamate receptors. Given the intricacy of GPCR pharmacology, this chapter will also discuss some of the challenges the field faces when designing photopharmacological tools. Furthermore, it will propose that it is with a full appreciation of the spectrum of pharmacological and pharmacokinetic properties of photoswitchable ligands that research will be better placed to develop ligands with a reduced risk of failure during preclinical progression. This will likely enable photopharmacological approaches to continue to find novel applications and offer new perspectives in understanding (patho)physiology to ultimately inform future GPCR drug discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice E Berizzi
- IGF, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. de Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
| | - Cyril Goudet
- IGF, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. de Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
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12
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The function and allosteric control of the human sweet taste receptor. FROM STRUCTURE TO CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT: ALLOSTERIC MODULATION OF G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTORS 2020; 88:59-82. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2020.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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13
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Dal Prà I, Armato U, Chiarini A. Family C G-Protein-Coupled Receptors in Alzheimer's Disease and Therapeutic Implications. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:1282. [PMID: 31719824 PMCID: PMC6826475 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), particularly its sporadic or late-onset form (SAD/LOAD), is the most prevalent (96–98% of cases) neurodegenerative dementia in aged people. AD’s neuropathology hallmarks are intrabrain accumulation of amyloid-β peptides (Aβs) and of hyperphosphorylated Tau (p-Tau) proteins, diffuse neuroinflammation, and progressive death of neurons and oligodendrocytes. Mounting evidences suggest that family C G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which include γ-aminobutyric acid B receptors (GABABRs), metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR1-8), and the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), are involved in many neurotransmitter systems that dysfunction in AD. This review updates the available knowledge about the roles of GPCRs, particularly but not exclusively those expressed by brain astrocytes, in SAD/LOAD onset and progression, taking stock of their respective mechanisms of action and of their potential as anti-AD therapeutic targets. In particular, GABABRs prevent Aβs synthesis and neuronal hyperexcitability and group I mGluRs play important pathogenetic roles in transgenic AD-model animals. Moreover, the specific binding of Aβs to the CaSRs of human cortical astrocytes and neurons cultured in vitro engenders a pathological signaling that crucially promotes the surplus synthesis and release of Aβs and hyperphosphorylated Tau proteins, and also of nitric oxide, vascular endothelial growth factor-A, and proinflammatory agents. Concurrently, Aβs•CaSR signaling hinders the release of soluble (s)APP-α peptide, a neurotrophic agent and GABABR1a agonist. Altogether these effects progressively kill human cortical neurons in vitro and likely also in vivo. Several CaSR’s negative allosteric modulators suppress all the noxious effects elicited by Aβs•CaSR signaling in human cortical astrocytes and neurons thus safeguarding neurons’ viability in vitro and raising hopes about their potential therapeutic benefits in AD patients. Further basic and clinical investigations on these hot topics are needed taking always heed that activation of the several brain family C GPCRs may elicit divergent upshots according to the models studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Dal Prà
- Human Histology and Embryology Unit, University of Verona Medical School, Verona, Italy
| | - Ubaldo Armato
- Human Histology and Embryology Unit, University of Verona Medical School, Verona, Italy
| | - Anna Chiarini
- Human Histology and Embryology Unit, University of Verona Medical School, Verona, Italy
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14
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Yu X, Huang XP, Kenakin TP, Slocum ST, Chen X, Martini ML, Liu J, Jin J. Design, Synthesis, and Characterization of Ogerin-Based Positive Allosteric Modulators for G Protein-Coupled Receptor 68 (GPR68). J Med Chem 2019; 62:7557-7574. [PMID: 31298539 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b00869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptor 68 (GPR68) is an understudied orphan G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). It is expressed most abundantly in the brain, potentially playing important roles in learning and memory. Pharmacological studies with GPR68 have been hindered by lack of chemical tools that can selectively modulate its activity. We previously reported the first small-molecule positive allosteric modulator (PAM), ogerin (1), and showed that 1 can potentiate proton activity at the GPR68-Gs pathway. Here, we report the first comprehensive structure-activity relationship (SAR) study on the scaffold of 1. Our lead compound resulted from this study, MS48107 (71), displayed 33-fold increased allosteric activity compared to 1. Compound 71 demonstrated high selectivity over closely related proton GPCRs and 48 common drug targets, and was bioavailable and brain-penetrant in mice. Thus, our SAR study has resulted in an improved GPR68 PAM for investigating the physiological and pathophysiological roles of GPR68 in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xufen Yu
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute , Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
| | | | | | | | - Xin Chen
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute , Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
| | - Michael L Martini
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute , Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
| | - Jing Liu
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute , Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
| | - Jian Jin
- Mount Sinai Center for Therapeutics Discovery, Departments of Pharmacological Sciences and Oncological Sciences, Tisch Cancer Institute , Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York , New York 10029 , United States
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15
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Matrisciano F, Dong E, Nicoletti F, Guidotti A. Epigenetic Alterations in Prenatal Stress Mice as an Endophenotype Model for Schizophrenia: Role of Metabotropic Glutamate 2/3 Receptors. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:423. [PMID: 30564095 PMCID: PMC6289213 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Mice subjected to prenatal restraint stress (PRS mice) showed biochemical and behavioral abnormalities consistent with a schizophrenia-like phenotype (Matrisciano et al., 2016). PRS mice are characterized by increased DNA-methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) and ten-eleven methylcytosine dioxygenase 1 (TET1) expression levels and exhibit an enrichment of 5-methylcytosine (5MC) and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5HMC) at neocortical GABAergic and glutamatergic gene promoters. Activation of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu2 and−3 receptors) showed a potential epigenetically-induced antipsychotic activity by reversing the molecular and behavioral changes observed in PRS mice. This effect was most likely caused by the increase in the expression of growth arrest and DNA damage 45-β (Gadd45-β) protein, a molecular player of DNA demethylation, induced by the activation of mGlu2/3 receptors. This effect was mimicked by clozapine and valproate but not by haloperidol. Treatment with the selective mGlu2/3 receptors agonist LY379268 also increased the amount of Gadd45-β bound to specific promoter regions of reelin, BDNF, and GAD67. A meta-analysis of several clinical trials showed that treatment with an orthosteric mGlu2/3 receptor agonist improved both positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia, but only in patients who were early-in-disease and had not been treated with atypical antipsychotic drugs (Kinon et al., 2015). Our findings show that PRS mice are valuable model for the study of epigenetic mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia and support the hypothesis that pharmacological modulation of mGlu2/3 receptors could impact the early phase of schizophrenia and related neurodevelopmental disorders by regulating epigenetic processes that lie at the core of the disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Matrisciano
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatric Institute, College of Medicine, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Erbo Dong
- Department of Psychiatry, Center for Alcohol Research in Epigenetics College of Medicine, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Ferdinando Nicoletti
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Rome "Sapienza", Rome, Italy.,IRCCS, Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Alessandro Guidotti
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatric Institute, College of Medicine, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States.,Department of Psychiatry, Center for Alcohol Research in Epigenetics College of Medicine, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
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16
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Biased agonism and allosteric modulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5. Clin Sci (Lond) 2018; 132:2323-2338. [PMID: 30389826 DOI: 10.1042/cs20180374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Metabotropic glutamate receptors belong to class C G-protein-coupled receptors and consist of eight subtypes that are ubiquitously expressed throughout the central nervous system. In recent years, the metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGlu5) has emerged as a promising target for a broad range of psychiatric and neurological disorders. Drug discovery programs targetting mGlu5 are primarily focused on development of allosteric modulators that interact with sites distinct from the endogenous agonist glutamate. Significant efforts have seen mGlu5 allosteric modulators progress into clinical trials; however, recent failures due to lack of efficacy or adverse effects indicate a need for a better understanding of the functional consequences of mGlu5 allosteric modulation. Biased agonism is an interrelated phenomenon to allosterism, describing how different ligands acting through the same receptor can differentially influence signaling to distinct transducers and pathways. Emerging evidence demonstrates that allosteric modulators can induce biased pharmacology at the level of intrinsic agonism as well as through differential modulation of orthosteric agonist-signaling pathways. Here, we present key considerations in the discovery and development of mGlu5 allosteric modulators and the opportunities and pitfalls offered by biased agonism and modulation.
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17
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Westmark PR, Dekundy A, Gravius A, Danysz W, Westmark CJ. Rescue of Fmr1 KO phenotypes with mGluR 5 inhibitors: MRZ-8456 versus AFQ-056. Neurobiol Dis 2018; 119:190-198. [PMID: 30125640 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2018] [Revised: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) is a drug target for central nervous system disorders such as fragile X syndrome that involve excessive glutamate-induced excitation. We tested the efficacy of a novel negative allosteric modulator of mGluR5 developed by Merz Pharmaceuticals, MRZ-8456, in comparison to MPEP and AFQ-056 (Novartis, a.k.a. mavoglurant) in both in vivo and in vitro assays in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome, Fmr1KO mice. The in vivo assays included susceptibility to audiogenic-induced seizures and pharmacokinetic measurements of drug availability. The in vitro assays included dose response assessments of biomarker expression and dendritic spine length and density in cultured primary neurons. Both MRZ-8456 and AFQ-056 attenuated wild running and audiogenic-induced seizures in Fmr1KO mice with similar pharmacokinetic profiles. Both drugs significantly reduced dendritic expression of amyloid-beta protein precursor (APP) and rescued the ratio of mature to immature dendritic spines. These findings demonstrate that MRZ-8456, a drug being developed for the treatment of motor complications of L-DOPA in Parkinson's disease and which completed a phase I clinical trial, is effective in attenuating both well-established (seizures and dendritic spine maturity) and exploratory biomarker (APP expression) phenotypes in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela R Westmark
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Neurology, Madison, WI, USA; University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Medicine, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Andrzej Dekundy
- Merz Pharmaceuticals GmbH, Eckenheimer Landstrasse 100, 60318 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Andreas Gravius
- Merz Pharmaceuticals GmbH, Eckenheimer Landstrasse 100, 60318 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Wojciech Danysz
- Merz Pharmaceuticals GmbH, Eckenheimer Landstrasse 100, 60318 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Cara J Westmark
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Neurology, Madison, WI, USA.
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18
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Beggiato S, Borelli AC, Tomasini MC, Castelli MP, Pintori N, Cacciaglia R, Loche A, Ferraro L. In Vitro Functional Characterization of GET73 as Possible Negative Allosteric Modulator of Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 5. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:327. [PMID: 29674969 PMCID: PMC5895880 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study was aimed to further characterize the pharmacological profile of N-[4-(trifluoromethyl) benzyl]-4-methoxybutyramide (GET73), a putative negative allosteric modulator (NAM) of metabotropic glutamate subtype 5 receptor (mGluR5) under development as a novel medication for the treatment of alcohol dependence. This aim has been accomplished by means of a series of in vitro functional assays. These assays include the measure of several down-stream signaling [intracellular Ca++ levels, inositol phosphate (IP) formation and CREB phosphorylation (pCREB)] which are generally affected by mGluR5 ligands. In particular, GET73 (0.1 nM-10 μM) was explored for its ability to displace the concentration-response curve of some mGluR5 agonists/probes (glutamate, L-quisqualate, CHPG) in different native preparations. GET73 produced a rightward shift of concentration-response curves of glutamate- and CHPG-induced intracellular Ca++ levels in primary cultures of rat cortical astrocytes. The compound also induced a rightward shift of concentration response curve of glutamate- and L-quisqualate-induced increase in IP turnover in rat hippocampus slices, along with a reduction of CHPG (10 mM)-induced increase in IP formation. Moreover, GET73 produced a rightward shift of concentration-response curve of glutamate-, CHPG- and L-quisqualate-induced pCREB levels in rat cerebral cortex neurons. Although the engagement of other targets cannot be definitively ruled out, these data support the view that GET73 acts as an mGluR5 NAM and support the significance of further investigating the possible mechanism of action of the compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Beggiato
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.,IRET Foundation, Bologna, Italy
| | - Andrea C Borelli
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.,IRET Foundation, Bologna, Italy
| | - Maria C Tomasini
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.,IRET Foundation, Bologna, Italy
| | - M Paola Castelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.,Center of Excellence "Neurobiology of Addiction", University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Nicholas Pintori
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | | | | | - Luca Ferraro
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.,IRET Foundation, Bologna, Italy.,LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
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O'Brien DE, Shaw DM, Cho HP, Cross AJ, Wesolowski SS, Felts AS, Bergare J, Elmore CS, Lindsley CW, Niswender CM, Conn PJ. Differential Pharmacology and Binding of mGlu 2 Receptor Allosteric Modulators. Mol Pharmacol 2018; 93:526-540. [PMID: 29545267 DOI: 10.1124/mol.117.110114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Allosteric modulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 (mGlu2) has demonstrated efficacy in preclinical rodent models of several brain disorders, leading to industry and academic drug discovery efforts. Although the pharmacology and binding sites of some mGlu2 allosteric modulators have been characterized previously, questions remain about the nature of the allosteric mechanism of cooperativity with glutamate and whether structurally diverse allosteric modulators bind in an identical manner to specific allosteric sites. To further investigate the in vitro pharmacology of mGlu2 allosteric modulators, we developed and characterized a novel mGlu2 positive allosteric modulator (PAM) radioligand in parallel with functional studies of a structurally diverse set of mGlu2 PAMs and negative allosteric modulators (NAMs). Using an operational model of allosterism to analyze the functional data, we found that PAMs affect both the affinity and efficacy of glutamate at mGlu2, whereas NAMs predominantly affect the efficacy of glutamate in our assay system. More importantly, we found that binding of a novel mGlu2 PAM radioligand was inhibited by multiple structurally diverse PAMs and NAMs, indicating that they may bind to the mGlu2 allosteric site labeled with the novel mGlu2 PAM radioligand; however, further studies suggested that these allosteric modulators do not all interact with the radioligand in an identical manner. Together, these findings provide new insights into the binding sites and modes of efficacy of different structurally and functionally distinct mGlu2 allosteric modulators and suggest that different ligands either interact with distinct sites or adapt different binding poses to shared allosteric site(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel E O'Brien
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (D.E.O., D.M.S., H.P.C., A.S.F., C.W.L, C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (P.J.C.), and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center (C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; AstraZeneca Neuroscience Innovative Medicines, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.J.C., S.S.W.); and AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Sciences, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden (J.B., C.S.E.)
| | - Douglas M Shaw
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (D.E.O., D.M.S., H.P.C., A.S.F., C.W.L, C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (P.J.C.), and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center (C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; AstraZeneca Neuroscience Innovative Medicines, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.J.C., S.S.W.); and AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Sciences, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden (J.B., C.S.E.)
| | - Hyekyung P Cho
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (D.E.O., D.M.S., H.P.C., A.S.F., C.W.L, C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (P.J.C.), and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center (C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; AstraZeneca Neuroscience Innovative Medicines, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.J.C., S.S.W.); and AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Sciences, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden (J.B., C.S.E.)
| | - Alan J Cross
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (D.E.O., D.M.S., H.P.C., A.S.F., C.W.L, C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (P.J.C.), and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center (C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; AstraZeneca Neuroscience Innovative Medicines, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.J.C., S.S.W.); and AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Sciences, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden (J.B., C.S.E.)
| | - Steven S Wesolowski
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (D.E.O., D.M.S., H.P.C., A.S.F., C.W.L, C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (P.J.C.), and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center (C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; AstraZeneca Neuroscience Innovative Medicines, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.J.C., S.S.W.); and AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Sciences, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden (J.B., C.S.E.)
| | - Andrew S Felts
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (D.E.O., D.M.S., H.P.C., A.S.F., C.W.L, C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (P.J.C.), and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center (C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; AstraZeneca Neuroscience Innovative Medicines, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.J.C., S.S.W.); and AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Sciences, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden (J.B., C.S.E.)
| | - Jonas Bergare
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (D.E.O., D.M.S., H.P.C., A.S.F., C.W.L, C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (P.J.C.), and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center (C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; AstraZeneca Neuroscience Innovative Medicines, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.J.C., S.S.W.); and AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Sciences, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden (J.B., C.S.E.)
| | - Charles S Elmore
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (D.E.O., D.M.S., H.P.C., A.S.F., C.W.L, C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (P.J.C.), and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center (C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; AstraZeneca Neuroscience Innovative Medicines, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.J.C., S.S.W.); and AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Sciences, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden (J.B., C.S.E.)
| | - Craig W Lindsley
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (D.E.O., D.M.S., H.P.C., A.S.F., C.W.L, C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (P.J.C.), and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center (C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; AstraZeneca Neuroscience Innovative Medicines, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.J.C., S.S.W.); and AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Sciences, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden (J.B., C.S.E.)
| | - Colleen M Niswender
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (D.E.O., D.M.S., H.P.C., A.S.F., C.W.L, C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (P.J.C.), and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center (C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; AstraZeneca Neuroscience Innovative Medicines, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.J.C., S.S.W.); and AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Sciences, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden (J.B., C.S.E.)
| | - P Jeffrey Conn
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (D.E.O., D.M.S., H.P.C., A.S.F., C.W.L, C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt Brain Institute (P.J.C.), and Vanderbilt Kennedy Center (C.M.N., P.J.C.), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; AstraZeneca Neuroscience Innovative Medicines, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.J.C., S.S.W.); and AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Sciences, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden (J.B., C.S.E.)
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20
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Scholler P, Nevoltris D, de Bundel D, Bossi S, Moreno-Delgado D, Rovira X, Møller TC, El Moustaine D, Mathieu M, Blanc E, McLean H, Dupuis E, Mathis G, Trinquet E, Daniel H, Valjent E, Baty D, Chames P, Rondard P, Pin JP. Allosteric nanobodies uncover a role of hippocampal mGlu2 receptor homodimers in contextual fear consolidation. Nat Commun 2017; 8:1967. [PMID: 29213077 PMCID: PMC5719040 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01489-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibodies have enormous therapeutic and biotechnology potential. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), the main targets in drug development, are of major interest in antibody development programs. Metabotropic glutamate receptors are dimeric GPCRs that can control synaptic activity in a multitude of ways. Here we identify llama nanobodies that specifically recognize mGlu2 receptors, among the eight subtypes of mGluR subunits. Among these nanobodies, DN10 and 13 are positive allosteric modulators (PAM) on homodimeric mGlu2, while DN10 displays also a significant partial agonist activity. DN10 and DN13 have no effect on mGlu2-3 and mGlu2-4 heterodimers. These PAMs enhance the inhibitory action of the orthosteric mGlu2/mGlu3 agonist, DCG-IV, at mossy fiber terminals in the CA3 region of hippocampal slices. DN13 also impairs contextual fear memory when injected in the CA3 region of hippocampal region. These data highlight the potential of developing antibodies with allosteric actions on GPCRs to better define their roles in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Scholler
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. Montpellier, F-34094, Montpellier, France
- Cisbio Bioassays, F-30200, Codolet, France
| | - Damien Nevoltris
- Cisbio Bioassays, F-30200, Codolet, France
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, INSERM, Institut Paoli-Calmettes, CRCM, F-13009, Marseille, France
| | - Dimitri de Bundel
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. Montpellier, F-34094, Montpellier, France
| | - Simon Bossi
- CNRS UMR9197, Université Paris-Sud, Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, F-91405, Orsay, France
| | - David Moreno-Delgado
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. Montpellier, F-34094, Montpellier, France
| | - Xavier Rovira
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. Montpellier, F-34094, Montpellier, France
| | - Thor C Møller
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. Montpellier, F-34094, Montpellier, France
| | - Driss El Moustaine
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. Montpellier, F-34094, Montpellier, France
| | - Michaël Mathieu
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. Montpellier, F-34094, Montpellier, France
| | - Emilie Blanc
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. Montpellier, F-34094, Montpellier, France
| | - Heather McLean
- CNRS UMR9197, Université Paris-Sud, Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, F-91405, Orsay, France
| | | | | | | | - Hervé Daniel
- CNRS UMR9197, Université Paris-Sud, Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, F-91405, Orsay, France
| | - Emmanuel Valjent
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. Montpellier, F-34094, Montpellier, France
| | - Daniel Baty
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, INSERM, Institut Paoli-Calmettes, CRCM, F-13009, Marseille, France
| | - Patrick Chames
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, INSERM, Institut Paoli-Calmettes, CRCM, F-13009, Marseille, France.
| | - Philippe Rondard
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. Montpellier, F-34094, Montpellier, France.
| | - Jean-Philippe Pin
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS, INSERM, Univ. Montpellier, F-34094, Montpellier, France.
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Ablation of TFR1 in Purkinje Cells Inhibits mGlu1 Trafficking and Impairs Motor Coordination, But Not Autistic-Like Behaviors. J Neurosci 2017; 37:11335-11352. [PMID: 29054881 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1223-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Revised: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu1/5s) are critical to synapse formation and participate in synaptic LTP and LTD in the brain. mGlu1/5 signaling alterations have been documented in cognitive impairment, neurodegenerative disorders, and psychiatric diseases, but underlying mechanisms for its modulation are not clear. Here, we report that transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1), a transmembrane protein of the clathrin complex, modulates the trafficking of mGlu1 in cerebellar Purkinje cells (PCs) from male mice. We show that conditional knock-out of TFR1 in PCs does not affect the cytoarchitecture of PCs, but reduces mGlu1 expression at synapses. This regulation by TFR1 acts in concert with that by Rab8 and Rab11, which modulate the internalization and recycling of mGlu1, respectively. TFR1 can bind to Rab proteins and facilitate their expression at synapses. PC ablation of TFR1 inhibits parallel fiber-PC LTD, whereas parallel fiber-LTP and PC intrinsic excitability are not affected. Finally, we demonstrate that PC ablation of TFR1 impairs motor coordination, but does not affect social behaviors in mice. Together, these findings underscore the importance of TFR1 in regulating mGlu1 trafficking and suggest that mGlu1- and mGlu1-dependent parallel fiber-LTD are associated with regulation of motor coordination, but not autistic behaviors.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGlu1/5) signaling alterations have been documented in cognitive impairment, neurodegenerative disorders, and psychiatric diseases. Recent work suggests that altered mGlu1 signaling in Purkinje cells (PCs) may be involved in not only motor learning, but also autistic-like behaviors. We find that conditional knock-out of transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1) in PCs reduces synaptic mGlu1 by tethering Rab8 and Rab11 in the cytosol. PC ablation of TFR1 inhibits parallel fiber-PC LTD, whereas parallel fiber-PC LTP and PC intrinsic excitability are intact. Motor coordination is impaired, but social behaviors are normal in TFR1flox/flox;pCP2-cre mice. Our data reveal a new regulator for trafficking and synaptic expression of mGlu1 and suggest that mGlu1-dependent LTD is associated with motor coordination, but not autistic-like behaviors.
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22
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Correa AMB, Guimarães JDS, Dos Santos E Alhadas E, Kushmerick C. Control of neuronal excitability by Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors. Biophys Rev 2017; 9:835-845. [PMID: 28836161 PMCID: PMC5662043 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-017-0301-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors couple through G proteins to regulate a large number of cell functions. Eight mGlu receptor isoforms have been cloned and classified into three Groups based on sequence, signal transduction mechanisms and pharmacology. This review will focus on Group I mGlu receptors, comprising the isoforms mGlu1 and mGlu5. Activation of these receptors initiates both G protein-dependent and -independent signal transduction pathways. The G-protein-dependent pathway involves mainly Gαq, which can activate PLCβ, leading initially to the formation of IP3 and diacylglycerol. IP3 can release Ca2+ from cellular stores resulting in activation of Ca2+-dependent ion channels. Intracellular Ca2+, together with diacylglycerol, activates PKC, which has many protein targets, including ion channels. Thus, activation of the G-protein-dependent pathway affects cellular excitability though several different effectors. In parallel, G protein-independent pathways lead to activation of non-selective cationic currents and metabotropic synaptic currents and potentials. Here, we provide a survey of the membrane transport proteins responsible for these electrical effects of Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Maria Bernal Correa
- Graduate Program in Physiology and Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | | | - Christopher Kushmerick
- Graduate Program in Physiology and Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
- Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica - ICB, UFMG, Av. Pres. Antônio Carlos, 6627 - Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil.
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23
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Chaki S. mGlu2/3 Receptor Antagonists as Novel Antidepressants. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2017; 38:569-580. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2017] [Revised: 03/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Harpsøe K, Boesgaard MW, Munk C, Bräuner-Osborne H, Gloriam DE. Structural insight to mutation effects uncover a common allosteric site in class C GPCRs. Bioinformatics 2017; 33:1116-1120. [PMID: 28011766 PMCID: PMC5408886 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btw784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Motivation Class C G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) regulate important physiological functions and allosteric modulators binding to the transmembrane domain constitute an attractive and, due to a lack of structural insight, a virtually unexplored potential for therapeutics and the food industry. Combining pharmacological site-directed mutagenesis data with the recent class C GPCR experimental structures will provide a foundation for rational design of new therapeutics. Results We uncover one common site for both positive and negative modulators with different amino acid layouts that can be utilized to obtain selectivity. Additionally, we show a large potential for structure-based modulator design, especially for four orphan receptors with high similarity to the crystal structures. Availability and Implementation All collated mutagenesis data is available in the GPCRdb mutation browser at http://gpcrdb.org/mutations/ and can be analyzed online or downloaded in excel format. Supplementary information Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasper Harpsøe
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Michael W Boesgaard
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christian Munk
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Hans Bräuner-Osborne
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - David E Gloriam
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- To whom correspondence should be addressed.
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25
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Foster DJ, Conn PJ. Allosteric Modulation of GPCRs: New Insights and Potential Utility for Treatment of Schizophrenia and Other CNS Disorders. Neuron 2017; 94:431-446. [PMID: 28472649 PMCID: PMC5482176 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play critical roles in regulating brain function. Recent advances have greatly expanded our understanding of these receptors as complex signaling machines that can adopt numerous conformations and modulate multiple downstream signaling pathways. While agonists and antagonists have traditionally been pursued to target GPCRs, allosteric modulators provide several mechanistic advantages, including the ability to distinguish between closely related receptor subtypes. Recently, the discovery of allosteric ligands that confer bias and modulate some, but not all, of a given receptor's downstream signaling pathways can provide pharmacological modulation of brain circuitry with remarkable precision. In addition, allosteric modulators with unprecedented specificity have been developed that can differentiate between subpopulations of a given receptor subtype based on the receptor's dimerization state. These advances are not only providing insight into the biological roles of specific receptor populations, but hold great promise for treating numerous CNS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Foster
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA; Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - P Jeffrey Conn
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA; Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
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26
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Lundström L, Bissantz C, Beck J, Dellenbach M, Woltering TJ, Wichmann J, Gatti S. Reprint of Pharmacological and molecular characterization of the positive allosteric modulators of metabotropic glutamate receptor 2. Neuropharmacology 2017; 115:115-127. [PMID: 28216000 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.08.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2015] [Revised: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 (mGlu2) plays an important role in the presynaptic control of glutamate release and several mGlu2 positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) have been under assessment for their potential as antipsychotics. The binding mode of mGlu2 PAMs is better characterized in functional terms while few data are available on the relationship between allosteric and orthosteric binding sites. Pharmacological studies characterizing binding and effects of two different chemical series of mGlu2 PAMs are therefore carried out here using the radiolabeled mGlu2 agonist 3[H]-LY354740 and mGlu2 PAM 3[H]-2,2,2-TEMPS. A multidimensional approach to the PAM mechanism of action shows that mGlu2 PAMs increase the affinity of 3[H]-LY354740 for the orthosteric site of mGlu2 as well as the number of 3[H]-LY354740 binding sites. 3[H]-2,2,2-TEMPS binding is also enhanced by the presence of LY354740. New residues in the allosteric rat mGlu2 binding pocket are identified to be crucial for the PAMs ligand binding, among these Tyr3.40 and Asn5.46. Also of remark, in the described experimental conditions S731A (Ser5.42) residue is important only for the mGlu2 PAM LY487379 and not for the compound PAM-1: an example of the structural differences among these mGlu2 PAMs. This study provides a summary of the information generated in the past decade on mGlu2 PAMs adding a detailed molecular investigation of PAM binding mode. Differences among mGlu2 PAM compounds are discussed as well as the mGlu2 regions interacting with mGlu2 PAM and NAM agents and residues driving mGlu2 PAM selectivity. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors, 5 years on'.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Lundström
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, pRED, Pharma Research & Early Development, NORD Neuroscience, Switzerland
| | - C Bissantz
- Discovery Chemistry, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, Basel, CH4070, Switzerland
| | - J Beck
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, pRED, Pharma Research & Early Development, NORD Neuroscience, Switzerland
| | - M Dellenbach
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, pRED, Pharma Research & Early Development, NORD Neuroscience, Switzerland
| | - T J Woltering
- Discovery Chemistry, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, Basel, CH4070, Switzerland
| | - J Wichmann
- Discovery Chemistry, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, Basel, CH4070, Switzerland
| | - S Gatti
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, pRED, Pharma Research & Early Development, NORD Neuroscience, Switzerland.
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27
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Hill MD, Fang H, Brown JM, Molski T, Easton A, Han X, Miller R, Hill-Drzewi M, Gallagher L, Matchett M, Gulianello M, Balakrishnan A, Bertekap RL, Santone KS, Whiterock VJ, Zhuo X, Bronson JJ, Macor JE, Degnan AP. Development of 1 H-Pyrazolo[3,4- b]pyridines as Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 5 Positive Allosteric Modulators. ACS Med Chem Lett 2016; 7:1082-1086. [PMID: 27994742 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.6b00292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) is an attractive target for the treatment of schizophrenia due to its role in regulating glutamatergic signaling in association with the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR). We describe the synthesis of 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridines and their utility as mGluR5 positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) without inherent agonist activity. A facile and convergent synthetic route provided access to a structurally diverse set of analogues that contain neither the aryl-acetylene-aryl nor aryl-methyleneoxy-aryl elements, the predominant structural motifs described in the literature. Binding studies suggest that members of our new chemotype do not engage the receptor at the MPEP and CPPHA mGluR5 allosteric sites. SAR studies culminated in the first non-MPEP site PAM, 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine 31 (BMT-145027), to improve cognition in a preclinical rodent model of learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Hill
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Haiquan Fang
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Jeffrey M. Brown
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Thaddeus Molski
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Amy Easton
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Xiaojun Han
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Regina Miller
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Melissa Hill-Drzewi
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Lizbeth Gallagher
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Michele Matchett
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Michael Gulianello
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Anand Balakrishnan
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Robert L. Bertekap
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Kenneth S. Santone
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Valerie J. Whiterock
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Xiaoliang Zhuo
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Joanne J. Bronson
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - John E. Macor
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
| | - Andrew P. Degnan
- Research and Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492-7660, United States
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28
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Lundström L, Bissantz C, Beck J, Dellenbach M, Woltering T, Wichmann J, Gatti S. Pharmacological and molecular characterization of the positive allosteric modulators of metabotropic glutamate receptor 2. Neuropharmacology 2016; 111:253-265. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.08.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2015] [Revised: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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29
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Pandya NJ, Klaassen RV, van der Schors RC, Slotman JA, Houtsmuller A, Smit AB, Li KW. Group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors 1 and 5 form a protein complex in mouse hippocampus and cortex. Proteomics 2016; 16:2698-2705. [PMID: 27392515 PMCID: PMC5129514 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201500400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors 1 and 5 (mGluR1/5) have been implicated in mechanisms of synaptic plasticity and may serve as potential therapeutic targets in autism spectrum disorders. The interactome of group 1 mGluRs has remained largely unresolved. Using a knockout‐controlled interaction proteomics strategy we examined the mGluR5 protein complex in two brain regions, hippocampus and cortex, and identified mGluR1 as its major interactor in addition to the well described Homer proteins. We confirmed the presence of mGluR1/5 complex by (i) reverse immunoprecipitation using an mGluR1 antibody to pulldown mGluR5 from hippocampal tissue, (ii) coexpression in HEK293 cells followed by coimmunoprecipitation to reveal the direct interaction of mGluR1 and 5, and (iii) superresolution microscopy imaging of hippocampal primary neurons to show colocalization of the mGluR1/5 in the synapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikhil J Pandya
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Remco V Klaassen
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Roel C van der Schors
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Johan A Slotman
- Optical Imaging Center, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - August B Smit
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ka Wan Li
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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30
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Litim N, Morissette M, Di Paolo T. Metabotropic glutamate receptors as therapeutic targets in Parkinson's disease: An update from the last 5 years of research. Neuropharmacology 2016; 115:166-179. [PMID: 27055772 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.03.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2015] [Revised: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Disturbance of glutamate neurotransmission in Parkinson's disease (PD) and l-DOPA induced dyskinesia (LID) is well documented. This review focuses on advances during the past five years on pharmacological modulation of metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors in relation to anti-parkinsonian activity, LID attenuation, and neuroprotection. Drug design and characterization have led to the development of orthosteric agonists binding the same site as glutamate and Positive and Negative Allosteric modulators (PAMs and NAMs) binding sites different from the orthosteric site and offering subtype selectivity. Inhibition of group I (mGlu1 and mGlu5) receptors with NAMs and activation of group II (mGlu2 and 3 receptors) and group III (mGlu 4, 7 and 8 receptors) with PAMs and orthosteric agonists have shown their potential to inhibit glutamate release and attenuate excitotoxicity. Earlier and recent studies have led to the development of mGlu5 receptors NAMs to reduce LID and for neuroprotection, mGlu3 receptor agonists for neuroprotection while mGlu4 receptor PAMs and agonists for antiparkinsonian effects and neuroprotection. Furthermore, homo- and heterodimers of mGlu receptors are documented and highlight the complexity of the functioning of these receptors. Research on partial allosteric modulators and biased mGlu receptor allosteric modulators offer new glutamatergic drugs with better therapeutic effects and less off target adverse activity. Thus these various mGlu receptor targets will enable the development of novel drugs with improved clinical effects for normalization of glutamate transmission, treat PD and LID relief. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors, 5 years on'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadhir Litim
- Neuroscience Research Unit, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, CHUL, Quebec City, Canada; Faculty of Pharmacy, Laval University, Quebec City, Canada
| | - Marc Morissette
- Neuroscience Research Unit, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, CHUL, Quebec City, Canada
| | - Thérèse Di Paolo
- Neuroscience Research Unit, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, CHUL, Quebec City, Canada; Faculty of Pharmacy, Laval University, Quebec City, Canada.
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31
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Topiol S, Sabio M. 7TM X-ray structures for class C GPCRs as new drug-discovery tools. 1. mGluR5. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016; 26:484-494. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2015.11.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2015] [Revised: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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32
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Sengmany K, Gregory KJ. Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5: molecular pharmacology, allosteric modulation and stimulus bias. Br J Pharmacol 2015; 173:3001-17. [PMID: 26276909 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Revised: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGlu5 ) is a family C GPCR that has been implicated in various neuronal processes and, consequently, in several CNS disorders. Over the past few decades, GPCR-based drug discovery, including that for mGlu5 receptors, has turned considerable attention to targeting allosteric binding sites. Modulation of endogenous agonists by allosteric ligands offers the advantages of spatial and temporal fine-tuning of receptor activity, increased selectivity and reduced adverse effects with the potential to elicit improved clinical outcomes. Further, with greater appreciation of the multifaceted nature of the transduction of mGlu5 receptor signalling, it is increasingly apparent that drug discovery must take into consideration unique receptor conformations and the potential for stimulus-bias. This novel paradigm proposes that different ligands may differentially modulate distinct signalling pathways arising from the same receptor. We review our current understanding of the complexities of mGlu5 receptor signalling and regulation, and how these relate to allosteric ligands. Ultimately, a deeper appreciation of these relationships will provide the foundation for targeted drug design of compounds with increased selectivity, not only for the desired receptor but also for the desired signalling outcome from the receptor. Linked Articles This article is part of a themed section on Molecular Pharmacology of G Protein-Coupled Receptors. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v173.20/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Sengmany
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - K J Gregory
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
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33
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Nickols HH, Yuh JP, Gregory KJ, Morrison RD, Bates BS, Stauffer SR, Emmitte KA, Bubser M, Peng W, Nedelcovych MT, Thompson A, Lv X, Xiang Z, Daniels JS, Niswender CM, Lindsley CW, Jones CK, Conn PJ. VU0477573: Partial Negative Allosteric Modulator of the Subtype 5 Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor with In Vivo Efficacy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2015; 356:123-36. [PMID: 26503377 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.115.226597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Negative allosteric modulators (NAMs) of metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGlu5) have potential applications in the treatment of fragile X syndrome, levodopa-induced dyskinesia in Parkinson disease, Alzheimer disease, addiction, and anxiety; however, clinical and preclinical studies raise concerns that complete blockade of mGlu5 and inverse agonist activity of current mGlu5 NAMs contribute to adverse effects that limit the therapeutic use of these compounds. We report the discovery and characterization of a novel mGlu5 NAM, N,N-diethyl-5-((3-fluorophenyl)ethynyl)picolinamide (VU0477573) that binds to the same allosteric site as the prototypical mGlu5 NAM MPEP but displays weak negative cooperativity. Because of this weak cooperativity, VU0477573 acts as a "partial NAM" so that full occupancy of the MPEP site does not completely inhibit maximal effects of mGlu5 agonists on intracellular calcium mobilization, inositol phosphate (IP) accumulation, or inhibition of synaptic transmission at the hippocampal Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapse. Unlike previous mGlu5 NAMs, VU0477573 displays no inverse agonist activity assessed using measures of effects on basal [(3)H]inositol phosphate (IP) accumulation. VU0477573 acts as a full NAM when measuring effects on mGlu5-mediated extracellular signal-related kinases 1/2 phosphorylation, which may indicate functional bias. VU0477573 exhibits an excellent pharmacokinetic profile and good brain penetration in rodents and provides dose-dependent full mGlu5 occupancy in the central nervous system (CNS) with systemic administration. Interestingly, VU0477573 shows robust efficacy, comparable to the mGlu5 NAM MTEP, in models of anxiolytic activity at doses that provide full CNS occupancy of mGlu5 and demonstrate an excellent CNS occupancy-efficacy relationship. VU0477573 provides an exciting new tool to investigate the efficacy of partial NAMs in animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilary Highfield Nickols
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Joannes P Yuh
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Karen J Gregory
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Ryan D Morrison
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Brittney S Bates
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Shaun R Stauffer
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Kyle A Emmitte
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Michael Bubser
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Weimin Peng
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Michael T Nedelcovych
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Analisa Thompson
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Xiaohui Lv
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Zixiu Xiang
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - J Scott Daniels
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Colleen M Niswender
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Craig W Lindsley
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - Carrie K Jones
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
| | - P Jeffrey Conn
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Neuropathology (H.H.N., J.P.Y.), Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (H.H.N., R.D.M., B.S.B., K.A.E., M.B., W.P., M.T.N., A.T., X.L., Z.X., J.S.D., C.M.N., C.W.L., C.K.J., P.J.C.), Department of Chemistry and Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology (S.R.S., K.A.E., C.W.L.) Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (K.J.G.)
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Fuxe K, Borroto-Escuela DO. Basimglurant for treatment of major depressive disorder: a novel negative allosteric modulator of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2015. [DOI: 10.1517/13543784.2015.1074175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Gentry PR, Sexton PM, Christopoulos A. Novel Allosteric Modulators of G Protein-coupled Receptors. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:19478-88. [PMID: 26100627 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.r115.662759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are allosteric proteins, because their signal transduction relies on interactions between topographically distinct, yet conformationally linked, domains. Much of the focus on GPCR allostery in the new millennium, however, has been on modes of targeting GPCR allosteric sites with chemical probes due to the potential for novel therapeutics. It is now apparent that some GPCRs possess more than one targetable allosteric site, in addition to a growing list of putative endogenous modulators. Advances in structural biology are also shedding new insights into mechanisms of allostery, although the complexities of candidate allosteric drugs necessitate rigorous biological characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick R Gentry
- From Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 399 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Patrick M Sexton
- From Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 399 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Arthur Christopoulos
- From Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 399 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
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