Lead-adsorbing ionogel-based encapsulation for impact-resistant, stable, and lead-safe perovskite modules

Achievements, challenges, and future prospects for industrialization of perovskite solar cells

In just over a decade, certified single-junction perovskite solar cells (PSCs) boast an impressive power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 26.1%. Such outstanding performance makes it highly viable for further development. Here, we have meticulously outlined challenges that arose during the industrialization of PSCs and proposed their corresponding solutions based on extensive research. We discussed the main challenges in this field including technological limitations, multi-scenario applications, sustainable development, etc. Mature photovoltaic solutions provide the perovskite community with invaluable insights for overcoming the challenges of industrialization. In the upcoming stages of PSCs advancement, it has become evident that addressing the challenges concerning long-term stability and sustainability is paramount. In this manner, we can facilitate a more effective integration of PSCs into our daily lives.

Fusing Science with Industry: Perovskite Photovoltaics Moving Rapidly into Industrialization

The organic-inorganic lead halide per materials have emerged as highly promising contenders in the field of photovoltaic technology, offering exceptional efficiency and cost-effectiveness. The commercialization of perovskite photovoltaics hinges on successfully transitioning from lab-scale perovskite solar cells to large-scale perovskite solar modules (PSMs). However, the efficiency of PSMs significantly diminishes with increasing device area, impeding commercial viability. Central to achieving high-efficiency PSMs is fabricating uniform functional films and optimizing interfaces to minimize energy loss. This review sheds light on the path toward large-scale PSMs, emphasizing the pivotal role of integrating cutting-edge scientific research with industrial technology. By exploring scalable deposition techniques and optimization strategies, the advancements and challenges in fabricating large-area perovskite films are revealed. Subsequently, the architecture and contact materials of PSMs are delved while addressing pertinent interface issues. Crucially, efficiency loss during scale-up and stability risks encountered by PSMs is analyzed. Furthermore, the advancements in industrial efforts toward perovskite commercialization are highlighted, emphasizing the perspective of PSMs in revolutionizing renewable energy. By highlighting the scientific and technical challenges in developing PSMs, the importance of combining science and industry to drive their industrialization and pave the way for future advancements is stressed.

Regulating Surface Metal Abundance via Lattice-Matched Coordination for Versatile and Environmentally-Viable Sn-Pb Alloying Perovskite Solar Cells

Narrow-bandgap Sn-Pb alloying perovskites showcased great potential in constructing multiple-junction perovskite solar cells (PSCs) with efficiencies approaching or exceeding the Shockley-Queisser limit. However, the uncontrollable surface metal abundance (Sn2+ and Pb2+ ions) hinders their efficiency and versatility in different device structures. Additionally, the undesired Pb distribution mainly at the buried interface accelerates the Pb leakage when devices are damaged. In this work, a novel strategy is presented to modulate crystallization kinetics and surface metal abundance of Sn-Pb perovskites using a cobweb-like quadrangular macrocyclic porphyrin material, which features a molecular size compatible with the perovskite lattice and robustly coordinates with Pb2+ ions, thus immobilizing them and increasing surface Pb abundance by 61%. This modulation reduces toxic Pb leakage rates by 24-fold, with only ∼23 ppb Pb in water after severely damaged PSCs are immersed in water for 150 h.This strategy can also enhance chemical homogeneity, reduce trap density, release tensile strain and optimize carrier dynamics of Sn-Pb perovskites and relevant devices. Encouragingly, the power conversion efficiency (PCEs) of 23.28% for single-junction, full-stack devices and 21.34% for hole transport layer-free Sn-Pb PSCs are achieved.Notably, the related monolithic all-perovskite tandem solar cell also achieves a PCE of 27.03% with outstanding photostability.

Preventing lead leakage in perovskite solar cells and modules with a low-cost and stable chemisorption coating

Despite the promising commercial prospects of perovskite solar cells, the issue of lead toxicity continues to hinder their future industrial applications. Here, we report a low-cost and rapidly degraded sulfosuccinic acid-modified polyvinyl alcohol (SMP) coating that prevents lead leakage and enhances device stability without compromising device performance. Even under different strict conditions (simulated heavy rain, acid rain, high temperatures, and competing ions), the coatings effectively prevent lead leakage by over 99%. After 75 days of outdoor exposure, the coating still demonstrates similar lead sequestration efficiency (SQE). In addition, it can be applied to different device structures (n-i-p and p-i-n) and modules, with over 99% SQE, making it a general method for preventing lead leakage.

Challenges in Developing Perovskite Nanocrystals for Commercial Applications

Zero-dimensional lead halide perovskite nanocrystals (NCs) exhibit size-dependent bandgap and carrier confinement compared to bulk counterparts due to the quantum confinement effect, making them essential for achieving wide-color-gamut displays, studying excitonic spin relaxation, and constructing superlattices. Despite their promising potential, they face a variety of technical bottlenecks, such as insufficient color reproducibility, limited large-scale production, low stability, and toxicity. An outline of a research roadmap is provided in the review, which highlights key challenges in developing perovskite NCs for commercial applications.

Enhancing Ultraviolet Stability and Performance of Wide Bandgap Perovskite Solar Cells Through Ultraviolet Light-Absorbing Passivator

Ultraviolet light (UV) has caused tremendous damage to perovskite solar cells (PSCs), degrading the perovskite and shortening their lifetime. Defects act as non-radiative recombination sites, accelerate the degradation process, reduce the efficiency of the device and weaken the stability of solar cell. In this work, to realize efficient and stable p-i-n wide bandgap solar cells under UV, a synergetic strategy utilizing UV light-absorbing passivator, (Trifluoroacetyl) benzotriazole (TFABI), enhance UV photostability and regulate the defect passivation is proposed. By using TFABI, the degradation of the perovskite absorption layer under UV light is suppressed, spectral response is enhanced and the Pb vacancy defects are passivated. As a result, the target device achieves an efficiency of 21.54%, exhibiting excellent long-term stability under 365 nm UV irradiation. After 60 h of irradiation, it retains 85% of its initial value (60 mW cm-2 , RH 25-30%, 25 °C).

The first demonstration of entirely roll-to-roll fabricated perovskite solar cell modules under ambient room conditions

The rapid development of organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite solar cells has resulted in laboratory-scale devices having power conversion efficiencies that are competitive with commercialised technologies. However, hybrid perovskite solar cells are yet to make an impact beyond the research community, with translation to large-area devices fabricated by industry-relevant manufacturing methods remaining a critical challenge. Here we report the first demonstration of hybrid perovskite solar cell modules, comprising serially-interconnected cells, produced entirely using industrial roll-to-roll printing tools under ambient room conditions. As part of this development, costly vacuum-deposited metal electrodes are replaced with printed carbon electrodes. A high-throughput experiment involving the analysis of batches of 1600 cells produced using 20 parameter combinations enabled rapid optimisation over a large parameter space. The optimised roll-to-roll fabricated hybrid perovskite solar cells show power conversion efficiencies of up to 15.5% for individual small-area cells and 11.0% for serially-interconnected cells in large-area modules. Based on the devices produced in this work, a cost of ~0.7 USD W-1 is predicted for a production rate of 1,000,000 m² per year in Australia, with potential for further significant cost reductions.

Synergetic Regulation of Interface Defects and Carriers Dynamics for High-Performance Lead-Free Perovskite Solar Cells

Severe nonradiative recombination and open-circuit voltage loss triggered by high-density interface defects greatly restrict the continuous improvement of Sn-based perovskite solar cells (Sn-PVSCs). Herein, a novel amphoteric semiconductor, O-pivaloylhydroxylammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate (PHAAT), is developed to manage interface defects and carrier dynamics of Sn-PVSCs. The amphiphilic ionic modulators containing multiple Lewis-base functional groups can synergistically passivate anionic and cationic defects while coordinating with uncoordinated Sn2+ to compensate for surface charge and alleviate the Sn2+ oxidation. Especially, the sulfonate anions raise the energy barrier of surface oxidation, relieve lattice distortion, and inhibit nonradiative recombination by passivating Sn-related and I-related deep-level defects. Furthermore, the strong coupling between PHAAT and Sn perovskite induces the transition of the surface electronic state from p-type to n-type, thus creating an extra back-surface field to accelerate electron extraction. Consequently, the PHAAT-treated device exhibits a champion efficiency of 13.94% with negligible hysteresis. The device without any encapsulation maintains 94.7% of its initial PCE after 2000 h of storage and 91.6% of its initial PCE after 1000 h of continuous illumination. This work provides a reliable strategy to passivate interface defects and construct p-n homojunction to realize efficient and stable Sn-based perovskite photovoltaic devices.

Improving the performance of perovskite solar cells using a dual-hole transport layer

The energy loss (Eloss) caused by inefficient charge transfer and large energy level offset at the buried interface can easily restrict the performance of p-i-n perovskite solar cells (PVSCs). In this study, the utilization of poly-TPD and P3CT-N as a dual-hole transporting layer (HTLs) was implemented in a sequential manner. This approach aimed to improve the charge transfer efficiency of the HTL and mitigate charge recombination at the interface between the HTL and PVK. The results showed that this strategy also could achieve more suitable energy levels, improve the quality of the perovskite film layer, and ultimately enhance the device's stability. IPVSCs employing the dual-HTLs approach exhibited the highest power conversion efficiency of 19.85%, and the open-circuit voltage increased to 1.09 V from 1.00 V. This study offers a straightforward and efficient approach to boost the device performance by minimizing Eloss and reducing the buried interfacial defects. The findings underscore the potential of employing a dual-HTL strategy as a promising pathway for further advancements in PVSCs.

Cellulose-Based Ionic Conductor: An Emerging Material toward Sustainable Devices

Ionic conductors (ICs) find widespread applications across different fields, such as smart electronic, ionotronic, sensor, biomedical, and energy harvesting/storage devices, and largely determine the function and performance of these devices. In the pursuit of developing ICs required for better performing and sustainable devices, cellulose appears as an attractive and promising building block due to its high abundance, renewability, striking mechanical strength, and other functional features. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary regarding ICs fabricated from cellulose and cellulose-derived materials in terms of fundamental structural features of cellulose, the materials design and fabrication techniques for engineering, main properties and characterization, and diverse applications. Next, the potential of cellulose-based ICs to relieve the increasing concern about electronic waste within the frame of circularity and environmental sustainability and the future directions to be explored for advancing this field are discussed. Overall, we hope this review can provide a comprehensive summary and unique perspectives on the design and application of advanced cellulose-based ICs and thereby encourage the utilization of cellulosic materials toward sustainable devices.

Regulating Crystallization and Lead Leakage of Perovskite Solar Cell Via Novel Polyoxometalate-Based Metal-Organic Framework

Despite the unprecedented progress in lead-based perovskite solar cells (PSCs), the toxicity and leakage of lead from degraded PSCs triggered by deep-level defects and poor crystallization quality increase environmental risk and become a critical challenge for eco-friendly PSCs. Here, a novel 2D polyoxometalate (POM)-based metal-organic framework (MOF) (C₅ NH₅ )₄ (C₃ N₂ H₅ )₂ Zn₃ (H₈ P₄ Mo₆ O₃₁ )₂ ·2H₂ O (POMOF) is ingeniously devised to address these issues. Note that the integration of POM endows POMOF with great advantages of electrical conductivity and charge mobility. Ordered POMOF induces the crystallization of high-quality perovskite film and eliminates lead-based defects to improve internal stability. The resultant PSCs achieve a superior power conversion efficiency (23.3%) accompanied by improved stability that maintains ≈90% of its original efficiency after 1600 h. Meanwhile, POMOF with phosphate groups effectively prevents lead leakage through in situ chemical anchoring and adsorption methods to reduce environmental risk. This work provides an effective strategy to minimize lead-based defects and leakage in sustainable PSCs through multi-functional POM-based MOF material.

Lead immobilization for environmentally sustainable perovskite solar cells

Lead halide perovskites are promising semiconducting materials for solar energy harvesting. However, the presence of heavy-metal lead ions is problematic when considering potential harmful leakage into the environment from broken cells and also from a public acceptance point of view. Moreover, strict legislation on the use of lead around the world has driven innovation in the development of strategies for recycling end-of-life products by means of environmentally friendly and cost-effective routes. Lead immobilization is a strategy to transform water-soluble lead ions into insoluble, nonbioavailable and nontransportable forms over large pH and temperature ranges and to suppress lead leakage if the devices are damaged. An ideal methodology should ensure sufficient lead-chelating capability without substantially influencing the device performance, production cost and recycling. Here we analyse chemical approaches to immobilize Pb2+ from perovskite solar cells, such as grain isolation, lead complexation, structure integration and adsorption of leaked lead, based on their feasibility to suppress lead leakage to a minimal level. We highlight the need for a standard lead-leakage test and related mathematical model to be established for the reliable evaluation of the potential environmental risk of perovskite optoelectronics.

Lead Sequestration in Perovskite Photovoltaic Device Encapsulated with Water-Proof and Adhesive Poly(ionic liquid)

The inevitable usage of toxic lead impedes the commercialization of lead halide perovskite solar cells, especially considering lead ions potentially unseals from the discarded and damaged devices and consequently contaminates the environment. In this work, we proposed a poly(ionic liquid) (PIL) cohered sandwich structure (PCSS) to realize lead sequestration in perovskite solar cells by a water-proof and adhesive poly([1-(3-propionic acid)-3-vinylimidazolium] bis(trifluoromethanesulphonyl)imide (PPVI-TFSI). A transparent ambidextrous protective shield manufactured from PPVI-TFSI was achieved and applied in lead sequestration for perovskite solar cells. PCSS provides robustness and water-resistance, which improves device stability toward water erosion and extreme situations (such as acid, base, salty water, and hot water). PPVI-TFSI exhibited excellent affinity toward lead with adsorption capacity of 516 mg·g^-1, which assisted to prevent lead leakage in abandoned devices as proved in the test of wheat germination vividly. PCSS provides a promising solution for complex lead sequestration and management issues, which contribute to the commercialization of perovskite solar cells.

Room temperature nondestructive encapsulation via self-crosslinked fluorosilicone polymer enables damp heat-stable sustainable perovskite solar cells

Encapsulation engineering is an effective strategy to improve the stability of perovskite solar cells. However, current encapsulation materials are not suitable for lead-based devices because of their complex encapsulation processes, poor thermal management, and inefficient lead leakage suppression. In this work, we design a self-crosslinked fluorosilicone polymer gel, achieving nondestructive encapsulation at room temperature. Moreover, the proposed encapsulation strategy effectively promotes heat transfer and mitigates the potential impact of heat accumulation. As a result, the encapsulated devices maintain 98% of the normalized power conversion efficiency after 1000 h in the damp heat test and retain 95% of the normalized efficiency after 220 cycles in the thermal cycling test, satisfying the requirements of the International Electrotechnical Commission 61215 standard. The encapsulated devices also exhibit excellent lead leakage inhibition rates, 99% in the rain test and 98% in the immersion test, owing to excellent glass protection and strong coordination interaction. Our strategy provides a universal and integrated solution for achieving efficient, stable, and sustainable perovskite photovoltaics.

Materials development in stretchable iontronics

Stretchable iontronics have recently been developed as an ideal interface to promote the interaction between humans and devices. Since the materials that use ions as charge carriers are typically transparent and stretchable, they have been used to fabricate devices with diverse functions with intrinsic transparency and stretchability. With the development of device design, material design has also been investigated to mitigate the issues associated with ionic materials, such as their weak mechanical properties, poor electrical properties, or poor environmental stabilities. In this review, we describe the recent progress on the design of materials in stretchable iontronics. By classifying stretchable ionic materials into three types of components (ionic conductors, ionic semiconductors, and ionic insulators), the issues each component has and the strategies to solve them are introduced, specifically in terms of molecular interactions. We then discuss the existing hurdles and challenges to be handled and shine light on the possibilities and opportunities from the insight of molecular interactions.

Construction of metal-organic framework/polymer beads for efficient lead ions removal from water: Experiment studies and full-scale performance prediction

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) show great promise in heavy metal removal; however, their applications are restricted by the poor separability and water instability. Herein, granular Zr-based MOF-polymer composite beads (MPCB(Zr)) (mean diameter ∼ 1.74 mm) were synthesized using a facile dropping method, and applied on efficient lead ions (Pb(II)) removal. The as-prepared MPCB(Zr) demonstrated deep Pb(II) removal capability by reducing its concentration to ∼ 0.002 mg L^-1 after adsorption equilibrium at 360 min. The distribution coefficient for Pb(II) reached 8.0 × 10⁶ mL g^-1, and the theoretical adsorption capacity for Pb(II) was 144.5 mg g^-1 (0.70 mmol g^-1, 30 °C). The resulting MPCB(Zr) was highly selective for Pb(II), with the selectivity coefficient up to ∼ 1.0-3.6 × 10³ for the background cations (Na(I), K(I), Ca(II), and Mg(II)). Moreover, the MPCB(Zr) exhibited a broad working pH range (3.0-6.0) and satisfactory anti-interference to dissolved organic matters (humic acid and fuvic acid). Notably, the MPCB(Zr) also demonstrated excellent reusability with the Pb(II) removal efficiency over 99.0% after 20 cycles. Combined physicochemical characterizations unveiled that the thiol and oxygen-containing groups (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxylate) were responsible for the effective Pb(II) removal. To provide guidance for engineering application, the full-scale performance of the MPCB(Zr) under varying operation conditions was systematically evaluated via the validated pore surface diffusion model. This work provides an effective methodology to construct macroscopic MOF-polymer beads for effective Pb(II) removal, and promote the actual application of MOFs in water treatment.

Avoiding Structural Collapse to Reduce Lead Leakage in Perovskite Photovoltaics

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have become a promising candidate for the next-generation photovoltaic technologies. As an essential element for high-efficiency PSCs however, the heavy metal Pb is soluble in water, causing a serious threat to the environment and human health. Due to the weak ionic bonding in three-dimensional (3D) perovskites, drastic structure decomposition occurs when immersing the perovskite film in water, which accelerates the Pb leakage. By introducing the chemically stable Dion-Jacobson (DJ) 2D perovskite at the 3D perovskite surface, the film dissolution is significantly slowed down, which retards lead leakage. As a result, the Pb contamination is dramatically reduced under various extreme conditions. In addition, the PSCs device deliver a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 23.6 % and retain over 95 % of their initial PCE after the maximum power point tracking for over 1100 h.

Recyclable, Healable, and Tough Ionogels Insensitive to Crack Propagation

Most gels and elastomers introduce sacrificial bonds in the covalent network to dissipate energy. However, long-term cyclic loading caused irreversible fatigue damage and crack propagation cannot be prevented. Furthermore, because of the irreversible covalent crosslinked networks, it is a huge challenge to implement reversible mechanical interlocking and reorganize the polymer segments to realize the recycling and reuse of ionogels. Here, covalent crosslinking of host materials is replaced with entanglement. The entangled microdomains are used as physical crosslinking while introducing reversible bond interactions. The interpenetrating, entangled, and elastic microdomains of linear segments and covalent-network microspheres provide mechanical stability, eliminate stress concentration at the crack tip under load, and achieve unprecedented tear and fatigue resistance of ionogels in any load direction. Moreover, reversible entanglements and noncovalent interactions can be disentangled and recombined to achieve recycling and mechanical regeneration, and the recyclability of covalent-network microdomains is realized.

Surface Passivation of MAPbBr3 Perovskite Single Crystals to Suppress Ion Migration and Enhance Photoelectronic Performance

Recently, organometal halide perovskites (OHPs) have achieved significant advancement in photovoltaics, light-emitting diodes, X-ray detectors, and transistors. However, commercialization and practical applications were hindered by the notorious ion migration issue of OHPs. Here, we report a simple solvent-based surface passivation strategy with organic halide salts (methylammonium bromide (MABr) and phenylethylammonium bromide (PEABr)) to suppress the ion migration of MAPbBr₃ single crystals. The surface passivation effect is evidenced by the stronger photoluminescence (PL) intensity and extended PL lifetime. Using the pulse voltage and continuous voltage current-voltage measurements, we found that single crystals with surface passivation showed negligible hysteresis on the surface due to the suppression of ion migration. As a result, the dark current stability of coplanar structure devices was significantly improved. Moreover, the vertical structure X-ray detectors with PEABr treatment exhibited a high sensitivity of 15 280 μC Gy_air^-1 cm^-2 and a low detection limit of 87 nGy_air s^-1 under 5 V bias. The proposed technology would be a versatile tool to improve the performance of perovskite photoelectronic devices.

Hetero-perovskite engineering for stable and efficient perovskite solar cells

This review summarizes and discusses the HPSC engineering and optimization mechanism, and provides systematic knowledge and prospects of their development in the photovoltaic field.

Emerging combination immunotherapy strategies for breast cancer: dual immune checkpoint modulation, antibody-drug conjugates and bispecific antibodies

Breast cancer has historically been considered a non-immunogenic tumor. Multiple studies over the last 10-15 years have demonstrated that a small subset of breast cancers is immune-activated, with PD-L1 expression and/or TILs in the tumor microenvironment. The PD-1 inhibitor pembrolizumab in combination with chemotherapy is now approved by the US FDA for the first-line treatment of metastatic PD-L1 + triple negative breast cancer, and the PD-L1 inhibitor atezolizumab has also demonstrated clinical activity. The median progression-free survival for pembrolizumab or atezolizumab combined with chemotherapy increased with the addition of immunotherapy by 4.1 months and 2.5 months, respectively. Despite this success, there is major room for improvement. Clinical benefit is modest. Only about 40% of triple negative breast cancers are PD-L1 + , not all PD-L1 + patients with advanced triple negative breast cancer respond, and immunotherapy is not yet approved for advanced PD-L1-negative triple negative breast cancer, HER2 + breast cancer, or ER + breast cancer. It is likely that redundant pathways of immune suppression are active in breast cancer, or that important pathways of immune activation are silent. In this review, we discuss emerging strategies for targeting multiple pathways of immunoregulation in advanced breast cancer with dual immune checkpoint inhibition, bispecific antibodies, and novel antibody drug conjugates. We also discuss the potential of nanotechnology to improve the delivery of immunotherapeutics to the breast tumor microenvironment to enhance their antitumor activity.