High cell density and high-resolution 3D bioprinting for fabricating vascularized tissues

Recent advances and applications of artificial intelligence in 3D bioprinting

3D bioprinting techniques enable the precise deposition of living cells, biomaterials, and biomolecules, emerging as a promising approach for engineering functional tissues and organs. Meanwhile, recent advances in 3D bioprinting enable researchers to build in vitro models with finely controlled and complex micro-architecture for drug screening and disease modeling. Recently, artificial intelligence (AI) has been applied to different stages of 3D bioprinting, including medical image reconstruction, bioink selection, and printing process, with both classical AI and machine learning approaches. The ability of AI to handle complex datasets, make complex computations, learn from past experiences, and optimize processes dynamically makes it an invaluable tool in advancing 3D bioprinting. The review highlights the current integration of AI in 3D bioprinting and discusses future approaches to harness the synergistic capabilities of 3D bioprinting and AI for developing personalized tissues and organs.

Comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art in corneal 3D bioprinting, including regulatory aspects

The global shortage of corneal transplants has spurred an urgency in the quest for efficient treatments. This systematic review not only provides a concise overview of the current landscape of corneal morphology, physiology, diseases, and conventional treatments but crucially delves into the forefront of tissue engineering for corneal regeneration. Emphasizing cellular and acellular components, bioprinting techniques, and pertinent biological assays, it explores optimization strategies for manufacturing and cost-effectiveness. To bridge the gap between research and industrial production, the review outlines the essential regulatory strategy required in Europe, encompassing relevant directives, frameworks, and governing bodies. This comprehensive regulatory framework spans the entire process, from procuring initial components to marketing and subsequent product surveillance. In a pivotal shift towards the future, the review culminates by highlighting the latest advancements in this sector, particularly the integration of tissue therapy with artificial intelligence. This synergy promises substantial optimization of the overall process, paving the way for unprecedented breakthroughs in corneal regeneration. In essence, this review not only elucidates the current state of corneal treatments and tissue engineering but also outlines regulatory pathways and anticipates the transformative impact of artificial intelligence, providing a comprehensive guide for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in the field.

Advances in Cell-Rich Inks for Biofabricating Living Architectures

Advancing biofabrication toward manufacturing living constructs with well-defined architectures and increasingly biologically relevant cell densities is highly desired to mimic the biofunctionality of native human tissues. The formulation of tissue-like, cell-dense inks for biofabrication remains, however, challenging at various levels of the bioprinting process. Promising advances have been made toward this goal, achieving relatively high cell densities that surpass those found in conventional platforms, pushing the current boundaries closer to achieving tissue-like cell densities. On this focus, herein the overarching challenges in the bioprocessing of cell-rich living inks into clinically grade engineered tissues are discussed, as well as the most recent advances in cell-rich living ink formulations and their processing technologies are highlighted. Additionally, an overview of the foreseen developments in the field is provided and critically discussed.

4D bioprinting of programmed dynamic tissues

Setting time as the fourth dimension, 4D printing allows us to construct dynamic structures that can change their shape, property, or functionality over time under stimuli, leading to a wave of innovations in various fields. Recently, 4D printing of smart biomaterials, biological components, and living cells into dynamic living 3D constructs with 4D effects has led to an exciting field of 4D bioprinting. 4D bioprinting has gained increasing attention and is being applied to create programmed and dynamic cell-laden constructs such as bone, cartilage, and vasculature. This review presents an overview on 4D bioprinting for engineering dynamic tissues and organs, followed by a discussion on the approaches, bioprinting technologies, smart biomaterials and smart design, bioink requirements, and applications. While much progress has been achieved, 4D bioprinting as a complex process is facing challenges that need to be addressed by transdisciplinary strategies to unleash the full potential of this advanced biofabrication technology. Finally, we present future perspectives on the rapidly evolving field of 4D bioprinting, in view of its potential, increasingly important roles in the development of advanced dynamic tissues for basic research, pharmaceutics, and regenerative medicine.

Progress in SARS-CoV-2, diagnostic and clinical treatment of COVID-19

Background

Corona Virus Disease 2019(COVID-19)is a global pandemic novel coronavirus infection disease caused by Severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Although rapid, large-scale testing plays an important role in patient management and slowing the spread of the disease. However, there has been no good and widely used drug treatment for infection and transmission of SARS-CoV-2.

Key findings

Therefore, this review updates the body of knowledge on viral structure, infection routes, detection methods, and clinical treatment, with the aim of responding to the large-section caused by SARS-CoV-2. This paper focuses on the structure of SARS-CoV-2 viral protease, RNA polymerase, serine protease and main proteinase-like protease as well as targeted antiviral drugs.

Conclusion

In vitro or clinical trials have been carried out to provide deeper thinking for the pathogenesis, clinical diagnosis, vaccine development and treatment of SARS-CoV-2.

Heat-inducible CAR-T overcomes adverse mechanical tumor microenvironment in a 3D bioprinted glioblastoma model

Glioblastoma (GBM) presents a significant therapeutic challenge due to the limited efficacy of existing treatments. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy offers promise, but its potential in solid tumors like GBM is undermined by the physical barrier posed by the extracellular matrix (ECM). To address the inadequacies of traditional 2D cell culture, animal models, and Matrigel-based 3D culture in mimicking the mechanical characteristics of tumor tissues, we employed biomaterials and digital light processing-based 3D bioprinting to fabricate biomimetic tumor models with finely tunable ECM stiffness independent of ECM composition. Our results demonstrated that increased material stiffness markedly impeded CAR-T cell penetration and tumor cell cytotoxicity in GBM models. The 3D bioprinted models enabled us to examine the influence of ECM stiffness on CAR-T cell therapy effectiveness, providing a clinically pertinent evaluation tool for CAR-T cell development in stiff solid tumors. Furthermore, we developed an innovative heat-inducible CAR-T cell therapy, effectively overcoming the challenges posed by the stiff tumor microenvironment.

Differential proteomics profile of microcapillary networks in response to sound pattern-driven local cell density enhancement

Spatial cell organization and biofabrication of microcapillary networks in vitro has a great potential in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. This study explores the impact of local cell density enhancement achieved through an innovative sound-based patterning on microcapillary networks formation and their proteomic profile. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and human pericytes from placenta (hPC-PL) were mixed in a fibrin suspension. The mild effect of sound-induced hydrodynamic forces condensed cells into architected geometries showing good fidelity to the numerical simulation of the physical process. Local cell density increased significantly within the patterned areas and the capillary-like structures formed following the cell density gradient. Over five days, these patterns were well-maintained, resulting in concentric circles and honeycomb-like structures. Proteomic analysis of the pre-condensed cells cultured for 5 days, revealed over 900 differentially expressed proteins when cells were preassembled through mild-hydrodynamic forces. Gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis identified cellular components, molecular functions, and biological processes that were up- and down-regulated, providing insights regarding molecular processes influenced by the local density enhancement. Furthermore, we employed Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) to identify altered pathways and predict upstream regulators. Notably, VEGF-A emerged as one of the most prominent upstream regulators. Accordingly, this study initiates the unraveling of the changes in microcapillary networks at both molecular and proteins level induced by cell condensation obtained through sound patterning. The findings provide valuable insights for further investigation into sound patterning as a biofabrication technique for creating more complex microcapillary networks and advancing in vitro models.

Advancement in Cancer Vasculogenesis Modeling through 3D Bioprinting Technology

Cancer vasculogenesis is a pivotal focus of cancer research and treatment given its critical role in tumor development, metastasis, and the formation of vasculogenic microenvironments. Traditional approaches to investigating cancer vasculogenesis face significant challenges in accurately modeling intricate microenvironments. Recent advancements in three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technology present promising solutions to these challenges. This review provides an overview of cancer vasculogenesis and underscores the importance of precise modeling. It juxtaposes traditional techniques with 3D bioprinting technologies, elucidating the advantages of the latter in developing cancer vasculogenesis models. Furthermore, it explores applications in pathological investigations, preclinical medication screening for personalized treatment and cancer diagnostics, and envisages future prospects for 3D bioprinted cancer vasculogenesis models. Despite notable advancements, current 3D bioprinting techniques for cancer vasculogenesis modeling have several limitations. Nonetheless, by overcoming these challenges and with technological advances, 3D bioprinting exhibits immense potential for revolutionizing the understanding of cancer vasculogenesis and augmenting treatment modalities.

Applications of 3D Bioprinting Technology to Brain Cells and Brain Tumor Models: Special Emphasis to Glioblastoma

Primary brain tumor is one of the most fatal diseases. The most malignant type among them, glioblastoma (GBM), has low survival rates. Standard treatments reduce the life quality of patients due to serious side effects. Tumor aggressiveness and the unique structure of the brain render the removal of tumors and the development of new therapies challenging. To elucidate the characteristics of brain tumors and examine their response to drugs, realistic systems that mimic the tumor environment and cellular crosstalk are desperately needed. In the past decade, 3D GBM models have been presented as excellent platforms as they allowed the investigation of the phenotypes of GBM and testing innovative therapeutic strategies. In that scope, 3D bioprinting technology offers utilities such as fabricating realistic 3D bioprinted structures in a layer-by-layer manner and precisely controlled deposition of materials and cells, and they can be integrated with other technologies like the microfluidics approach. This Review covers studies that investigated 3D bioprinted brain tumor models, especially GBM using 3D bioprinting techniques and essential parameters that affect the result and quality of the study like frequently used cells, the type and physical characteristics of hydrogel, bioprinting conditions, cross-linking methods, and characterization techniques.

FLight Biofabrication Supports Maturation of Articular Cartilage with Anisotropic Properties

Tissue engineering approaches that recapitulate cartilage biomechanical properties are emerging as promising methods to restore the function of injured or degenerated tissue. However, despite significant progress in this research area, the generation of engineered cartilage constructs akin to native counterparts still represents an unmet challenge. In particular, the inability to accurately reproduce cartilage zonal architecture with different collagen fibril orientations is a significant limitation. The arrangement of the extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a fundamental role in determining the mechanical and biological functions of the tissue. In this study, it is shown that a novel light-based approach, Filamented Light (FLight) biofabrication, can be used to generate highly porous, 3D cell-instructive anisotropic constructs that lead to directional collagen deposition. Using a photoclick-based photoresin optimized for cartilage tissue engineering, a significantly improved maturation of the cartilaginous tissues with zonal architecture and remarkable native-like mechanical properties is demonstrated.

Bioprinting Soft 3D Models of Hematopoiesis using Natural Silk Fibroin-Based Bioink Efficiently Supports Platelet Differentiation

Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) continuously generate platelets throughout one's life. Inherited Platelet Disorders affect ≈ 3 million individuals worldwide and are characterized by defects in platelet formation or function. A critical challenge in the identification of these diseases lies in the absence of models that facilitate the study of hematopoiesis ex vivo. Here, a silk fibroin-based bioink is developed and designed for 3D bioprinting. This bioink replicates a soft and biomimetic environment, enabling the controlled differentiation of HSPCs into platelets. The formulation consisting of silk fibroin, gelatin, and alginate is fine-tuned to obtain a viscoelastic, shear-thinning, thixotropic bioink with the remarkable ability to rapidly recover after bioprinting and provide structural integrity and mechanical stability over long-term culture. Optical transparency allowed for high-resolution imaging of platelet generation, while the incorporation of enzymatic sensors allowed quantitative analysis of glycolytic metabolism during differentiation that is represented through measurable color changes. Bioprinting patient samples revealed a decrease in metabolic activity and platelet production in Inherited Platelet Disorders. These discoveries are instrumental in establishing reference ranges for classification and automating the assessment of treatment responses. This model has far-reaching implications for application in the research of blood-related diseases, prioritizing drug development strategies, and tailoring personalized therapies.

Bioengineering toolkits for potentiating organoid therapeutics

Organoids are three-dimensional, multicellular constructs that recapitulate the structural and functional features of specific organs. Because of these characteristics, organoids have been widely applied in biomedical research in recent decades. Remarkable advancements in organoid technology have positioned them as promising candidates for regenerative medicine. However, current organoids still have limitations, such as the absence of internal vasculature, limited functionality, and a small size that is not commensurate with that of actual organs. These limitations hinder their survival and regenerative effects after transplantation. Another significant concern is the reliance on mouse tumor-derived matrix in organoid culture, which is unsuitable for clinical translation due to its tumor origin and safety issues. Therefore, our aim is to describe engineering strategies and alternative biocompatible materials that can facilitate the practical applications of organoids in regenerative medicine. Furthermore, we highlight meaningful progress in organoid transplantation, with a particular emphasis on the functional restoration of various organs.

A review of biomacromolecule-based 3D bioprinting strategies for structure-function integrated repair of skin tissues

When skin is damaged or affected by diseases, it often undergoes irreversible scar formation, leading to aesthetic concerns and psychological distress for patients. In cases of extensive skin defects, the patient's life can be severely compromised. In recent years, 3D printing technology has emerged as a groundbreaking approach to skin tissue engineering, offering promising solutions to various skin-related conditions. 3D bioprinting technology enables the precise fabrication of structures by programming the spatial arrangement of cells within the skin tissue and subsequently printing skin replacements either in a 3D bioprinter or directly at the site of the defect. This study provides a comprehensive overview of various biopolymer-based inks, with a particular emphasis on chitosan (CS), starch, alginate, agarose, cellulose, and fibronectin, all of which are natural polymers belonging to the category of biomacromolecules. Additionally, it summarizes artificially synthesized polymers capable of enhancing the performance of these biomacromolecule-based bioinks, thereby composing hybrid biopolymer inks aimed at better application in skin tissue engineering endeavors. This review paper examines the recent advancements, characteristics, benefits, and limitations of biological 3D bioprinting techniques for skin tissue engineering. By utilizing bioinks containing seed cells, hydrogels with bioactive factors, and biomaterials, complex structures resembling natural skin can be accurately fabricated in a layer-by-layer manner. The importance of biological scaffolds in promoting skin wound healing and the role of 3D bioprinting in skin tissue regeneration processes is discussed. Additionally, this paper addresses the challenges and constraints associated with current 3D bioprinting technologies for skin tissue and presents future perspectives. These include advancements in bioink formulations, full-thickness skin bioprinting, vascularization strategies, and skin appendages bioprinting.

Utilizing bioprinting to engineer spatially organized tissues from the bottom-up

In response to the growing demand for organ substitutes, tissue engineering has evolved significantly. However, it is still challenging to create functional tissues and organs. Tissue engineering from the 'bottom-up' is promising on solving this problem due to its ability to construct tissues with physiological complexity. The workflow of this strategy involves two key steps: the creation of building blocks, and the subsequent assembly. There are many techniques developed for the two pivotal steps. Notably, bioprinting is versatile among these techniques and has been widely used in research. With its high level of automation, bioprinting has great capacity in engineering tissues with precision and holds promise to construct multi-material tissues. In this review, we summarize the techniques applied in fabrication and assembly of building blocks. We elaborate mechanisms and applications of bioprinting, particularly in the 'bottom-up' strategy. We state our perspectives on future trends of bottom-up tissue engineering, hoping to provide useful reference for researchers in this field.

Photo-/thermo-responsive bioink for improved printability in extrusion-based bioprinting

Extrusion-based bioprinting has demonstrated significant potential for manufacturing constructs, particularly for 3D cell culture. However, there is a greatly limited number of bioink candidates exploited with extrusion-based bioprinting, as they meet the opposing requirements for printability with indispensable rheological features and for biochemical functionality with desirable microenvironment. In this study, a blend of silk fibroin (SF) and iota-carrageenan (CG) was chosen as a cell-friendly printable material. The SF/CG ink exhibited suitable viscosity and shear-thinning properties, coupled with the rapid sol-gel transition of CG. By employing photo-crosslinking of SF, the printability with Pr value close to 1 and structural integrity of the 3D constructs were significantly improved within a matter of seconds. The printed constructs demonstrated a Young's modulus of approximately 250 kPa, making them suitable for keratinocyte and myoblast cell culture. Furthermore, the high cell adhesiveness and viability (maximum >98%) of the loaded cells underscored the considerable potential of this 3D culture scaffold applied for skin and muscle tissues, which can be easily manipulated using an extrusion-based bioprinter.

Bioassembly of hemoglobin-loaded photopolymerizable spheroids alleviates hypoxia-induced cell death

The delivery of oxygen within tissue engineered constructs is essential for cell survivability; however, achieving this within larger biofabricated constructs poses a significant challenge. Efforts to overcome this limitation often involve the delivery of synthetic oxygen generating compounds. The application of some of these compounds is problematic for the biofabrication of living tissues due to inherent issues such as cytotoxicity, hyperoxia and limited structural stability due to oxygen inhibition of radical-based crosslinking processes. This study aims to develop an oxygen delivering system relying on natural-derived components which are cytocompatible, allow for photopolymerization and advanced biofabrication processes, and improve cell survivability under hypoxia (1% O2). We explore the binding of human hemoglobin (Hb) as a natural oxygen deposit within photopolymerizable allylated gelatin (GelAGE) hydrogels through the spontaneous complex formation of Hb with negatively charged biomolecules (heparin, hyaluronic acid, and bovine serum albumin). We systematically study the effect of biomolecule inclusion on cytotoxicity, hydrogel network properties, Hb incorporation efficiency, oxygen carrying capacity, cell viability, and compatibility with 3D-bioassembly processes within melt electrowritten (MEW) scaffolds. All biomolecules were successfully incorporated within GelAGE hydrogels, displaying controllable mechanical properties and cytocompatibility. Results demonstrated efficient and tailorable Hb incorporation within GelAGE-Heparin hydrogels. The developed system was compatible with microfluidics and photopolymerization processes, allowing for the production of GelAGE-Heparin-Hb spheres. Hb-loaded spheres were assembled into MEW polycaprolactone scaffolds, significantly increasing the local oxygen levels. Ultimately, cells within Hb-loaded constructs demonstrated good cell survivability under hypoxia. Taken together, we successfully developed a hydrogel system that retains Hb as a natural oxygen deposit post-photopolymerization, protecting Hb from free-radical oxidation while remaining compatible with biofabrication of large constructs. The developed GelAGE-Heparin-Hb system allows for physoxic oxygen delivery and thus possesses a vast potential for use across broad tissue engineering and biofabrication strategies to help eliminate cell death due to hypoxia.

Multiplex Single-Cell Bioprinting for Engineering of Heterogeneous Tissue Constructs with Subcellular Spatial Resolution

Tissue development, function, and disease are largely driven by the spatial organization of individual cells and their cell-cell interactions. Precision engineered tissues with single-cell spatial resolution, therefore, have tremendous potential for next generation disease models, drug discovery, and regenerative therapeutics. Despite significant advancements in biofabrication approaches to improve feature resolution, strategies to fabricate tissues with the exact same organization of individual cells in their native cellular microenvironment have remained virtually non-existent to date. Here we report a method to spatially pattern single cells with up to eight cell phenotypes and subcellular spatial precision. As proof-of-concept we first demonstrate the ability to systematically assess the influence of cellular microenvironments on cell behavior by controllably altering the spatial arrangement of cell types in bioprinted precision cell-cell interaction arrays. We then demonstrate, for the first time, the ability to produce high-fidelity replicas of a patient's annotated cancer biopsy with subcellular resolution. The ability to replicate native cellular microenvironments marks a significant advancement for precision biofabricated in-vitro models, where heterogenous tissues can be engineered with single-cell spatial precision to advance our understanding of complex biological systems in a controlled and systematic manner.

Prediction of Clinical Precision Chemotherapy by Patient-Derived 3D Bioprinting Models of Colorectal Cancer and Its Liver Metastases

Methods accurately predicting the responses of colorectal cancer (CRC) and colorectal cancer liver metastasis (CRLM) to personalized chemotherapy remain limited due to tumor heterogeneity. This study introduces an innovative patient-derived CRC and CRLM tumor model for preclinical investigation, utilizing 3d-bioprinting (3DP) technology. Efficient construction of homogeneous in vitro 3D models of CRC/CRLM is achieved through the application of patient-derived primary tumor cells and 3D bioprinting with bioink. Genomic and histological analyses affirm that the CRC/CRLM 3DP tumor models effectively retain parental tumor biomarkers and mutation profiles. In vitro tests evaluating chemotherapeutic drug sensitivities reveal substantial tumor heterogeneity in chemotherapy responses within the 3DP CRC/CRLM models. Furthermore, a robust correlation is evident between the drug response in the CRLM 3DP model and the clinical outcomes of neoadjuvant chemotherapy. These findings imply a significant potential for the application of patient-derived 3DP cancer models in precision chemotherapy prediction and preclinical research for CRC/CRLM.

Advances in 3D Bioprinting of Biomimetic and Engineered Meniscal Grafts

The meniscus plays a crucial role in loads distribution and protection of articular cartilage. Meniscal injury can result in cartilage degeneration, loss of mechanical stability in the knee joint and ultimately lead to arthritis. Surgical interventions provide only short-term pain relief but fail to repair or regenerate the injured meniscus. Emerging tissue engineering approaches based on 3D bioprinting provide alternatives to current surgical methods for meniscus repair. In this review, the current bioprinting techniques employed in developing engineered meniscus grafts are summarized and discuss the latest strategies for mimicking the gradient structure, composition, and viscoelastic properties of native meniscus. Recent progress is highlighted in gene-activated matrices for meniscus regeneration as well. Finally, a perspective is provided on the future development of 3D bioprinting for meniscus repair, emphasizing the potential of this technology to revolutionize meniscus regeneration and improve patient outcomes.

New Insights and Advanced Strategies for In Vitro Construction of Vascularized Tissue Engineering

Inadequate vascularization is a significant barrier to clinical application of large-volume tissue engineered grafts. In contrast to in vivo vascularization, in vitro prevascularization shortens the time required for host vessels to grow into the graft core and minimizes necrosis in the core region of the graft. However, the challenge of prevascularization is to construct hierarchical perfusable vascular networks, increase graft volume, and form a vascular tip that can anastomose with host vessels. Understanding advances in in vitro prevascularization techniques and new insights into angiogenesis could overcome these obstacles. In the present review, we discuss new perspectives on angiogenesis, the differences between in vivo and in vitro tissue vascularization, the four elements of prevascularized constructs, recent advances in perfusion-based in vitro prevascularized tissue fabrication, and prospects for large-volume prevascularized tissue engineering.

Micropatterning the organization of multicellular structures in 3D biological hydrogels; insights into collective cellular mechanical interactions

Control over the organization of cells at the microscale level within supporting biomaterials can push forward the construction of complex tissue architectures for tissue engineering applications and enable fundamental studies of how tissue structure relates to its function. While cells patterning on 2D substrates is a relatively established and available procedure, micropatterning cells in biomimetic 3D hydrogels has been more challenging, especially with micro-scale resolution, and currently relies on sophisticated tools and protocols. We present a robust and accessible 'peel-off' method to micropattern large arrays of individual cells or cell-clusters of precise sizes in biological 3D hydrogels, such as fibrin and collagen gels, with control over cell-cell separation distance and neighboring cells position. We further demonstrate partial control over cell position in thez-dimension by stacking two layers in varying distances between the layers. To demonstrate the potential of the micropatterning gel platform, we study the matrix-mediated mechanical interaction between array of cells that are accurately separated in defined distances. A collective process of intense cell-generated densified bands emerging in the gel between near neighbors was identified, along which cells preferentially migrate, a process relevant to tissue morphogenesis. The presented 3D gel micropatterning method can be used to reveal fundamental morphogenetic processes, and to reconstruct any tissue geometry with micrometer resolution in 3D biomimetic gel environments, leveraging the engineering of tissues in complex architectures.

Recent Advances in the Development of Biomimetic Materials

In this review, we focused on recent efforts in the design and development of materials with biomimetic properties. Innovative methods promise to emulate cell microenvironments and tissue functions, but many aspects regarding cellular communication, motility, and responsiveness remain to be explained. We photographed the state-of-the-art advancements in biomimetics, and discussed the complexity of a "bottom-up" artificial construction of living systems, with particular highlights on hydrogels, collagen-based composites, surface modifications, and three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting applications. Fast-paced 3D printing and artificial intelligence, nevertheless, collide with reality: How difficult can it be to build reproducible biomimetic materials at a real scale in line with the complexity of living systems? Nowadays, science is in urgent need of bioengineering technologies for the practical use of bioinspired and biomimetics for medicine and clinics.

scatterBrains: an open database of human head models and companion optode locations for realistic Monte Carlo photon simulations

Significance

Monte Carlo (MC) simulations are currently the gold standard in the near-infrared and diffuse correlation spectroscopy (NIRS/DCS) communities for generating light transport paths through tissue. However, realistic and diverse models that capture complex tissue layers are not easily available to all; moreover, manually placing optodes on such models can be tedious and time consuming. Such limitations may hinder the adoption of representative models for basic simulations and the use of these models for large-scale simulations, e.g., for training machine learning algorithms.

Aim

We aim to provide the NIRS/DCS communities with an open-source, user-friendly database of morphologically and optically realistic head models, as well as a succinct software pipeline to prepare these models for mesh-based Monte Carlo simulations of light transport.

Approach

Sixteen anatomical models were created from segmented T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) head scans and converted to tetrahedral mesh volumes. Approximately 800 companion scalp surface locations were distributed on each model, comprising full head coverage. A pipeline was created to place custom source and optical detectors at each location, and guidance is provided on how to use these parameters to set up MC simulations.

Results

The models, head surface locations, and all associated code are freely available under the scatterBrains project on Github.

Conclusions

The NIRS/DCS community benefits from having shared resources for conducting MC simulations on realistic head geometries. We hope this will make MRI-based head models and virtual optode placement easily accessible to all. Contributions to the database are welcome and encouraged.

Multimaterial 3D and 4D Bioprinting of Heterogenous Constructs for Tissue Engineering

Additive manufacturing (AM), which is based on the principle of layer-by-layer shaping and stacking of discrete materials, has shown significant benefits in the fabrication of complicated implants for tissue engineering (TE). However, many native tissues exhibit anisotropic heterogenous constructs with diverse components and functions. Consequently, the replication of complicated biomimetic constructs using conventional AM processes based on a single material is challenging. Multimaterial 3D and 4D bioprinting (with time as the fourth dimension) has emerged as a promising solution for constructing multifunctional implants with heterogenous constructs that can mimic the host microenvironment better than single-material alternatives. Notably, 4D-printed multimaterial implants with biomimetic heterogenous architectures can provide a time-dependent programmable dynamic microenvironment that can promote cell activity and tissue regeneration in response to external stimuli. This paper first presents the typical design strategies of biomimetic heterogenous constructs in TE applications. Subsequently, the latest processes in the multimaterial 3D and 4D bioprinting of heterogenous tissue constructs are discussed, along with their advantages and challenges. In particular, the potential of multimaterial 4D bioprinting of smart multifunctional tissue constructs is highlighted. Furthermore, this review provides insights into how multimaterial 3D and 4D bioprinting can facilitate the realization of next-generation TE applications.

A Review of Single-Cell Microrobots: Classification, Driving Methods and Applications

Single-cell microrobots are new microartificial devices that use a combination of single cells and artificial devices, with the advantages of small size, easy degradation and ease of manufacture. With externally driven strategies such as light fields, sound fields and magnetic fields, microrobots are able to carry out precise micromanipulations and movements in complex microenvironments. Therefore, single-cell microrobots have received more and more attention and have been greatly developed in recent years. In this paper, we review the main classifications, control methods and recent advances in the field of single-cell microrobot applications. First, different types of robots, such as cell-based microrobots, bacteria-based microrobots, algae-based microrobots, etc., and their design strategies and fabrication processes are discussed separately. Next, three types of external field-driven technologies, optical, acoustic and magnetic, are presented and operations realized in vivo and in vitro by applying these three technologies are described. Subsequently, the results achieved by these robots in the fields of precise delivery, minimally invasive therapy are analyzed. Finally, a short summary is given and current challenges and future work on microbial-based robotics are discussed.

Trends in Photopolymerizable Bioinks for 3D Bioprinting of Tumor Models

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technologies involving photopolymerizable bioinks (PBs) have attracted enormous attention in recent times owing to their ability to recreate complex structures with high resolution, mechanical stability, and favorable printing conditions that are suited for encapsulating cells. 3D bioprinted tissue constructs involving PBs can offer better insights into the tumor microenvironment and offer platforms for drug screening to advance cancer research. These bioinks enable the incorporation of physiologically relevant cell densities, tissue-mimetic stiffness, and vascularized channels and biochemical gradients in the 3D tumor models, unlike conventional two-dimensional (2D) cultures or other 3D scaffold fabrication technologies. In this perspective, we present the emerging techniques of 3D bioprinting using PBs in the context of cancer research, with a specific focus on the efforts to recapitulate the complexity of the tumor microenvironment. We describe printing approaches and various PB formulations compatible with these techniques along with recent attempts to bioprint 3D tumor models for studying migration and metastasis, cell-cell interactions, cell-extracellular matrix interactions, and drug screening relevant to cancer. We discuss the limitations and identify unexplored opportunities in this field for clinical and commercial translation of these emerging technologies.

Application of 3D Bioprinting in Liver Diseases

Liver diseases are the primary reason for morbidity and mortality in the world. Owing to a shortage of organ donors and postoperative immune rejection, patients routinely suffer from liver failure. Unlike 2D cell models, animal models, and organoids, 3D bioprinting can be successfully employed to print living tissues and organs that contain blood vessels, bone, and kidney, heart, and liver tissues and so on. 3D bioprinting is mainly classified into four types: inkjet 3D bioprinting, extrusion-based 3D bioprinting, laser-assisted bioprinting (LAB), and vat photopolymerization. Bioinks for 3D bioprinting are composed of hydrogels and cells. For liver 3D bioprinting, hepatic parenchymal cells (hepatocytes) and liver nonparenchymal cells (hepatic stellate cells, hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells, and Kupffer cells) are commonly used. Compared to conventional scaffold-based approaches, marked by limited functionality and complexity, 3D bioprinting can achieve accurate cell settlement, a high resolution, and more efficient usage of biomaterials, better mimicking the complex microstructures of native tissues. This method will make contributions to disease modeling, drug discovery, and even regenerative medicine. However, the limitations and challenges of this method cannot be ignored. Limitation include the requirement of diverse fabrication technologies, observation of drug dynamic response under perfusion culture, the resolution to reproduce complex hepatic microenvironment, and so on. Despite this, 3D bioprinting is still a promising and innovative biofabrication strategy for the creation of artificial multi-cellular tissues/organs.

Recent Advances in Biodegradable and Biocompatible Synthetic Polymers Used in Skin Wound Healing

The treatment of skin wounds caused by trauma and pathophysiological disorders has been a growing healthcare challenge, posing a great economic burden worldwide. The use of appropriate wound dressings can help to facilitate the repair and healing rate of defective skin. Natural polymer biomaterials such as collagen and hyaluronic acid with excellent biocompatibility have been shown to promote wound healing and the restoration of skin. However, the low mechanical properties and fast degradation rate have limited their applications. Skin wound dressings based on biodegradable and biocompatible synthetic polymers can not only overcome the shortcomings of natural polymer biomaterials but also possess favorable properties for applications in the treatment of skin wounds. Herein, we listed several biodegradable and biocompatible synthetic polymers used as wound dressing materials, such as PVA, PCL, PLA, PLGA, PU, and PEO/PEG, focusing on their composition, fabrication techniques, and functions promoting wound healing. Additionally, the future development prospects of synthetic biodegradable polymer-based wound dressings are put forward. Our review aims to provide new insights for the further development of wound dressings using synthetic biodegradable polymers.

Rapid prototyping of high-resolution large format microfluidic device through maskless image guided in-situ photopolymerization

Microfluidic devices have found extensive applications in mechanical, biomedical, chemical, and materials research. However, the high initial cost, low resolution, inferior feature fidelity, poor repeatability, rough surface finish, and long turn-around time of traditional prototyping methods limit their wider adoption. In this study, a strategic approach to a deterministic fabrication process based on in-situ image analysis and intermittent flow control called image-guided in-situ maskless lithography (IGIs-ML), has been proposed to overcome these challenges. By using dynamic image analysis and integrated flow control, IGIs-ML provides superior repeatability and fidelity of densely packed features across a large area and multiple devices. This general and robust approach enables the fabrication of a wide variety of microfluidic devices and resolves critical proximity effect and size limitations in rapid prototyping. The affordability and reliability of IGIs-ML make it a powerful tool for exploring the design space beyond the capabilities of traditional rapid prototyping.

Study on Bioresponsive Gelatin-Hyaluronic Acid-Genipin Hydrogel for High Cell-Density 3D Bioprinting

The Development of bioresponsive extrudable hydrogels for 3D bioprinting is imperative to address the growing demand for scaffold design as well as efficient and reliable methods of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. This study proposed genipin (5 mg) cross-linked gelatin (1 to 1.5 g)-hyaluronic acid (0.3 g) hydrogel bioink (20 mL) tailored for 3D bioprinting. The focus is on high cell loading and a less artificial extra-cellular matrix (ECM) effect, as well as exploring their potential applications in tissue engineering. The bioresponsiveness of these hydrogel scaffolds was successfully evaluated at 37 °C and room temperature (at pH 2.5, 7.4, and 9). The rheological and mechanical properties (more than three times) increased with the increase in gelatin content in the hydrogel; however, the hydrogel with the least amount of gelatin showed the best extrusion capability. This optimized hydrogel's high extrusion ability and post-printing shape fidelity were evident from 3D and four-axis printing of complex structures such as hollow tubes, stars, pyramids, and zigzag porous tubular (four-axis) scaffolds (printed at 90 kPa pressure, 70 mm/s speed, 22G needle, fourth axis rotation of 4 rpm). 3 million/mL MC3T3-E1 mouse osteoblast cells were used in preparing 3D bioprinted samples. The in vitro cell culture studies have been carried out in a CO2 incubator (at 37 °C, 5% CO2). In the cytocompatibility study, almost three times more cell viability was observed in 3 days compared to day 1 control, proving the non-toxicity and cell-supportiveness of these hydrogels. High cell viability and cell-to-cell interactions observed at the end of day 3 using this moderately stable hydrogel in 3D bioprinting exhibit high potential for precise cell delivery modes in tissue engineering as well as regenerative medicine.

3D Bioprinting for Next-Generation Personalized Medicine

In the past decade, immense progress has been made in advancing personalized medicine to effectively address patient-specific disease complexities in order to develop individualized treatment strategies. In particular, the emergence of 3D bioprinting for in vitro models of tissue and organ engineering presents novel opportunities to improve personalized medicine. However, the existing bioprinted constructs are not yet able to fulfill the ultimate goal: an anatomically realistic organ with mature biological functions. Current bioprinting approaches have technical challenges in terms of precise cell deposition, effective differentiation, proper vascularization, and innervation. This review introduces the principles and realizations of bioprinting with a strong focus on the predominant techniques, including extrusion printing and digital light processing (DLP). We further discussed the applications of bioprinted constructs, including the engraftment of stem cells as personalized implants for regenerative medicine and in vitro high-throughput drug development models for drug discovery. While no one-size-fits-all approach to bioprinting has emerged, the rapid progress and promising results of preliminary studies have demonstrated that bioprinting could serve as an empowering technology to resolve critical challenges in personalized medicine.

Generation of a Perfusable 3D Lung Cancer Model by Digital Light Processing

Lung cancer still has one of the highest morbidity and mortality rates among all types of cancer. Its incidence continues to increase, especially in developing countries. Although the medical field has witnessed the development of targeted therapies, new treatment options need to be developed urgently. For the discovery of new drugs, human cancer models are required to study drug efficiency in a relevant setting. Here, we report the generation of a non-small cell lung cancer model with a perfusion system. The bioprinted model was produced by digital light processing (DLP). This technique has the advantage of including simulated human blood vessels, and its simple assembly and maintenance allow for easy testing of drug candidates. In a proof-of-concept study, we applied gemcitabine and determined the IC₅₀ values in the 3D models and 2D monolayer cultures and compared the response of the model under static and dynamic cultivation by perfusion. As the drug must penetrate the hydrogel to reach the cells, the IC₅₀ value was three orders of magnitude higher for bioprinted constructs than for 2D cell cultures. Compared to static cultivation, the viability of cells in the bioprinted 3D model was significantly increased by approximately 60% in the perfusion system. Dynamic cultivation also enhanced the cytotoxicity of the tested drug, and the drug-mediated apoptosis was increased with a fourfold higher fraction of cells with a signal for the apoptosis marker caspase-3 and a sixfold higher fraction of cells positive for PARP-1. Altogether, this easily reproducible cancer model can be used for initial testing of the cytotoxicity of new anticancer substances. For subsequent in-depth characterization of candidate drugs, further improvements will be necessary, such as the generation of a multi-cell type lung cancer model and the lining of vascular structures with endothelial cells.