Spherical nucleic acid nanoparticle conjugates as an RNAi-based therapy for glioblastoma

Construction of charge-reversible coordination-crosslinked spherical nucleic acids to deliver dual anti-cancer genes and ferroptosis payloads

Spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) are nanostructures with the DNA arranged radially on the surface, thus allowing specific binding with cancer cells expressing high levels of scavenger receptor-A to enhance cellular uptake. However, conventional carriers for SNAs are cytotoxic, not degradable and difficult to deliver multiple payloads. In this study, we developed charge-reversible coordination-crosslinked SNAs to deliver dual anti-cancer genes and ferroptosis payload for anti-cancer purposes. To this end, we modified poly(lactic acid) (PLA) with functionalized side chains to allow its binding with antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) and siRNA, annealed two single-stranded RNAs to obtain double-stranded RNA, and introduced a polyethylene glycol (PEG) shell to enhance the circulation time. Additionally, the ferroptosis payload imidazole was coordinated with iron ions as a core-crosslinked group to enhance the stability of SNAs and efficiency to kill cancer cells. We demonstrated that this novel nanocomplex efficiently internalized and killed CT-26 cells in vitro. In vivo data confirmed that the dual gene delivery system successfully targeted CT-26 tumors in tumor-bearing BALB/c mice, and exhibited strong tumor suppression ability, without inducing adverse toxic effects. Taken together, our dual gene therapy system offered an enhanced anti-tumor solution by simultaneously delivering dual anti-cancer genes and ferroptosis payload in tumor microenvironment.

From Structure to Application: The Evolutionary Trajectory of Spherical Nucleic Acids

Since the proposal of the concept of spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) in 1996, numerous studies have focused on this topic and have achieved great advances. As a new delivery system for nucleic acids, SNAs have advantages over conventional deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) nanostructures, including independence from transfection reagents, tolerance to nucleases, and lower immune reactions. The flexible structure of SNAs proves that various inorganic or organic materials can be used as the core, and different types of nucleic acids can be conjugated to realize diverse functions and achieve surprising and exciting outcomes. The special DNA nanostructures have been employed for immunomodulation, gene regulation, drug delivery, biosensing, and bioimaging. Despite the lack of rational design strategies, potential cytotoxicity, and structural defects of this technology, various successful examples demonstrate the bright and convincing future of SNAs in fields such as new materials, clinical practice, and pharmacy.

In Vivo Interactions of Nucleic Acid Nanostructures With Cells

Nucleic acid nanostructures, derived from the assembly of nucleic acid building blocks (e.g., plasmids and oligonucleotides), are important intracellular carriers of therapeutic cargoes widely utilized in preclinical nanomedicine applications, yet their clinical translation remains scarce. In the era of "translational nucleic acid nanotechnology", a deeper mechanistic understanding of the interactions of nucleic acid nanostructures with cells in vivo will guide the development of more efficacious nanomedicines. This review showcases the recent progress in dissecting the in vivo interactions of four key types of nucleic acid nanostructures (i.e., tile-based, origami, spherical nucleic acid, and nucleic acid nanogel) with cells in rodents over the past five years. Emphasis lies on the cellular-level distribution of nucleic acid nanostructures in various organs and tissues and the cellular responses induced by their cellular entry. Next, in the spirit of preclinical translation, this review features the latest interactions of nucleic acid nanostructures with cells in large animals and humans. Finally, the review offers directions for studying the interactions of nucleic acid nanostructures with cells from both materials and biology perspectives and concludes with some regulatory updates.

DNA-Engineered Degradable Invisibility Cloaking for Tumor-Targeting Nanoparticles

Nanoparticle (NP) delivery systems have been actively exploited for cancer therapy and vaccine development. Nevertheless, the major obstacle to targeted delivery lies in the substantial liver sequestration of NPs. Here we report a DNA-engineered approach to circumvent liver phagocytosis for enhanced tumor-targeted delivery of nanoagents in vivo. We find that a monolayer of DNA molecules on the NP can preferentially adsorb a dysopsonin protein in the serum to induce functionally invisibility to livers; whereas the tumor-specific uptake is triggered by the subsequent degradation of the DNA shell in vivo. The degradation rate of DNA shells is readily tunable by the length of coated DNA molecules. This DNA-engineered invisibility cloaking (DEIC) is potentially generic as manifested in both Ag2S quantum dot- and nanoliposome-based tumor-targeted delivery in mice. Near-infrared-II imaging reveals a high tumor-to-liver ratio of up to ∼5.1, approximately 18-fold higher than those with conventional nanomaterials. This approach may provide a universal strategy for high-efficiency targeted delivery of theranostic agents in vivo.

The advancement of siRNA-based nanomedicine for tumor therapy

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) has been proved to be able to effectively down-regulate gene expression through the RNAi mechanism. Thus, siRNA-based drugs have become one of the hottest research directions due to their high efficiency and specificity. However, challenges such as instability, off-target effects and immune activation hinder their clinical application. This review explores the mechanisms of siRNA and the challenges in siRNA-based tumor therapy. It highlights the use of various nanomaterials - including lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles and inorganic nanoparticles - as carriers for siRNA delivery in different therapeutic modalities. The application strategies of siRNA-based nanomedicine in chemotherapy, phototherapy and immunotherapy are discussed in detail, along with recent clinical advancements. Aiming to provide insights for future research and therapeutic approaches.

Stemness, invasion, and immunosuppression modulation in recurrent glioblastoma using nanotherapy

The recurrent nature of glioblastoma negatively impacts conventional treatment strategies leading to a growing need for nanomedicine. Nanotherapeutics, an approach designed to deliver drugs to specific sites, is experiencing rapid growth and gaining immense popularity. Having potential in reaching the hard-to-reach disease sites, this field has the potential to show high efficacy in combatting glioblastoma progression. The presence of glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) is a major factor behind the poor prognosis of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). Stemness potential, heterogeneity, and self-renewal capacity, are some of the properties that make GSCs invade across the distant regions of the brain. Despite advances in medical technology and MRI-guided maximal surgical resection, not all GSCs residing in the brain can be removed, leading to recurrent disease. The aggressiveness of GBM is often correlated with immune suppression, where the T-cells are unable to infiltrate the cancer initiating GSCs. Standard of care therapies, including surgery and chemotherapy in combination with radiation therapy, have failed to tackle all the challenges of the GSCs, making it increasingly important for researchers to develop strategies to tackle their growth and proliferation and reduce the recurrence of GBM. Here, we will focus on the advancements in the field of nanomedicine that has the potential to show positive impact in managing glioblastoma tumor microenvironment. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Recent advances in gene delivery nanoplatforms based on spherical nucleic acids

Gene therapy is a therapeutic option for mitigating diseases that do not respond well to pharmacological therapy. This type of therapy allows for correcting altered and defective genes by transferring nucleic acids to target cells. Notably, achieving a desirable outcome is possible by successfully delivering genetic materials into the cell. In-vivo gene transfer strategies use two major classes of vectors, namely viral and nonviral. Both of these systems have distinct pros and cons, and the choice of a delivery system depends on therapeutic objectives and other considerations. Safe and efficient gene transfer is the main feature of any delivery system. Spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) are nanotechnology-based gene delivery systems (i.e., non-viral vectors). They are three-dimensional structures consisting of a hollow or solid spherical core nanoparticle that is functionalized with a dense and highly organized layer of oligonucleotides. The unique structural features of SNAs confer them a high potency in internalization into various types of tissue and cells, a high stability against nucleases, and efficay in penetrating through various biological barriers (such as the skin, blood-brain barrier, and blood-tumor barrier). SNAs also show negligible toxicity and trigger minimal immune response reactions. During the last two decades, all these favorable physicochemical and biological attributes have made them attractive vehicles for drug and nucleic acid delivery. This article discusses the unique structural properties, types of SNAs, and also optimization mechanisms of SNAs. We also focus on recent advances in the synthesis of gene delivery nanoplatforms based on the SNAs.

Nanoplatform-Based In Vivo Gene Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Gene therapy uses modern molecular biology methods to repair disease-causing genes. As a burgeoning therapeutic, it has been widely applied for cancer therapy. Since 1989, there have been numerous clinical gene therapy cases worldwide. However, a few are successful. The main challenge of clinical gene therapy is the lack of efficient and safe vectors. Although viral vectors show high transfection efficiency, their application is still limited by immune rejection and packaging capacity. Therefore, the development of non-viral vectors is overwhelming. Nanoplatform-based non-viral vectors become a hotspot in gene therapy. The reasons are mainly as follows. 1) Non-viral vectors can be engineered to be uptaken by specific types of cells or tissues, providing effective targeting capability. 2) Non-viral vectors can protect goods that need to be delivered from degradation. 3) Nanoparticles can transport large-sized cargo such as CRISPR/Cas9 plasmids and nucleoprotein complexes. 4) Nanoparticles are highly biosafe, and they are not mutagenic in themselves compared to viral vectors. 5) Nanoparticles are easy to scale preparation, which is conducive to clinical conversion and application. Here, an overview of the categories of nanoplatform-based non-viral gene vectors, the limitations on their development, and their applications in cancer therapy.

Smart Stimuli-Responsive Spherical Nucleic Acids: Cutting-Edge Platforms for Biosensing, Bioimaging, and Therapeutics

Spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) with exceptional colloidal stability, multiple modularity, and programmability are excellent candidates to address common molecular delivery-related issues. Based on this, the higher targeting accuracy and enhanced controllability of stimuli-responsive SNAs render them precise nanoplatforms with inestimable prospects for diverse biomedical applications. Therefore, tailored diagnosis and treatment with stimuli-responsive SNAs may be a robust strategy to break through the bottlenecks associated with traditional nanocarriers. Various stimuli-responsive SNAs are engineered through the incorporation of multifunctional modifications to meet biomedical demands with the development of nucleic acid functionalization. This review provides a comprehensive overview of prominent research in this area and recent advancements in the utilization of stimuli-responsive SNAs in biosensing, bioimaging, and therapeutics. For each aspect, SNA nanoplatforms that exhibit responsive behavior to both internal stimuli (including sequence, enzyme, redox reactions, and pH) and external stimuli (such as light and temperature) are highlighted. This review is expected to offer inspiration and guidance strategies for the rational design and development of stimuli-responsive SNAs in the field of biomedicine.

Antibody and siRNA Nanocarriers to Suppress Wnt Signaling, Tumor Growth, and Lung Metastasis in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

The paucity of targeted therapies for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) causes patients with this aggressive disease to suffer a poor clinical prognosis. A promising target for therapeutic intervention is the Wnt signaling pathway, which is activated in TNBC cells when extracellular Wnt ligands bind overexpressed Frizzled7 (FZD7) transmembrane receptors. This stabilizes intracellular β-catenin proteins that in turn promote transcription of oncogenes that drive tumor growth and metastasis. To suppress Wnt signaling in TNBC cells, we developed therapeutic nanoparticles (NPs) functionalized with FZD7 antibodies and β-catenin small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). The antibodies enable TNBC cell-specific binding and inhibit Wnt signaling by locking FZD7 receptors in a ligand unresponsive state, while the siRNAs suppress β-catenin through RNA interference. Compared to NPs coated with antibodies or siRNAs individually, NPs coated with both agents more potently reduce the expression of several Wnt related genes in TNBC cells, leading to greater inhibition of cell proliferation, migration, and spheroid formation. In two murine models of metastatic TNBC, the dual antibody/siRNA nanocarriers outperformed controls in terms of inhibiting tumor growth, metastasis, and recurrence. These findings demonstrate suppressing Wnt signaling at both the receptor and mRNA levels via antibody/siRNA nanocarriers is a promising approach to combat TNBC.

Application of nanoformulations as a strategy to optimize chemotherapeutic treatment of glioblastoma: a systematic review

The aim of this review was to explore the advances of nanoformulations as a strategy to optimize glioblastoma treatment, specifically focusing on targeting and controlling drug delivery systems to the tumor. This review followed the PRISMA recommendations. The studies were selected through a literature search conducted in the electronic databases PubMed Central, Science Direct, Scopus and Web of Science, in April 2023, using the equation descriptors: (nanocapsule OR nanoformulation) AND (glioblastoma). Forty-seven investigations included were published between 2011 and 2023 to assess the application of different nanoformulations to optimize delivery of chemotherapies including temozolomide, carmustine, vincristine or cisplatin previously employed in brain tumor therapy, as well as investigating another 10 drugs. Data demonstrated the possible application of different matrices employed as nanocarriers and utilization of functionalizing agents to improve internalization of chemotherapeutics. Functionalization was developed with the application of peptides, micronutrients/vitamins, antibodies and siRNAs. Finally, this review demonstrated the practical and clinical application of nanocarriers to deliver multiple drugs in glioblastoma models. These nanomodels might ideally be developed using functionalizing ligand agents that preferably act synergistically with the drug these agents carry. The findings showed promising results, making nanoformulations one of the best prospects for innovation and improvement of glioblastoma treatment.

Tau- and α-synuclein-targeted gold nanoparticles: applications, opportunities, and future outlooks in the diagnosis and therapy of neurodegenerative diseases

The use of nanomaterials in medicine offers multiple opportunities to address neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. These diseases are a significant burden for society and the health system, affecting millions of people worldwide without sensitive and selective diagnostic methodologies or effective treatments to stop their progression. In this sense, the use of gold nanoparticles is a promising tool due to their unique properties at the nanometric level. They can be functionalized with specific molecules to selectively target pathological proteins such as Tau and α-synuclein for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, respectively. Additionally, these proteins are used as diagnostic biomarkers, wherein gold nanoparticles play a key role in enhancing their signal, even at the low concentrations present in biological samples such as blood or cerebrospinal fluid, thus enabling an early and accurate diagnosis. On the other hand, gold nanoparticles act as drug delivery platforms, bringing therapeutic agents directly into the brain, improving treatment efficiency and precision, and reducing side effects in healthy tissues. However, despite the exciting potential of gold nanoparticles, it is crucial to address the challenges and issues associated with their use in the medical field before they can be widely applied in clinical settings. It is critical to ensure the safety and biocompatibility of these nanomaterials in the context of the central nervous system. Therefore, rigorous preclinical and clinical studies are needed to assess the efficacy and feasibility of these strategies in patients. Since there is scarce and sometimes contradictory literature about their use in this context, the main aim of this review is to discuss and analyze the current state-of-the-art of gold nanoparticles in relation to delivery, diagnosis, and therapy for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, as well as recent research about their use in preclinical, clinical, and emerging research areas.

Targeting Integrin α3 Blocks β1 Maturation, Triggers Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress, and Sensitizes Glioblastoma Cells to TRAIL-Mediated Apoptosis

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a devastating brain cancer for which new effective therapies are urgently needed. GBM, after an initial response to current treatment regimens, develops therapeutic resistance, leading to rapid patient demise. Cancer cells exhibit an inherent elevation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress due to uncontrolled growth and an unfavorable microenvironment, including hypoxia and nutrient deprivation. Cancer cells utilize the unfolded protein response (UPR) to maintain ER homeostasis, and failure of this response promotes cell death. In this study, as integrins are upregulated in cancer, we have evaluated the therapeutic potential of individually targeting all αβ1 integrin subunits using RNA interference. We found that GBM cells are uniquely susceptible to silencing of integrin α3. Knockdown of α3-induced proapoptotic markers such as PARP cleavage and caspase 3 and 8 activation. Remarkably, we discovered a non-canonical function for α3 in mediating the maturation of integrin β1. In its absence, generation of full length β1 was reduced, immature β1 accumulated, and the cells underwent elevated ER stress with upregulation of death receptor 5 (DR5) expression. Targeting α3 sensitized TRAIL-resistant GBM cancer cells to TRAIL-mediated apoptosis and led to growth inhibition. Our findings offer key new insights into integrin α3's role in GBM survival via the regulation of ER homeostasis and its value as a therapeutic target.

Gint4.T-siHDGF chimera-capped mesoporous silica nanoparticles encapsulating temozolomide for synergistic glioblastoma therapy

Due to glioblastoma (GBM) being the most intractable brain tumor, the continuous improvement of effective treatment methods is indispensable. The combination of siRNA-based gene therapy and chemotherapy for GBM treatment has now manifested great promise. Herein, Gint4.T-siHDGF chimera-capped mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) encapsulating chemotherapy drug temozolomide (TMZ), termed as TMSN@siHDGF-Gint4.T, is developed to co-deliver gene-drug siHDGF and TMZ for synergistic GBM therapy. TMSN@siHDGF-Gint4.T possesses spherical nucleic acid-like architecture that can improve the enzyme resistance of siHDGF and increase the blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability of the nanovehicle. The aptamer Gint4.T of chimera endows the nanovehicle with GBM cell-specific binding ability. When administered systemically, TMSN@siHDGF-Gint4.T can traverse BBB and enter GBM cells. In the acidic lysosome environment, the cleavage of benzoic-imine bond on MSN surface leads to an initial rapid release of chimera, followed by a slow release of TMZ encapsulated in MSN. The sequential release of siHDGF and TMZ first allows siHDGF to exert its gene-silencing effect, and the downregulation of HDGF expression further enhances the cytotoxicity of TMZ. In vivo experimental results have demonstrated that TMSN@siHDGF-Gint4.T significantly inhibits tumor growth and extends the survival time of GBM-bearing mice. Thus, the as-developed TMSN@siHDGF-Gint4.T affords a potential approach for the combination treatment of GBM.

Ultrasound-responsive spherical nucleic acid against c-Myc/PD-L1 to enhance anti-tumoral macrophages in triple-negative breast cancer progression

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most challenging breast cancer subtype because of its aggressive behavior and limited therapeutic targets. c-Myc is hyperactivated in the majority of TNBC tissues, however, it has been considered an "undruggable" target due to its disordered structure. Herein, we developed an ultrasound-responsive spherical nucleic acid (SNA) against c-Myc and PD-L1 in TNBC. It is a self-assembled and carrier-free system composed of a hydrophilic small-interfering RNA (siRNA) shell and a hydrophobic core made of a peptide nucleic acid (PNA)-based antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) and a sonosensitizer. We accomplished significant enrichment in the tumor by enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, the controllable release of effective elements by ultrasound activation, and the combination of targeted therapy, immunotherapy and physiotherapy. Our study demonstrated significant anti-tumoral effects in vitro and in vivo. Mass cytometry showed an invigorated tumor microenvironment (TME) characterized by a significant alteration in the composition of tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) and decreased proportion of PD-1-positive (PD-1+) T effector cells after appropriate treatment of the ultrasound-responsive SNA (USNA). Further experiments verified that tumor-conditioned macrophages residing in the TME were transformed into the anti-tumoral population. Our finding offers a novel therapeutic strategy against the "undruggable" c-Myc, develops a new targeted therapy for c-Myc/PD-L1 and provides a treatment option for the TNBC.

Enhancing Endosomal Escape and Gene Regulation Activity for Spherical Nucleic Acids

The therapeutic potential of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) is limited by their poor stability and low cellular uptake. When formulated as spherical nucleic acids (SNAs), siRNAs are resistant to nuclease degradation and enter cells without transfection agents with enhanced activity compared to their linear counterparts; however, the gene silencing activity of SNAs is limited by endosomal entrapment, a problem that impacts many siRNA-based nanoparticle constructs. To increase cytosolic delivery, SNAs are formulated using calcium chloride (CaCl2 ) instead of the conventionally used sodium chloride (NaCl). The divalent calcium (Ca2+ ) ions remain associated with the multivalent SNA and have a higher affinity for SNAs compared to their linear counterparts. Importantly, confocal microscopy studies show a 22% decrease in the accumulation of CaCl2 -salted SNAs within the late endosomes compared to NaCl-salted SNAs, indicating increased cytosolic delivery. Consistent with this finding, CaCl2 -salted SNAs comprised of siRNA and antisense DNA all exhibit enhanced gene silencing activity (up to 20-fold), compared to NaCl-salted SNAs regardless of sequence or cell line (U87-MG and SK-OV-3) studied. Moreover, CaCl2 -salted SNA-based forced intercalation probes show improved cytosolic mRNA detection.

Engineered smart materials for RNA based molecular therapy to treat Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive malignancy of the central nervous system (CNS) that remains incurable despite the multitude of improvements in cancer therapeutics. The conventional chemo and radiotherapy post-surgery have only been able to improve the prognosis slightly; however, the development of resistance and/or tumor recurrence is almost inevitable. There is a pressing need for adjuvant molecular therapies that can successfully and efficiently block tumor progression. During the last few decades, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have emerged as key players in regulating various hallmarks of cancer including that of GBM. The levels of many ncRNAs are dysregulated in cancer, and ectopic modulation of their levels by delivering antagonists or overexpression constructs could serve as an attractive option for cancer therapy. The therapeutic potential of several types of ncRNAs, including miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs, has been validated in both in vitro and in vivo models of GBM. However, the delivery of these RNA-based therapeutics is highly challenging, especially to the tumors of the brain as the blood-brain barrier (BBB) poses as a major obstacle, among others. Also, since RNA is extremely fragile in nature, careful considerations must be met while designing a delivery agent. In this review we have shed light on how ncRNA therapy can overcome the limitations of its predecessor conventional therapy with an emphasis on smart nanomaterials that can aide in the safe and targeted delivery of nucleic acids to treat GBM. Additionally, critical gaps that currently exist for successful transition from viral to non-viral vector delivery systems have been identified. Finally, we have provided a perspective on the future directions, potential pathways, and target areas for achieving rapid clinical translation of, RNA-based macromolecular therapy to advance the effective treatment of GBM and other related diseases.

Microneedle Patch Delivery of PLCG1-siRNA Efficient Enhanced Temozolomide Therapy for Glioblastoma

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) and drug resistance present challenges for chemotherapy of glioblastoma (GBM). A microneedle (MN) patch with excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability was designed to bypass the BBB and release temozolomide (TMZ) and PLCG1-siRNA directly into the tumor site for synergistic treatment of GBM. The codelivery of TMZ and PLCG1-siRNA enhanced DNA damage and apoptosis. The potential mechanism behind this enhancement is to knockdown of PLCG1 expression, which positively regulates the expression of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 genes, thereby preventing DNA repair and enhancing the sensitivity of GBM to TMZ. The MN patch enables long-term sustainable drug release through in situ implantation and increases local drug concentrations in diseased areas, significantly extending mouse survival time compared to other drug treatment groups. MN drug delivery provides a platform for the combination treatment of GBM and other central nervous system diseases.

A Comprehensive Review of Small Interfering RNAs (siRNAs): Mechanism, Therapeutic Targets, and Delivery Strategies for Cancer Therapy

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery by nanocarriers has been identified as a promising strategy in the study and treatment of cancer. Short nucleotide sequences are synthesized exogenously to create siRNA, which triggers RNA interference (RNAi) in cells and silences target gene expression in a sequence-specific way. As a nucleic acid-based medicine that has gained popularity recently, siRNA exhibits novel potential for the treatment of cancer. However, there are still many obstacles to overcome before clinical siRNA delivery devices can be developed. In this review, we discuss prospective targets for siRNA drug design, explain siRNA drug properties and benefits, and give an overview of the current clinical siRNA therapeutics for the treatment of cancer. Additionally, we introduce the siRNA chemical modifications and delivery systems that are clinically sophisticated and classify bioresponsive materials for siRNA release in a methodical manner. This review will serve as a reference for researchers in developing more precise and efficient targeted delivery systems, promoting ongoing advances in clinical applications.

Harnessing biomaterial architecture to drive anticancer innate immunity

Immunomodulation is a powerful therapeutic approach that harnesses the body's own immune system and reprograms it to treat diseases, such as cancer. Innate immunity is key in mobilizing the rest of the immune system to respond to disease and is thus an attractive target for immunomodulation. Biomaterials have widely been employed as vehicles to deliver immunomodulatory therapeutic cargo to immune cells and raise robust antitumor immunity. However, it is key to consider the design of biomaterial chemical and physical structure, as it has direct impacts on innate immune activation and antigen presentation to stimulate downstream adaptive immunity. Herein, we highlight the widespread importance of structure-driven biomaterial design for the delivery of immunomodulatory cargo to innate immune cells. The incorporation of precise structural elements can be harnessed to improve delivery kinetics, uptake, and the targeting of biomaterials into innate immune cells, and enhance immune activation against cancer through temporal and spatial processing of cargo to overcome the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Structural design of immunomodulatory biomaterials will profoundly improve the efficacy of current cancer immunotherapies by maximizing the impact of the innate immune system and thus has far-reaching translational potential against other diseases.

Metal nanoparticles as a potential technique for the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal cancer: a comprehensive review

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancer is a major health problem worldwide, and current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches are often inadequate. Various metallic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been widely studied for several biomedical applications, including cancer. They may potentially overcome the challenges associated with conventional chemotherapy and significantly impact the overall survival of GI cancer patients. Functionalized MNPs with targeted ligands provide more efficient localization of tumor energy deposition, better solubility and stability, and specific targeting properties. In addition to enhanced therapeutic efficacy, MNPs are also a diagnostic tool for molecular imaging of malignant lesions, enabling non-invasive imaging or detection of tumor-specific or tumor-associated antigens. MNP-based therapeutic systems enable simultaneous stability and solubility of encapsulated drugs and regulate the delivery of therapeutic agents directly to tumor cells, which improves therapeutic efficacy and minimizes drug toxicity and leakage into normal cells. However, metal nanoparticles have been shown to have a cytotoxic effect on cells in vitro. This can be a concern when using metal nanoparticles for cancer treatment, as they may also kill healthy cells in addition to cancer cells. In this review, we provide an overview of the current state of the field, including preparation methods of MNPs, clinical applications, and advances in their use in targeted GI cancer therapy, as well as the advantages and limitations of using metal nanoparticles for the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal cancer such as potential toxicity. We also discuss potential future directions and areas for further research, including the development of novel MNP-based approaches and the optimization of existing approaches.

In Vivo Imaging of [60]Fullerene-Based Molecular Spherical Nucleic Acids by Positron Emission Tomography

18F-Labeled [60]fullerene-based molecular spherical nucleic acids (MSNAs), consisting of a human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) mRNA antisense oligonucleotide sequence with a native phosphodiester and phosphorothioate backbone, were synthesized, site-specifically labeled with a positron emitting fluorine-18 and intravenously administrated via tail vein to HER2 expressing HCC1954 tumor-bearing mice. The biodistribution of the MSNAs was monitored in vivo by positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) imaging. MSNA with a native phosphodiester backbone (MSNA-PO) was prone to rapid nuclease-mediated degradation, whereas the corresponding phosphorothioate analogue (MSNA-PS) with improved enzymatic stability showed an interesting biodistribution profile in vivo. One hour after the injection, majority of the radioactivity was observed in spleen and liver but also in blood with an average tumor-to-muscle ratio of 2. The prolonged radioactivity in blood circulation may open possibilities to the targeted delivery of the MSNAs.

Progress and Challenges in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Brain Cancer Using Nanotechnology

Primary brain cancer or brain cancer is the overgrowth of abnormal or malignant cells in the brain or its nearby tissues that form unwanted masses called brain tumors. People with malignant brain tumors suffer a lot, and the expected life span of the patients after diagnosis is often only around 14 months, even with the most vigorous therapies. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is the main barrier in the body that restricts the entry of potential chemotherapeutic agents into the brain. The chances of treatment failure or low therapeutic effects are some significant drawbacks of conventional treatment methods. However, recent advancements in nanotechnology have generated hope in cancer treatment. Nanotechnology has shown a vital role starting from the early detection, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer. These tiny nanomaterials have great potential to deliver drugs across the BBB. Beyond just drug delivery, nanomaterials can be simulated to generate fluorescence to detect tumors. The current Review discusses in detail the challenges of brain cancer treatment and the application of nanotechnology to overcome those challenges. The success of chemotherapeutic treatment or the surgical removal of tumors requires proper imaging. Nanomaterials can provide imaging and therapeutic benefits for cancer. The application of nanomaterials in the diagnosis and treatment of brain cancer is discussed in detail by reviewing past studies.

IKBKE regulates angiogenesis by modulating VEGF expression and secretion in glioblastoma

PURPOSE

As a noncanonical inflammatory kinase, IKBKE is frequently overexpressed and activated and has been identified as an oncogenic protein in glioblastoma. However, the potential function and underlying mechanism of IKBKE contributing to tumor angiogenesis remain elusive.

METHODS

First, we analyzed the correlation between IKBKE and VEGF expression in glioma samples by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Second, HUVEC-related assays and Western blot were used to detect the regulatory effect of IKBKE on angiogenesis by modulating VEGF expression. Third, IKBKE depletion could alleviate the influence of VEGF expression on IHC of intracranial glioma model.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that depletion of IKBKE markedly inhibits tumor growth and angiogenesis in glioblastoma. Mechanistically, IKBKE induces VEGF expression and secretion by regulating AKT/FOXO3a in glioblastoma.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals that IKBKE is a novel oncogenic molecule that induces angiogenesis through the promotion of VEGF expression and highlights the potential of targeting IKBKE for glioblastoma therapy.

Spherical nucleic acids-based nanoplatforms for tumor precision medicine and immunotherapy

Precise diagnosis and treatment of tumors currently still face considerable challenges due to the development of highly degreed heterogeneity in the dynamic evolution of tumors. With the rapid development of genomics, personalized diagnosis and treatment using specific genes may be a robust strategy to break through the bottleneck of traditional tumor treatment. Nevertheless, efficient in vivo gene delivery has been frequently hampered by the inherent defects of vectors and various biological barriers. Encouragingly, spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) with good modularity and programmability are excellent candidates capable of addressing traditional gene transfer-associated issues, which enables SNAs a precision nanoplatform with great potential for diverse biomedical applications. In this regard, there have been detailed reviews of SNA in drug delivery, gene regulation, and dermatology treatment. Still, to the best of our knowledge, there is no published systematic review summarizing the use of SNAs in oncology precision medicine and immunotherapy, which are considered new guidelines for oncology treatment. To this end, we summarized the notable advances in SNAs-based precision therapy and immunotherapy for tumors following a classification standard of different types of precise spatiotemporal control on active species by SNAs. Specifically, we focus on the structural diversity and programmability of SNAs. Finally, the challenges and possible solutions were discussed in the concluding remarks. This review will promote the rational design and development of SNAs for tumor-precise medicine and immunotherapy.

Transforming Hairpin-like siRNA-Based Spherical Nucleic Acids into Biocompatible Constructs

The design and synthesis of hairpin-like small interfering RNA spherical nucleic acids (siRNA-SNAs) based upon biocompatible liposome nanoparticle cores are described. The constructs were characterized by gel electrophoresis, dynamic light scattering, and OliGreen-based oligonucleotide quantification. These siRNA-SNA nanoconstructs enter cells 20-times more efficiently than linear siRNA in as little as 4 h, while exhibiting a 4-fold reduction in cytotoxicity compared with conventional siRNA-SNAs composed of gold nanoparticle cores. Importantly, these siRNA-SNA constructs effectively inhibit angiogenesis in vitro by silencing vascular endothelial growth factor, a key mediator of angiogenesis in a multitude of diseases, in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. This work shows how hairpin architectures can be chemically incorporated into biocompatible SNAs in a way that retains advantageous SNA properties and maximizes gene regulation capabilities.

Inspired Beyond Nature: Three Decades of Spherical Nucleic Acids and Colloidal Crystal Engineering with DNA

The conception, synthesis, and invention of a nanostructure, now known as the spherical nucleic acid, or SNA, in 1996 marked the advent of a new field of chemistry. Over the past three decades, the SNA and its analogous anisotropic equivalents have provided an avenue for us to think about some of the most fundamental concepts in chemistry in new ways and led to technologies that are significantly impacting fields from medicine to materials science. A prime example is colloidal crystal engineering with DNA, the framework for using SNAs and related structures to synthesize programmable matter. Herein, we document the evolution of this framework, which was initially inspired by nature, and describe how it now allows researchers to chart paths to move beyond it, as programmable matter with real-world significance is envisioned and created.

Synthesis of Site-Specific Antibody-[60]Fullerene-Oligonucleotide Conjugates for Cellular Targeting

An ideal therapeutic antibody-oligonucleotide conjugate (AOC) would be a uniform construct, contain a maximal oligonucleotide (ON) payload, and retain the antibody (Ab)-mediated binding properties, which leads to an efficient delivery of the ON cargo to the site of therapeutic action. Herein, [60]fullerene-based molecular spherical nucleic acids (MSNAs) have been site-specifically conjugated to antibodies (Abs), and the Ab-mediated cellular targeting of the MSNA-Ab conjugates has been studied. A well-established glycan engineering technology and robust orthogonal click chemistries yielded the desired uniform MSNA-Ab conjugates (MW ∼ 270 kDa), with an oligonucleotide (ON):Ab ratio of 24:1, in 20-26% isolated yields. These AOCs retained the antigen binding properties (Trastuzumab's binding to human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, HER2), studied by biolayer interferometry. In addition, Ab-mediated endocytosis was demonstrated with live-cell fluorescence and phase-contrast microscopy on BT-474 breast carcinoma cells, overexpressing HER2. The effect on cell proliferation was analyzed by label-free live-cell time-lapse imaging.

Surface Functionalization of Gold Nanoparticles for Targeting the Tumor Microenvironment to Improve Antitumor Efficiency

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have undergone significant research for their use in the treatment of cancer. Numerous researchers have established their potent antitumor properties, which have greatly impacted the treatment of cancer. AuNPs have been used in four primary anticancer treatment modalities, namely radiation, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, and chemotherapy. However, the ability of AuNPs to destroy cancer is lacking and can even harm healthy cells without the right direction to transport them to the tumor microenvironment. Consequently, a suitable targeting technique is needed. Based on the distinct features of the human tumor microenvironment, this review discusses four different targeting strategies that target the four key features of the tumor microenvironment, including abnormal vasculature, overexpression of specific receptors, an acidic microenvironment, and a hypoxic microenvironment, to direct surface-functionalized AuNPs to the tumor microenvironment and increase antitumor efficacies. In addition, some current completed or ongoing clinical trials of AuNPs will also be discussed below to further reinforce the concept of using AuNPs in anticancer therapy.

Polyplex designs for improving the stability and safety of RNA therapeutics

Nanoparticle-based delivery systems have contributed to the recent clinical success of RNA therapeutics, including siRNA and mRNA. RNA delivery using polymers has several distinct properties, such as enabling RNA delivery into extra-hepatic organs, modulation of immune responses to RNA, and regulation of intracellular RNA release. However, delivery systems should overcome safety and stability issues to achieve widespread therapeutic applications. Safety concerns include direct damage to cellular components, innate and adaptive immune responses, complement activation, and interaction with surrounding molecules and cells in the blood circulation. The stability of the delivery systems should balance extracellular RNA protection and controlled intracellular RNA release, which requires optimization for each RNA species. Further, polymer designs for improving safety and stability often conflict with each other. This review covers advances in polymer-based approaches to address these issues over several years, focusing on biological understanding and design concepts for delivery systems rather than material chemistry.

The role of protein corona on nanodrugs for organ-targeting and its prospects of application

Nowadays, nanodrugs become a hotspot in the high-end medical field. They have the ability to deliver drugs to reach their destination more effectively due to their unique properties and flexible functionalization. However, the fate of nanodrugs in vivo is not the same as those presented in vitro, which indeed influenced their therapeutic efficacy in vivo. When entering the biological organism, nanodrugs will first come into contact with biological fluids and then be covered by some biomacromolecules, especially proteins. The proteins adsorbed on the surface of nanodrugs are known as protein corona (PC), which causes the loss of prospective organ-targeting abilities. Fortunately, the reasonable utilization of PC may determine the organ-targeting efficiency of systemically administered nanodrugs based on the diverse expression of receptors on cells in different organs. In addition, the nanodrugs for local administration targeting diverse lesion sites will also form unique PC, which plays an important role in the therapeutic effect of nanodrugs. This article introduced the formation of PC on the surface of nanodrugs and summarized the recent studies about the roles of diversified proteins adsorbed on nanodrugs and relevant protein for organ-targeting receptor through different administration pathways, which may deepen our understanding of the role that PC played on organ-targeting and improve the therapeutic efficacy of nanodrugs to promote their clinical translation.

Targeted delivery methods for RNA interference are necessary to obtain a potential functional cure for HIV/AIDS

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is of great interest in many different therapeutic areas including infectious diseases such as immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS). Thanks to current, advanced treatments for HIV, the diagnosis is no longer a death sentence. However, even with these treatments, latency is suggested to persist in T-lymphocyte-rich tissues including gut-associated lymphatic tissue (GALT), spleen, and bone marrow making HIV an incurable disease. Therefore, it is important to design systems that can effectively deliver therapeutics to these tissues to fight latent infection and find a functional cure. Numerous therapeutics ranging from small molecules to cell therapies have been explored as a cure for HIV but have failed to maintain therapeutic longevity. RNA interference (RNAi) provides a unique opportunity to achieve a functional cure for those who suffer from chronic HIV/AIDS by suppressing replication of the virus. However, RNA has certain imitations in delivery as it cannot be delivered without a carrier due to its negative charge and degradation from endogenous nucleases. Here, we provide a detailed analysis of explored systems for siRNA delivery for HIV/AIDS in the context of RNA therapeutic design and nanoparticle design. In addition, we suggest strategies that should be used to target specific tissues that are rich in lymphatic tissue.

Development of nucleic acid medicines based on chemical technology

Oligonucleotide-based therapeutics have attracted attention as an emerging modality that includes the modulation of genes and their binding proteins related to diseases, allowing us to take action on previously undruggable targets. Since the late 2010s, the number of oligonucleotide medicines approved for clinical uses has dramatically increased. Various chemistry-based technologies have been developed to improve the therapeutic properties of oligonucleotides, such as chemical modification, conjugation, and nanoparticle formation, which can increase nuclease resistance, enhance affinity and selectivity to target sites, suppress off-target effects, and improve pharmacokinetic properties. Similar strategies employing modified nucleobases and lipid nanoparticles have been used for developing coronavirus disease 2019 mRNA vaccines. In this review, we provide an overview of the development of chemistry-based technologies aimed at using nucleic acids for developing therapeutics over the past several decades, with a specific emphasis on the structural design and functionality of chemical modification strategies.

siRNA therapeutics: insights, challenges, remedies and future prospects

INTRODUCTION

Among conventional and novel therapeutic approaches, the siRNA strategy stands out for treating disease by silencing the gene responsible for the corresponding disorder. Gene silencing is supposedly intended to target any disease-causing gene, and therefore, several attempts and investments were made to exploit siRNA gene therapy and advance it into clinical settings. Despite the remarkable beneficial prospects, the applicability of siRNA therapeutics is very challenging due to various pathophysiological barriers that hamper its target reach, which is the cytosol, and execution of gene silencing action.

AREAS COVERED

The present review provides insights into the field of siRNA therapeutics, significant in vivo hurdles that mitigate the target accessibility of siRNA, and remedies to overcome these siRNA delivery challenges. Nonetheless, the current review also highlights the on-going clinical trials and the regulatory aspects of siRNA modalities.

EXPERT OPINION

The siRNAs have the potential to reach previously untreated target sites and silence the concerned gene owing to their modification as polymeric or lipidic nanoparticles, conjugates, and the application of advanced drug delivery strategies. With such mounting research attempts to improve the delivery of siRNA to target tissue, we might shortly witness revolutionary therapeutic outcomes, new approvals, and clinical implications.

Emergence of Small Interfering RNA-Based Gene Drugs for Various Diseases

Small molecule, peptide, and protein-based drugs have been developed over decades to treat various diseases. The importance of gene therapy as an alternative to traditional drugs has increased after the discovery of gene-based drugs such as Gendicine for cancer and Neovasculgen for peripheral artery disease. Since then, the pharma sector is focusing on developing gene-based drugs for various diseases. After the discovery of the RNA interference (RNAi) mechanism, the development of siRNA-based gene therapy has been accelerated immensely. siRNA-based treatment for hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis (hATTR) using Onpattro and acute hepatic porphyria (AHP) by Givlaari and three more FDA-approved siRNA drugs has set up a milestone and further improved the confidence for the development of gene therapeutics for a spectrum of diseases. siRNA-based gene drugs have more advantages over other gene therapies and are under study to treat different types of diseases such as viral infections, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and many more. However, there are a few bottlenecks to realizing the full potential of siRNA-based gene therapy. They include chemical instability, nontargeted biodistribution, undesirable innate immune responses, and off-target effects. This review provides a comprehensive view of siRNA-based gene drugs: challenges associated with siRNA delivery, their potential, and future prospects.

In Vivo Behavior of Ultrasmall Spherical Nucleic Acids

The biological properties of spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) are largely independent of nanoparticle core identity but significantly affected by oligonucleotide surface density. Additionally, the payload-to-carrier (i.e., DNA-to-nanoparticle) mass ratio of SNAs is inversely proportional to core size. While SNAs with many core types and sizes have been developed, all in vivo analyses of SNA behavior have been limited to cores >10 nm in diameter. However, "ultrasmall" nanoparticle constructs (<10 nm diameter) can exhibit increased payload-to-carrier ratios, reduced liver accumulation, renal clearance, and enhanced tumor infiltration. Therefore, we hypothesized that SNAs with ultrasmall cores exhibit SNA-like properties, but with in vivo behavior akin to traditional ultrasmall nanoparticles. To investigate, we compared the behavior of SNAs with 1.4-nm Au102 nanocluster cores (AuNC-SNAs) and SNAs with 10-nm gold nanoparticle cores (AuNP-SNAs). Significantly, AuNC-SNAs possess SNA-like properties (e.g., high cellular uptake, low cytotoxicity) but show distinct in vivo behavior. When intravenously injected in mice, AuNC-SNAs display prolonged blood circulation, lower liver accumulation, and higher tumor accumulation than AuNP-SNAs. Thus, SNA-like properties persist at the sub-10-nm length scale and oligonucleotide arrangement and surface density are responsible for the biological properties of SNAs. This work has implications for the design of new nanocarriers for therapeutic applications.

Challenges and advances for glioma therapy based on inorganic nanoparticles

Glioma is one of the most serious central nervous system diseases, with high mortality and poor prognosis. Despite the continuous development of existing treatment methods, the median survival time of glioma patients is still only 15 months. The main treatment difficulties are the invasive growth of glioma and the obstruction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to drugs. With rapid advancements in nanotechnology, inorganic nanoparticles (INPs) have shown favourable application prospects in the diagnosis and treatment of glioma. Due to their extraordinary intrinsic features, INPs can be easily fabricated, while doping with other elements and surface modification by biological ligands can be used to enhance BBB penetration, targeted delivery and biocompatibility. Guided glioma theranostics with INPs can improve and enhance the efficacy of traditional methods such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy and gene therapy. New strategies, such as immunotherapy, photothermal and photodynamic therapy, magnetic hyperthermia therapy, and multifunctional inorganic nanoplatforms, have also been facilitated by INPs. This review emphasizes the current state of research and clinical applications of INPs, including glioma targeting and BBB penetration enhancement methods, in vivo and in vitro biocompatibility, and diagnostic and treatment strategies. As such, it provides insights for the development of novel glioma treatment strategies.

A modular RNA delivery system comprising spherical nucleic acids built on endosome-escaping polymeric nanoparticles

Nucleic acid therapeutics require delivery systems to reach their targets. Key challenges to be overcome include avoidance of accumulation in cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system and escape from the endosomal pathway. Spherical nucleic acids (SNAs), in which a gold nanoparticle supports a corona of oligonucleotides, are promising carriers for nucleic acids with valuable properties including nuclease resistance, sequence-specific loading and control of receptor-mediated endocytosis. However, SNAs accumulate in the endosomal pathway and are thus vulnerable to lysosomal degradation or recycling exocytosis. Here, an alternative SNA core based on diblock copolymer PMPC25-PDPA72 is investigated. This pH-sensitive polymer self-assembles into vesicles with an intrinsic ability to escape endosomes via osmotic shock triggered by acidification-induced disassembly. DNA oligos conjugated to PMPC25-PDPA72 molecules form vesicles, or polymersomes, with DNA coronae on luminal and external surfaces. Nucleic acid cargoes or nucleic acid-tagged targeting moieties can be attached by hybridization to the coronal DNA. These polymeric SNAs are used to deliver siRNA duplexes against C9orf72, a genetic target with therapeutic potential for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, to motor neuron-like cells. By attaching a neuron-specific targeting peptide to the PSNA corona, effective knock-down is achieved at doses of 2 particles per cell.

Self-Assembly of Peptide-Lipid Nanoparticles for the Efficient Delivery of Nucleic Acids

A transfection formulation is successfully developed to deliver nucleic acids by adding an auxiliary lipid (DOTAP) to the peptide, and the transfection efficiency of pDNA reaches 72.6%, which is close to Lipofectamine 2000. In addition, the designed KHL peptide-DOTAP complex exhibits good biocompatibility by cytotoxicity and hemolysis analysis. The mRNA delivery experiment indicates that the complex had a 9- or 10-fold increase compared with KHL or DOTAP alone. Intracellular localization shows that KHL/DOTAP can achieve good endolysosomal escape. Our design provides a new platform for improving the transfection efficiency of peptide vectors.

Knowledge mapping of nano drug delivery systems across blood - Brain barrier from 1996 to 2022: A bibliometric analysis

Background

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a natural physiological barrier that protects the central nervous system from foreign substances and limits the delivery of drugs to the brain. Nanotechnology has opened up new possibilities for drug delivery in the brain. Over several decades, various Nanoparticle Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) that can cross the BBB have been developed for targeted delivery in the brain. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the current research hotspots and trends of NDDS across the BBB, this paper employs bibliometric analysis of articles published in the core database of Web of Science (WOS) from 1996 to 2022.

Method

A search for relevant research literature on NDDS that can cross the BBB was conducted in the Web of Science database, covering the period from 1996 to 2022. The Bibliometrix R-4.0 software package was used to analyze data related to the countries of publication, research institutions, journals, citations, and keywords. The analysis aimed to identify the co-occurrence of keywords in the documents, including their titles and abstracts. Additionally, cooperative network analyses of authors, institutions, and countries of publication were conducted.

Results

A total of 436 articles were analyzed, originating from 174 journals and 13 books, with the majority published in Q1 and Q2 journals. Contributors from 53 countries or regions participated in the publication of these articles, with China, the United States, and India having the highest number of articles by correspondent authors, and China, the United States, and Germany being the most cited countries. Fudan University, Hacettepe University, and Sichuan University were the top three institutions with the most publications. Among the 436 articles analyzed, 1337 keywords and 1450 keywords plus were identified. Factor analysis grouped the keywords plus into two categories: drug delivery systems, polymeric nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, transferrin, and others, and drug, delivery, efficiency, expression, and mechanism.

Conclusion

The research on NDDS that can cross the BBB is gradually receiving attention, and the recognition and cooperation in this field have increased.

Enhancing the Effectiveness of Oligonucleotide Therapeutics Using Cell-Penetrating Peptide Conjugation, Chemical Modification, and Carrier-Based Delivery Strategies

Oligonucleotide-based therapies are a promising approach for treating a wide range of hard-to-treat diseases, particularly genetic and rare diseases. These therapies involve the use of short synthetic sequences of DNA or RNA that can modulate gene expression or inhibit proteins through various mechanisms. Despite the potential of these therapies, a significant barrier to their widespread use is the difficulty in ensuring their uptake by target cells/tissues. Strategies to overcome this challenge include cell-penetrating peptide conjugation, chemical modification, nanoparticle formulation, and the use of endogenous vesicles, spherical nucleic acids, and smart material-based delivery vehicles. This article provides an overview of these strategies and their potential for the efficient delivery of oligonucleotide drugs, as well as the safety and toxicity considerations, regulatory requirements, and challenges in translating these therapies from the laboratory to the clinic.

Nanoparticle Targeting with Antibodies in the Central Nervous System

Treatments for disease in the central nervous system (CNS) are limited because of difficulties in agent penetration through the blood-brain barrier, achieving optimal dosing, and mitigating off-target effects. The prospect of precision medicine in CNS treatment suggests an opportunity for therapeutic nanotechnology, which offers tunability and adaptability to address specific diseases as well as targetability when combined with antibodies (Abs). Here, we review the strategies to attach Abs to nanoparticles (NPs), including conventional approaches of chemisorption and physisorption as well as attempts to combine irreversible Ab immobilization with controlled orientation. We also summarize trends that have been observed through studies of systemically delivered Ab-NP conjugates in animals. Finally, we discuss the future outlook for Ab-NPs to deliver therapeutics into the CNS.

Penetrative and Sustained Drug Delivery Using Injectable Hydrogel Nanocomposites for Postsurgical Brain Tumor Treatment

Postsurgical treatment of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) by systemic chemotherapy and radiotherapy is often inefficient. Tumor cells infiltrating deeply into the brain parenchyma are significant obstacles to the eradication of GBM. Here, we present a potential solution to this challenge by introducing an injectable thermoresponsive hydrogel nanocomposite. As a liquid solution that contains drug-loaded micelles and water-dispersible ferrimagnetic iron oxide nanocubes (wFIONs), the hydrogel nanocomposite is injected into the resected tumor site after surgery. It promptly gelates at body temperature to serve as a soft, deep intracortical drug reservoir. The drug-loaded micelles target residual GBM cells and deliver drugs with a minimum premature release. Alternating magnetic fields accelerate diffusion through heat generation from wFIONs, enabling penetrative drug delivery. Significantly suppressed tumor growth and improved survival rates are demonstrated in an orthotopic mouse GBM model. Our system proves the potential of the hydrogel nanocomposite platform for postsurgical GBM treatment.

Multifunctional gold nanorods in low-temperature photothermal interactions for combined tumor starvation and RNA interference therapy

Collateral damage to healthy tissue, uneven heat distribution, inflammatory diseases, and tumor metastasis induction hinder the translation of high-temperature photothermal therapy (PTT) from bench to practical clinical applications. In this report, a multifunctional gold nanorod (GNR)-based nanosystem was designed by attaching siRNA against B7-H3 (B7-H3si), glucose oxidase (GOx), and hyaluronic acid (HA) for efficient low-temperature PTT. Herein, GOx can not only exhaust glucose to induce starvation therapy but also reduce the heat shock protein (HSP), realizing the ablation of tumors without damage to healthy tissues. Evidence shows that B7-H3, a type I transmembrane glycoprotein molecule, plays essential roles in growth, metastasis, and drug resistance. By initiating the downregulation of B7-H3 by siRNA, siRNA-GOx/GNR@HA NPs may promote the effectiveness of treatment. By targeting cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) and depleting B7-H3 and HSPs sequentially, siRNA-GOx/GNR@HA NPs showed 12.9-fold higher lung distribution than siRNA-GOx/GNR NPs. Furthermore, 50% of A549-bearing mice in the siRNA-GOx/GNR NPs group survived over 50 days. Overall, this low-temperature phototherapeutic nanosystem provides an appropriate strategy for eliminating cancer with high treatment effectiveness and minimal systemic toxicity. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: To realize efficient tumor ablation under mild low-temperature (42-45 ℃) and RNA interference simultaneously, here we developed a multifunctional gold nanorod (GNR)-based nanosystem (siRNA-GOx/GNR@HA NPs). This nanoplatform can significantly inhibit tumor cell proliferation and induce cell apoptosis by downregulation of HSP90α, HSP70, B7-H3, p-AKT, and p-ERK and upregulation of cleaved caspase-9 at mild low-temperature due to its superior tumor homing ability and the combined effect of photothermal effect, glucose deprivation-initiated tumor starvation, and B7-H3 gene silence effect. It is believed that this multifunctional low-temperature photothermal nanosystem with efficient and specific anticancer properties, shows a potential application in clinical tumor treatment.

Nanomedicine for autophagy modulation in cancer therapy: a clinical perspective

In recent years, progress in nanotechnology provided new tools to treat cancer more effectively. Advances in biomaterials tailored for drug delivery have the potential to overcome the limited selectivity and side effects frequently associated with traditional therapeutic agents. While autophagy is pivotal in determining cell fate and adaptation to different challenges, and despite the fact that it is frequently dysregulated in cancer, antitumor therapeutic strategies leveraging on or targeting this process are scarce. This is due to many reasons, including the very contextual effects of autophagy in cancer, low bioavailability and non-targeted delivery of existing autophagy modulatory compounds. Conjugating the versatile characteristics of nanoparticles with autophagy modulators may render these drugs safer and more effective for cancer treatment. Here, we review current standing questions on the biology of autophagy in tumor progression, and precursory studies and the state-of-the-art in harnessing nanomaterials science to enhance the specificity and therapeutic potential of autophagy modulators.

Nonviral nanoparticle gene delivery into the CNS for neurological disorders and brain cancer applications

Nonviral nanoparticles have emerged as an attractive alternative to viral vectors for gene therapy applications, utilizing a range of lipid-based, polymeric, and inorganic materials. These materials can either encapsulate or be functionalized to bind nucleic acids and protect them from degradation. To effectively elicit changes to gene expression, the nanoparticle carrier needs to undergo a series of steps intracellularly, from interacting with the cellular membrane to facilitate cellular uptake to endosomal escape and nucleic acid release. Adjusting physiochemical properties of the nanoparticles, such as size, charge, and targeting ligands, can improve cellular uptake and ultimately gene delivery. Applications in the central nervous system (CNS; i.e., neurological diseases, brain cancers) face further extracellular barriers for a gene-carrying nanoparticle to surpass, with the most significant being the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Approaches to overcome these extracellular challenges to deliver nanoparticles into the CNS include systemic, intracerebroventricular, intrathecal, and intranasal administration. This review describes and compares different biomaterials for nonviral nanoparticle-mediated gene therapy to the CNS and explores challenges and recent preclinical and clinical developments in overcoming barriers to nanoparticle-mediated delivery to the brain. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Neurological Disease Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.

Virus Mimetic Framework DNA as a Non-LNP Gene Carrier for Modulated Cell Endocytosis and Apoptosis

Mimicking the size and shape of spherical viruses, we constructed a soccer-ball shaped virus-inspired DNA origami (ViDO) framework as a programmable non-LNP (lipid nanoparticle) gene carrier. The DNA framework was decorated with precisely controlled recognition molecules outside and loaded with adequate genetic molecules inside. Five variants were constructed to systematically investigate their cell uptake and modulated gene silencing efficiency. Cellular uptake was enhanced with an increasing number of aptamers, while with a median number of aptamer supply, dispersed distribution performed better than the clustered pattern. Intriguingly, the transfection efficiency was maximized using the ViDO with clustered five aptamers, which exhibited a competitive RNA silencing effect induced by Lipo2000 with low cytotoxicity. Our results revealed the effects of aptamer distribution patterns on endocytosis and transfection, thus providing a programmable platform for meticulous optimization of the gene delivery system.

Nucleic acid drug vectors for diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases

Nucleic acid drugs have the advantages of rich target selection, simple in design, good and enduring effect. They have been demonstrated to have irreplaceable superiority in brain disease treatment, while vectors are a decisive factor in therapeutic efficacy. Strict physiological barriers, such as degradation and clearance in circulation, blood-brain barrier, cellular uptake, endosome/lysosome barriers, release, obstruct the delivery of nucleic acid drugs to the brain by the vectors. Nucleic acid drugs against a single target are inefficient in treating brain diseases of complex pathogenesis. Differences between individual patients lead to severe uncertainties in brain disease treatment with nucleic acid drugs. In this Review, we briefly summarize the classification of nucleic acid drugs. Next, we discuss physiological barriers during drug delivery and universal coping strategies and introduce the application methods of these universal strategies to nucleic acid drug vectors. Subsequently, we explore nucleic acid drug-based multidrug regimens for the combination treatment of brain diseases and the construction of the corresponding vectors. In the following, we address the feasibility of patient stratification and personalized therapy through diagnostic information from medical imaging and the manner of introducing contrast agents into vectors. Finally, we take a perspective on the future feasibility and remaining challenges of vector-based integrated diagnosis and gene therapy for brain diseases.

Nanomedicines Targeting Glioma Stem Cells

Glioblastoma (GBM), classified as a grade IV glioma, is a rapidly growing, aggressive, and most commonly occurring tumor of the central nervous system. Despite the therapeutic advances, it carries an ominous prognosis, with a median survival of 14.6 months after diagnosis. Accumulating evidence suggests that cancer stem cells in GBM, termed glioma stem cells (GSCs), play a crucial role in tumor propagation, treatment resistance, and tumor recurrence. GSCs, possessing the capacity for self-renewal and multilineage differentiation, are responsible for tumor growth and heterogeneity, leading to primary obstacles to current cancer therapy. In this respect, increasing efforts have been devoted to the development of anti-GSC strategies based on targeting GSC surface markers, blockage of essential signaling pathways of GSCs, and manipulating the tumor microenvironment (GSC niches). In this review, we will discuss the research knowledge regarding GSC-based therapy and the underlying mechanisms for the treatment of GBM. Given the rapid progression in nanotechnology, innovative nanomedicines developed for GSC targeting will also be highlighted from the perspective of rationale, advantages, and limitations. The goal of this review is to provide broader understanding and key considerations toward the future direction of GSC-based nanotheranostics to fight against GBM.

Lysosomal-mediated drug release and activation for cancer therapy and immunotherapy

The development of carrier systems that are able to transport and release therapeutics to target cells is an emergent strategy to treat cancer; however, they following endocytosis are usually trapped in the endo/lysosomal compartments. The efficacy of drug conjugates and nanotherapeutics relies critically on their intracellular drug release ability, for which advanced systems responding to the unique lysosomal environment such as acidic pH and abundant enzymes (e.g. cathepsin B, sulfatase and β-glucuronidase) or equipped with photochemical internalization property have been energetically pursued. In this review, we highlight the recent designs of smart systems that promote efficient lysosomal release and/or escape of anticancer agents including chemotherapeutics (e.g. doxorubicin, platinum, chloroquine and hydrochloroquine) and biotherapeutics (e.g. proteins, siRNA, miRNA, mRNA and pDNA) to cancer cells or immunotherapeutic agents (e.g. antigens, mRNA and immunoadjuvants) to antigen-presenting cells (APCs), thereby boosting cancer therapy and immunotherapy. Lysosomal-mediated drug release presents an appealing approach to develop innovative cancer therapeutics and immunotherapeutics.