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Mamudu CO, Tebamifor ME, Sule MO, Dokunmu TM, Ogunlana OO, Iheagwam FN. Apicoplast-Resident Processes: Exploiting the Chink in the Armour of Plasmodium falciparum Parasites. Adv Pharmacol Pharm Sci 2024; 2024:9940468. [PMID: 38765186 PMCID: PMC11101256 DOI: 10.1155/2024/9940468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The discovery of a relict plastid, also known as an apicoplast (apicomplexan plastid), that houses housekeeping processes and metabolic pathways critical to Plasmodium parasites' survival has prompted increased research on identifying potent inhibitors that can impinge on apicoplast-localised processes. The apicoplast is absent in humans, yet it is proposed to originate from the eukaryote's secondary endosymbiosis of a primary symbiont. This symbiotic relationship provides a favourable microenvironment for metabolic processes such as haem biosynthesis, Fe-S cluster synthesis, isoprenoid biosynthesis, fatty acid synthesis, and housekeeping processes such as DNA replication, transcription, and translation, distinct from analogous mammalian processes. Recent advancements in comprehending the biology of the apicoplast reveal it as a vulnerable organelle for malaria parasites, offering numerous potential targets for effective antimalarial therapies. We provide an overview of the metabolic processes occurring in the apicoplast and discuss the organelle as a viable antimalarial target in light of current advances in drug discovery. We further highlighted the relevance of these metabolic processes to Plasmodium falciparum during the different stages of the lifecycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Collins Ojonugwa Mamudu
- Department of Biochemistry, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
- Covenant Applied Informatics and Communication Africa Centre of Excellence, Ota, Nigeria
| | - Mercy Eyitomi Tebamifor
- Department of Biochemistry, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
- Covenant Applied Informatics and Communication Africa Centre of Excellence, Ota, Nigeria
| | - Mary Ohunene Sule
- Confluence University of Science and Technology, Osara, Kogi, Nigeria
| | - Titilope Modupe Dokunmu
- Department of Biochemistry, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
- Covenant Applied Informatics and Communication Africa Centre of Excellence, Ota, Nigeria
| | - Olubanke Olujoke Ogunlana
- Department of Biochemistry, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
- Covenant Applied Informatics and Communication Africa Centre of Excellence, Ota, Nigeria
- Covenant University Public Health and Wellbeing Research Cluster, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
| | - Franklyn Nonso Iheagwam
- Department of Biochemistry, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
- Covenant University Public Health and Wellbeing Research Cluster, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
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Amanzougaghene N, Tajeri S, Franetich JF, Ashraf K, Soulard V, Bigeard P, Guindo CO, Bouillier C, Lemaitre J, Relouzat F, Legrand R, Kocken CHM, Zeeman AM, Roobsoong W, Sattabongkot J, Yang Z, Snounou G, Mazier D. Azithromycin disrupts apicoplast biogenesis in replicating and dormant liver stages of the relapsing malaria parasites Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium cynomolgi. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2024; 63:107112. [PMID: 38367843 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2024.107112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/19/2024]
Abstract
The control and elimination of malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax is hampered by the threat of relapsed infection resulting from the activation of dormant hepatic hypnozoites. Currently, only the 8-aminoquinolines, primaquine and tafenoquine, have been approved for the elimination of hypnozoites, although their use is hampered by potential toxicity. Therefore, an alternative radical curative drug that safely eliminates hypnozoites is a pressing need. This study assessed the potential hypnozoiticidal activity of the antibiotic azithromycin, which is thought to exert antimalarial activity by inhibiting prokaryote-like ribosomal translation within the apicoplast, an indispensable organelle. The results show that azithromycin inhibited apicoplast development during liver-stage schizogony in P. vivax and Plasmodium cynomolgi, leading to impaired parasite maturation. More importantly, this study found that azithromycin is likely to impair the hypnozoite's apicoplast, resulting in the loss of this organelle. Subsequently, using a recently developed long-term hepatocyte culture system, this study found that this loss likely induces a delay in the hypnozoite activation rate, and that those parasites that do proceed to schizogony display liver-stage arrest prior to differentiating into hepatic merozoites, thus potentially preventing relapse. Overall, this work provides evidence for the potential use of azithromycin for the radical cure of relapsing malaria, and identifies apicoplast functions as potential drug targets in quiescent hypnozoites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Amanzougaghene
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France; Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, CEA, Immunologie des maladies virales, auto-immunes, hématologiques et bactériennes (IMVA-HB/IDMIT/UMR1184), Fontenay-aux-Roses and Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Shahin Tajeri
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Jean-François Franetich
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Kutub Ashraf
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Valérie Soulard
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Pierre Bigeard
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Cheick Oumar Guindo
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Camille Bouillier
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, CEA, Immunologie des maladies virales, auto-immunes, hématologiques et bactériennes (IMVA-HB/IDMIT/UMR1184), Fontenay-aux-Roses and Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Julien Lemaitre
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, CEA, Immunologie des maladies virales, auto-immunes, hématologiques et bactériennes (IMVA-HB/IDMIT/UMR1184), Fontenay-aux-Roses and Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Francis Relouzat
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, CEA, Immunologie des maladies virales, auto-immunes, hématologiques et bactériennes (IMVA-HB/IDMIT/UMR1184), Fontenay-aux-Roses and Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Roger Legrand
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, CEA, Immunologie des maladies virales, auto-immunes, hématologiques et bactériennes (IMVA-HB/IDMIT/UMR1184), Fontenay-aux-Roses and Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Clemens H M Kocken
- Department of Parasitology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Anne-Marie Zeeman
- Department of Parasitology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Wanlapa Roobsoong
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jetsumon Sattabongkot
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Zhaoqing Yang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Kunming Medical University, Chenggong New Town, Kunming, Yunnan Province,China
| | - Georges Snounou
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, CEA, Immunologie des maladies virales, auto-immunes, hématologiques et bactériennes (IMVA-HB/IDMIT/UMR1184), Fontenay-aux-Roses and Kremlin-Bicêtre, France.
| | - Dominique Mazier
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France.
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3
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Morano AA, Xu W, Shadija N, Dvorin JD, Ke H. The dynamin-related protein Dyn2 is essential for both apicoplast and mitochondrial fission in Plasmodium falciparum. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.15.585229. [PMID: 38559241 PMCID: PMC10980034 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.15.585229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Dynamins, or dynamin-related proteins (DRPs), are large mechano-sensitive GTPases mediating membrane dynamics or organellar fission/fusion events. Plasmodium falciparum encodes three dynamin-like proteins whose functions are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that PfDyn2 mediates both apicoplast and mitochondrial fission. Using super-resolution and ultrastructure expansion microscopy, we show that PfDyn2 is expressed in the schizont stage and localizes to both the apicoplast and mitochondria. Super-resolution long-term live cell microscopy shows that PfDyn2-deficient parasites cannot complete cytokinesis because the apicoplast and mitochondria do not undergo fission. Further, the basal complex or cytokinetic ring in Plasmodium cannot fully contract upon PfDyn2 depletion, a phenotype secondary to physical blockage of undivided organelles in the middle of the ring. Our data suggest that organellar fission defects result in aberrant schizogony, generating unsuccessful merozoites. The unique biology of PfDyn2, mediating both apicoplast and mitochondrial fission, has not been observed in other organisms possessing two endosymbiotic organelles. Highlights PfDyn2 is essential for schizont-stage development.PfDyn2 mediates both apicoplast and mitochondrial fission.Deficiency of PfDyn2 leads to organellar fission failures and blockage of basal complex contraction.Addition of apicoplast-derived metabolite IPP does not rescue the growth defects.
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Chahine Z, Abel S, Hollin T, Chung JH, Barnes GL, Daub ME, Renard I, Choi JY, Pratap V, Pal A, Alba-Argomaniz M, Banks CAS, Kirkwood J, Saraf A, Camino I, Castaneda P, Cuevas MC, De Mercado-Arnanz J, Fernandez-Alvaro E, Garcia-Perez A, Ibarz N, Viera-Morilla S, Prudhomme J, Joyner CJ, Bei AK, Florens L, Ben Mamoun C, Vanderwal CD, Le Roch KG. A Potent Kalihinol Analogue Disrupts Apicoplast Function and Vesicular Trafficking in P. falciparum Malaria. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.11.21.568162. [PMID: 38045341 PMCID: PMC10690269 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.21.568162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
Here we report the discovery of MED6-189, a new analogue of the kalihinol family of isocyanoterpene (ICT) natural products. MED6-189 is effective against drug-sensitive and -resistant P. falciparum strains blocking both intraerythrocytic asexual replication and sexual differentiation. This compound was also effective against P. knowlesi and P. cynomolgi. In vivo efficacy studies using a humanized mouse model of malaria confirms strong efficacy of the compound in animals with no apparent hemolytic activity or apparent toxicity. Complementary chemical biology, molecular biology, genomics and cell biological analyses revealed that MED6-189 primarily targets the parasite apicoplast and acts by inhibiting lipid biogenesis and cellular trafficking. Genetic analyses in P. falciparum revealed that a mutation in PfSec13, which encodes a component of the parasite secretory machinery, reduced susceptibility to the drug. The high potency of MED6-189 in vitro and in vivo, its broad range of efficacy, excellent therapeutic profile, and unique mode of action make it an excellent addition to the antimalarial drug pipeline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Chahine
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - S Abel
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - T Hollin
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - JH Chung
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, 92617, USA
| | - GL Barnes
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, 92617, USA
| | - ME Daub
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, 92617, USA
| | - I Renard
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - JY Choi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - V Pratap
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - A Pal
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - M Alba-Argomaniz
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - CAS Banks
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 E. 50th Street, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - J Kirkwood
- Metabolomics Core Facility, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - A Saraf
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 E. 50th Street, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - I Camino
- GSK, C/ Severo Ochoa, 2 PTM, 28760 Tres Cantos (Madrid), Spain
| | - P Castaneda
- GSK, C/ Severo Ochoa, 2 PTM, 28760 Tres Cantos (Madrid), Spain
| | - MC Cuevas
- GSK, C/ Severo Ochoa, 2 PTM, 28760 Tres Cantos (Madrid), Spain
| | | | | | - A Garcia-Perez
- GSK, C/ Severo Ochoa, 2 PTM, 28760 Tres Cantos (Madrid), Spain
| | - N Ibarz
- GSK, C/ Severo Ochoa, 2 PTM, 28760 Tres Cantos (Madrid), Spain
| | - S Viera-Morilla
- GSK, C/ Severo Ochoa, 2 PTM, 28760 Tres Cantos (Madrid), Spain
| | - J Prudhomme
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - CJ Joyner
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - AK Bei
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - L Florens
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, 1000 E. 50th Street, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - C Ben Mamoun
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - CD Vanderwal
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, 92617, USA
| | - KG Le Roch
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
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5
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Elahi R, Prigge ST. New insights into apicoplast metabolism in blood-stage malaria parasites. Curr Opin Microbiol 2023; 71:102255. [PMID: 36563485 PMCID: PMC9852000 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2022.102255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The apicoplast of Plasmodium falciparum is the only source of essential isoprenoid precursors and Coenzyme A (CoA) in the parasite. Isoprenoid precursor synthesis relies on the iron-sulfur cluster (FeS) cofactors produced within the apicoplast, rendering FeS synthesis an essential function of this organelle. Recent reports provide important insights into the roles of FeS cofactors and the use of isoprenoid precursors and CoA both inside and outside the apicoplast. Here, we review the recent insights into the roles of these metabolites in blood-stage malaria parasites and discuss new questions that have been raised in light of these discoveries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubayet Elahi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sean T Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA; The Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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6
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Smith D, Lunghi M, Olafsson EB, Hatton O, Di Cristina M, Carruthers VB. A High-Throughput Amenable Dual Luciferase System for Measuring Toxoplasma gondii Bradyzoite Viability after Drug Treatment. Anal Chem 2023; 95:668-676. [PMID: 36548400 PMCID: PMC9850410 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c02174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
It is estimated that more than 2 billion people are chronically infected with the intracellular protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). Despite this, there is currently no vaccine to prevent infection in humans, and there is no recognized curative treatment to clear tissue cysts. A major hurdle for identifying effective drug candidates against chronic-stage cysts has been the low throughput of existing in vitro assays for testing the survival of bradyzoites. We have developed a luciferase-based platform for specifically determining bradyzoite survival within in vitro cysts in a 96-well plate format. We engineered a cystogenic type II T. gondii PruΔku80Δhxgpr strain for stage-specific expression of firefly luciferase in the cytosol of bradyzoites and nanoluciferase for secretion into the lumen of the cyst (DuaLuc strain). Using this DuaLuc strain, we found that the ratio of firefly luciferase to nanoluciferase decreased upon treatment with atovaquone or LHVS, two compounds that are known to compromise bradyzoite viability. The 96-well format allowed us to test several additional compounds and generate dose-response curves for calculation of EC50 values indicating relative effectiveness of a compound. Accordingly, this DuaLuc system should be suitable for screening libraries of diverse compounds and defining the potency of hits or other compounds with a putative antibradyzoite activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Smith
- University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor 734 763 2081, United States
- Moredun Research Institute, Penicuik EH26 0PZ, U.K.
| | - Matteo Lunghi
- Università degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia 06123, Italy
| | - Einar B. Olafsson
- University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor 734 763 2081, United States
- University of Uppsala, Uppsala 751 05, Sweden
| | - Olivia Hatton
- University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor 734 763 2081, United States
| | | | - Vern B. Carruthers
- University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor 734 763 2081, United States
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7
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Chheda PR, Nieto N, Kaur S, Beck JM, Beck JR, Honzatko R, Kerns RJ, Nelson SW. Promising antimalarials targeting apicoplast DNA polymerase from Plasmodium falciparum. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 243:114751. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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8
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Burns AL, Sleebs BE, Gancheva M, McLean KT, Siddiqui G, Venter H, Beeson JG, O’Handley R, Creek DJ, Ma S, Frölich S, Goodman CD, McFadden GI, Wilson DW. Targeting malaria parasites with novel derivatives of azithromycin. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1063407. [PMID: 36530422 PMCID: PMC9748569 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1063407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction The spread of artemisinin resistant Plasmodium falciparum parasites is of global concern and highlights the need to identify new antimalarials for future treatments. Azithromycin, a macrolide antibiotic used clinically against malaria, kills parasites via two mechanisms: 'delayed death' by inhibiting the bacterium-like ribosomes of the apicoplast, and 'quick-killing' that kills rapidly across the entire blood stage development. Methods Here, 22 azithromycin analogues were explored for delayed death and quick-killing activities against P. falciparum (the most virulent human malaria) and P. knowlesi (a monkey parasite that frequently infects humans). Results Seventeen analogues showed improved quick-killing against both Plasmodium species, with up to 38 to 20-fold higher potency over azithromycin after less than 48 or 28 hours of treatment for P. falciparum and P. knowlesi, respectively. Quick-killing analogues maintained activity throughout the blood stage lifecycle, including ring stages of P. falciparum parasites (<12 hrs treatment) and were >5-fold more selective against P. falciparum than human cells. Isopentenyl pyrophosphate supplemented parasites that lacked an apicoplast were equally sensitive to quick-killing analogues, confirming that the quick killing activity of these drugs was not directed at the apicoplast. Further, activity against the related apicoplast containing parasite Toxoplasma gondii and the gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae did not show improvement over azithromycin, highlighting the specific improvement in antimalarial quick-killing activity. Metabolomic profiling of parasites subjected to the most potent compound showed a build-up of non-haemoglobin derived peptides that was similar to chloroquine, while also exhibiting accumulation of haemoglobin-derived peptides that was absent for chloroquine treatment. Discussion The azithromycin analogues characterised in this study expand the structural diversity over previously reported quick-killing compounds and provide new starting points to develop azithromycin analogues with quick-killing antimalarial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L. Burns
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, the University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia,School of Science and Technology, the University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
| | - Brad E. Sleebs
- ACRF Chemical Biology Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Maria Gancheva
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, the University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Kimberley T. McLean
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, the University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Ghizal Siddiqui
- Drug Delivery Disposition and Dynamics, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Henrietta Venter
- Health and Biomedical Innovation, Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - James G. Beeson
- Healthy Mothers, Healthy Babies Program, Burnet Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia,Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia,Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic, Australia,Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic, Australia
| | - Ryan O’Handley
- School of Animal and Veterinary Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia,Australian Centre for Antimicrobial Resistance Ecology, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Darren J. Creek
- Drug Delivery Disposition and Dynamics, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Shutao Ma
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Sonja Frölich
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, the University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | | | | | - Danny W. Wilson
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, the University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia,Healthy Mothers, Healthy Babies Program, Burnet Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia,Australian Centre for Antimicrobial Resistance Ecology, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia,*Correspondence: Danny W. Wilson,
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Abugri J, Ayariga J, Sunwiale SS, Wezena CA, Gyamfi JA, Adu-Frimpong M, Agongo G, Dongdem JT, Abugri D, Dinko B. Targeting the Plasmodium falciparum proteome and organelles for potential antimalarial drug candidates. Heliyon 2022; 8:e10390. [PMID: 36033316 PMCID: PMC9398786 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an unmet need to unearth alternative treatment options for malaria, wherein this quest is more pressing in recent times due to high morbidity and mortality data arising mostly from the endemic countries coupled with partial diversion of attention from the disease in view of the SARS-Cov-2 pandemic. Available therapeutic options for malaria have been severely threatened with the emergence of resistance to almost all the antimalarial drugs by the Plasmodium falciparum parasite in humans, which is a worrying situation. Artemisinin combination therapies (ACT) that have so far been the mainstay of malaria have encountered resistance by malaria parasite in South East Asia, which is regarded as a notorious ground zero for the emergence of resistance to antimalarial drugs. This review analyzes a few key druggable targets for the parasite and the potential of specific inhibitors to mitigate the emerging antimalarial drug resistance problem by providing a concise assessment of the essential proteins of the malaria parasite that could serve as targets. Moreover, this work provides a summary of the advances made in malaria parasite biology and the potential to leverage these findings for antimalarial drug production.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Abugri
- Department of Biochemistry and Forensic Sciences, School of Chemical and Biochemical Sciences, C. K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Sciences (CKT-UTAS), Navrongo, Ghana
| | - Joseph Ayariga
- The Biomedical Engineering Programme, Alabama State University, Montgomery, AL, 36104, USA
| | - Samuel Sunyazi Sunwiale
- Department of Biochemistry and Forensic Sciences, School of Chemical and Biochemical Sciences, C. K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Sciences (CKT-UTAS), Navrongo, Ghana
| | - Cletus Adiyaga Wezena
- Department of Microbiology, School of Biosciences, University for Development Studies (UDS), Nyankpala Campus, Tamale, Ghana
| | - Julien Agyemang Gyamfi
- Department of Biochemistry and Forensic Sciences, School of Chemical and Biochemical Sciences, C. K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Sciences (CKT-UTAS), Navrongo, Ghana
| | - Michael Adu-Frimpong
- Department of Biochemistry and Forensic Sciences, School of Chemical and Biochemical Sciences, C. K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Sciences (CKT-UTAS), Navrongo, Ghana
| | - Godfred Agongo
- Department of Biochemistry and Forensic Sciences, School of Chemical and Biochemical Sciences, C. K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Sciences (CKT-UTAS), Navrongo, Ghana
| | - Julius Tieroyaare Dongdem
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine. School of Medicine. University for Development Studies (UDS), Tamale-Campus, Ghana
| | - Daniel Abugri
- Department of Biological Sciences, Microbiology PhD Programme, Laboratory of Ethnomedicine, Parasitology, and Drug Discovery, College of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, Alabama State University, Montgomery, USA
| | - Bismarck Dinko
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic and Biomedical Sciences, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho. Ghana
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10
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Disrupting the plastidic iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis pathway in Toxoplasma gondii has pleiotropic effects irreversibly impacting parasite viability. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102243. [PMID: 35810787 PMCID: PMC9386495 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Like many other apicomplexan parasites, Toxoplasma gondii contains a plastid harboring key metabolic pathways, including the sulfur utilization factor (SUF) pathway that is involved in the biosynthesis of iron-sulfur clusters. These cofactors are crucial for a variety of proteins involved in important metabolic reactions, potentially including plastidic pathways for the synthesis of isoprenoid and fatty acids. It was shown previously that impairing the NFS2 cysteine desulfurase, involved in the first step of the SUF pathway, leads to an irreversible killing of intracellular parasites. However, the metabolic impact of disrupting the pathway remained unexplored. Here, we generated another mutant of this pathway, deficient in the SUFC ATPase, and investigated in details the phenotypic consequences of TgNFS2 and TgSUFC depletion on the parasites. Our analysis confirms that Toxoplasma SUF mutants are severely and irreversibly impacted in division and membrane homeostasis, and suggests a defect in apicoplast-generated fatty acids. However, we show that increased scavenging from the host or supplementation with exogenous fatty acids do not fully restore parasite growth, suggesting that this is not the primary cause for the demise of the parasites and that other important cellular functions were affected. For instance, we also show that the SUF pathway is key for generating the isoprenoid-derived precursors necessary for the proper targeting of GPI-anchored proteins and for parasite motility. Thus, we conclude plastid-generated iron-sulfur clusters support the functions of proteins involved in several vital downstream cellular pathways, which implies the SUF machinery may be explored for new potential anti-Toxoplasma targets.
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11
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Bernard MM, Mohanty A, Rajendran V. Title: A Comprehensive Review on Classifying Fast-acting and Slow-acting Antimalarial Agents Based on Time of Action and Target Organelle of Plasmodium sp. Pathog Dis 2022; 80:6589403. [PMID: 35588061 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftac015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Revised: 03/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The clinical resistance towards malarial parasites has rendered many antimalarials ineffective, likely due to a lack of understanding of time of action and stage specificity of all life stages. Therefore, to tackle this problem a more incisive comprehensive analysis of the fast and slow-acting profile of antimalarial agents relating to parasite time-kill kinetics and the target organelle on the progression of blood-stage parasites was carried out. It is evident from numerous findings that drugs targeting food vacuole, nuclear components, and endoplasmic reticulum mainly exhibit a fast-killing phenotype within 24h affecting first-cycle activity. Whereas drugs targeting mitochondria, apicoplast, microtubules, parasite invasion and egress exhibit a largely slow-killing phenotype within 96-120h, affecting second-cycle activity with few exemptions as moderately fast-killing. It is essential to understand the susceptibility of drugs on rings, trophozoites, schizonts, merozoites, and the appearance of organelle at each stage of 48h intraerythrocytic parasite cycle. Therefore, these parameters may facilitate the paradigm for understanding the timing of antimalarials action in deciphering its precise mechanism linked with time. Thus, classifying drugs based on the time of killing may promote designing new combination regimens against varied strains of P. falciparum and evaluating potential clinical resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Marie Bernard
- Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India
| | - Abhinab Mohanty
- Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India
| | - Vinoth Rajendran
- Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India
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12
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Okada M, Rajaram K, Swift RP, Mixon A, Maschek JA, Prigge ST, Sigala PA. Critical role for isoprenoids in apicoplast biogenesis by malaria parasites. eLife 2022; 11:73208. [PMID: 35257658 PMCID: PMC8959605 DOI: 10.7554/elife.73208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) is an essential metabolic output of the apicoplast organelle in Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites and is required for prenylation-dependent vesicular trafficking and other cellular processes. We have elucidated a critical and previously uncharacterized role for IPP in apicoplast biogenesis. Inhibiting IPP synthesis blocks apicoplast elongation and inheritance by daughter merozoites, and apicoplast biogenesis is rescued by exogenous IPP and polyprenols. Knockout of the only known isoprenoid-dependent apicoplast pathway, tRNA prenylation by MiaA, has no effect on blood-stage parasites and thus cannot explain apicoplast reliance on IPP. However, we have localized an annotated polyprenyl synthase (PPS) to the apicoplast. PPS knockdown is lethal to parasites, rescued by IPP and long- (C50) but not short-chain (≤C20) prenyl alcohols, and blocks apicoplast biogenesis, thus explaining apicoplast dependence on isoprenoid synthesis. We hypothesize that PPS synthesizes long-chain polyprenols critical for apicoplast membrane fluidity and biogenesis. This work critically expands the paradigm for isoprenoid utilization in malaria parasites and identifies a novel essential branch of apicoplast metabolism suitable for therapeutic targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Okada
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Krithika Rajaram
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, United States
| | - Russell P Swift
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, United States
| | - Amanda Mixon
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - John Alan Maschek
- Metabolomics Core, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Sean T Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, United States
| | - Paul A Sigala
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
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13
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Cobb DW, Woods GS, Muralidharan V. Activity-based Crosslinking to Identify Substrates of Thioredoxin-domain Proteinsin Malaria Parasites. Bio Protoc 2022; 12:e4322. [PMID: 35340291 PMCID: PMC8899546 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.4322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 08/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains a major public health issue, infecting nearly 220 million people every year. The spread of drug-resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum around the world threatens the progress made against this disease. Therefore, identifying druggable and essential pathways in P. falciparum parasites remains a major area of research. One poorly understood area of parasite biology is the formation of disulfide bonds, which is an essential requirement for the folding of numerous proteins. Specialized chaperones with thioredoxin (Trx) domains catalyze the redox functions necessary for breaking incorrect and forming correct disulfide bonds in proteins. Defining the substrates of these redox chaperones is difficult and immunoprecipitation based assays cannot distinguish between substrates and interacting partners. Further, the substrate or client interactions with the redox chaperones are usually transient in nature. Activity based crosslinkers that rely on the nucleophilic cysteines on Trx domains and the disulfide bond forming cysteines on clients provide an easily scalable method to trap and identify the substrates of Trx-domain containing chaperones. The cell permeable crosslinker divinyl sulfone (DVSF) is active only in the presence of nucleophilic cysteines in proteins and, therefore, traps Trx domains with their substrates, as they form mixed disulfide bonds during the course of their catalytic activity. This allows the identification of substrates that rely on Trx activity for their folding, as well as discovering small molecules that interfere with Trx domain activity. Graphic abstract: Identification of thioredoxin domain substrates via divinylsulfone crosslinking and immunoprecipitation-mass spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W. Cobb
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
- Department of Cellular BIology, Franklin College of Arts and Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Grace S. Woods
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Vasant Muralidharan
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
- Department of Cellular BIology, Franklin College of Arts and Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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14
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de Carvalho LP, Groeger-Otero S, Kreidenweiss A, Kremsner PG, Mordmüller B, Held J. Boromycin has Rapid-Onset Antibiotic Activity Against Asexual and Sexual Blood Stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 11:802294. [PMID: 35096650 PMCID: PMC8795978 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.802294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Boromycin is a boron-containing macrolide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces antibioticus with potent activity against certain viruses, Gram-positive bacteria and protozoan parasites. Most antimalarial antibiotics affect plasmodial organelles of prokaryotic origin and have a relatively slow onset of action. They are used for malaria prophylaxis and for the treatment of malaria when combined to a fast-acting drug. Despite the success of artemisinin combination therapies, the current gold standard treatment, new alternatives are constantly needed due to the ability of malaria parasites to become resistant to almost all drugs that are in heavy clinical use. In vitro antiplasmodial activity screens of tetracyclines (omadacycline, sarecycline, methacycline, demeclocycline, lymecycline, meclocycline), macrolides (oleandomycin, boromycin, josamycin, troleandomycin), and control drugs (chloroquine, clindamycin, doxycycline, minocycline, eravacycline) revealed boromycin as highly potent against Plasmodium falciparum and the zoonotic Plasmodium knowlesi. In contrast to tetracyclines, boromycin rapidly killed asexual stages of both Plasmodium species already at low concentrations (~ 1 nM) including multidrug resistant P. falciparum strains (Dd2, K1, 7G8). In addition, boromycin was active against P. falciparum stage V gametocytes at a low nanomolar range (IC50: 8.5 ± 3.6 nM). Assessment of the mode of action excluded the apicoplast as the main target. Although there was an ionophoric activity on potassium channels, the effect was too low to explain the drug´s antiplasmodial activity. Boromycin is a promising antimalarial candidate with activity against multiple life cycle stages of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sara Groeger-Otero
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andrea Kreidenweiss
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Peter G. Kremsner
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Benjamin Mordmüller
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Jana Held
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- *Correspondence: Jana Held, ;
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15
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Buchanan HD, Goodman CD, McFadden GI. Roles of the apicoplast across the life cycles of rodent and human malaria parasites. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2022; 69:e12947. [PMID: 36070203 PMCID: PMC9828729 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Malaria parasites are diheteroxenous, requiring two hosts-a vertebrate and a mosquito-to complete their life cycle. Mosquitoes are the definitive host where malaria parasite sex occurs, and vertebrates are the intermediate host, supporting asexual amplification and more significant geographic spread. In this review, we examine the roles of a single malaria parasite compartment, the relict plastid known as the apicoplast, at each life cycle stage. We focus mainly on two malaria parasite species-Plasmodium falciparum and P. berghei-comparing the changing, yet ever crucial, roles of their apicoplasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley D. Buchanan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, Melbourne Medical SchoolThe University of MelbourneMelbourneVic.Australia,Faculty of Science, School of BioSciencesThe University of MelbourneMelbourneVic.Australia
| | - Christopher D. Goodman
- Faculty of Science, School of BioSciencesThe University of MelbourneMelbourneVic.Australia
| | - Geoffrey I. McFadden
- Faculty of Science, School of BioSciencesThe University of MelbourneMelbourneVic.Australia
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16
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Ashraf K, Tajeri S, Arnold CS, Amanzougaghene N, Franetich JF, Vantaux A, Soulard V, Bordessoulles M, Cazals G, Bousema T, van Gemert GJ, Le Grand R, Dereuddre-Bosquet N, Barale JC, Witkowski B, Snounou G, Duval R, Botté CY, Mazier D. Artemisinin-independent inhibitory activity of Artemisia sp. infusions against different Plasmodium stages including relapse-causing hypnozoites. Life Sci Alliance 2021; 5:5/3/e202101237. [PMID: 34857648 PMCID: PMC8675911 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202101237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Infusions from two Artemisia species, one containing artemisinin, the other not, equally inhibit pre-erythrocytic and erythrocytic stages of different Plasmodium species, including two relapsing species. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACT) are the frontline treatments against malaria worldwide. Recently the use of traditional infusions from Artemisia annua (from which artemisinin is obtained) or Artemisia afra (lacking artemisinin) has been controversially advocated. Such unregulated plant-based remedies are strongly discouraged as they might constitute sub-optimal therapies and promote drug resistance. Here, we conducted the first comparative study of the anti-malarial effects of both plant infusions in vitro against the asexual erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum and the pre-erythrocytic (i.e., liver) stages of various Plasmodium species. Low concentrations of either infusion accounted for significant inhibitory activities across every parasite species and stage studied. We show that these antiplasmodial effects were essentially artemisinin-independent and were additionally monitored by observations of the parasite apicoplast and mitochondrion. In particular, the infusions significantly incapacitated sporozoites, and for Plasmodium vivax and P. cynomolgi, disrupted the hypnozoites. This provides the first indication that compounds other than 8-aminoquinolines could be effective antimalarials against relapsing parasites. These observations advocate for further screening to uncover urgently needed novel antimalarial lead compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kutub Ashraf
- Sorbonne Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Centre National pour la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, Paris, France.,Unité d'Epidémiologie Moléculaire du Paludisme, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.,Institut Pasteur, Pasteur International Network, Malaria Translational Research Pasteur International Unit, Phnom Penh, Cambodia and Paris, Paris, France
| | - Shahin Tajeri
- Sorbonne Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Centre National pour la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, Paris, France
| | - Christophe-Sébastien Arnold
- ApicoLipid Team, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Centre National pour la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) UMR5309, Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1209, La Tronche, France
| | - Nadia Amanzougaghene
- Sorbonne Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Centre National pour la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, Paris, France
| | - Jean-François Franetich
- Sorbonne Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Centre National pour la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, Paris, France
| | - Amélie Vantaux
- Unité d'Epidémiologie Moléculaire du Paludisme, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.,Institut Pasteur, Pasteur International Network, Malaria Translational Research Pasteur International Unit, Phnom Penh, Cambodia and Paris, Paris, France
| | - Valérie Soulard
- Sorbonne Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Centre National pour la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, Paris, France
| | - Mallaury Bordessoulles
- Sorbonne Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Centre National pour la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, Paris, France
| | - Guillaume Cazals
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, UMR 5247, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Teun Bousema
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Geert-Jan van Gemert
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Roger Le Grand
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA)-Université Paris Sud 11-INSERM U1184, Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases (IMVA-HB), Infectious Disease Models and Innovative Therapies (IDMIT) Department, Institut de Biologie François Jacob (IBFJ), Direction de la Recherche Fondamentale (DRF), Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Nathalie Dereuddre-Bosquet
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA)-Université Paris Sud 11-INSERM U1184, Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases (IMVA-HB), Infectious Disease Models and Innovative Therapies (IDMIT) Department, Institut de Biologie François Jacob (IBFJ), Direction de la Recherche Fondamentale (DRF), Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Barale
- Institut Pasteur, Pasteur International Network, Malaria Translational Research Pasteur International Unit, Phnom Penh, Cambodia and Paris, Paris, France.,Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, CNRS UMR 3528, Structural Microbiology Unit, Paris, France
| | - Benoit Witkowski
- Unité d'Epidémiologie Moléculaire du Paludisme, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.,Institut Pasteur, Pasteur International Network, Malaria Translational Research Pasteur International Unit, Phnom Penh, Cambodia and Paris, Paris, France
| | - Georges Snounou
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA)-Université Paris Sud 11-INSERM U1184, Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases (IMVA-HB), Infectious Disease Models and Innovative Therapies (IDMIT) Department, Institut de Biologie François Jacob (IBFJ), Direction de la Recherche Fondamentale (DRF), Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Romain Duval
- Université de Paris, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), UMR 261 MERIT, Paris, France
| | - Cyrille Y Botté
- ApicoLipid Team, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Centre National pour la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) UMR5309, Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1209, La Tronche, France
| | - Dominique Mazier
- Sorbonne Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Centre National pour la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, Paris, France
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17
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Forte B, Ottilie S, Plater A, Campo B, Dechering KJ, Gamo FJ, Goldberg DE, Istvan ES, Lee M, Lukens AK, McNamara CW, Niles JC, Okombo J, Pasaje CFA, Siegel MG, Wirth D, Wyllie S, Fidock DA, Baragaña B, Winzeler EA, Gilbert IH. Prioritization of Molecular Targets for Antimalarial Drug Discovery. ACS Infect Dis 2021; 7:2764-2776. [PMID: 34523908 PMCID: PMC8608365 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.1c00322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
![]()
There is a shift
in antimalarial drug discovery from phenotypic
screening toward target-based approaches, as more potential drug targets
are being validated in Plasmodium species. Given
the high attrition rate and high cost of drug discovery, it is important
to select the targets most likely to deliver progressible drug candidates.
In this paper, we describe the criteria that we consider important
for selecting targets for antimalarial drug discovery. We describe
the analysis of a number of drug targets in the Malaria Drug Accelerator
(MalDA) pipeline, which has allowed us to prioritize targets that
are ready to enter the drug discovery process. This selection process
has also highlighted where additional data are required to inform
target progression or deprioritization of other targets. Finally,
we comment on how additional drug targets may be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Forte
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, Division of Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Sabine Ottilie
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Andrew Plater
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, Division of Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Brice Campo
- Medicines for Malaria Venture, 1215 Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Daniel E. Goldberg
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine and Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Eva S. Istvan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine and Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Marcus Lee
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, CB10 1SA, United Kingdom
| | - Amanda K. Lukens
- Infectious Disease and Microbiome Program, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Case W. McNamara
- Calibr, a Division of The Scripps Research Institute, 11119 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Jacquin C. Niles
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge Massachusetts 02139-4307, United States
| | - John Okombo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Charisse Flerida A. Pasaje
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge Massachusetts 02139-4307, United States
| | | | - Dyann Wirth
- Infectious Disease and Microbiome Program, Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Susan Wyllie
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, Division of Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - David A. Fidock
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, United States
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Beatriz Baragaña
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, Division of Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth A. Winzeler
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Ian H. Gilbert
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, Division of Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
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18
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Kloehn J, Lacour CE, Soldati-Favre D. The metabolic pathways and transporters of the plastid organelle in Apicomplexa. Curr Opin Microbiol 2021; 63:250-258. [PMID: 34455306 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2021.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The apicoplast is the relict of a plastid organelle found in several disease-causing apicomplexan parasites such as Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii. In these organisms, the organelle has lost its photosynthetic capability but harbours several fitness-conferring or essential metabolic pathways. Although maintaining the apicoplast and fuelling the metabolic pathways within requires the challenging constant import and export of numerous metabolites across its four membranes, only few apicoplast transporters have been identified to date, most of which are orphan transporters. Here we review the roles of metabolic pathways within the apicoplast and what is currently known about the few identified apicoplast metabolite transporters. We discuss what metabolites must get in and out of the apicoplast, the many transporters that are yet to be discovered, and what role these might play in parasite metabolism and as putative drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Kloehn
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, CMU, Rue Michel-Servet 1, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Clément Em Lacour
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, CMU, Rue Michel-Servet 1, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, CMU, Rue Michel-Servet 1, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
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19
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Abstract
Malaria parasites have three genomes: a nuclear genome, a mitochondrial genome, and an apicoplast genome. Since the apicoplast is a plastid organelle of prokaryotic origin and has no counterpart in the human host, it can be a source of novel targets for antimalarials. Plasmodium falciparum DNA gyrase (PfGyr) A and B subunits both have apicoplast-targeting signals. First, to test the predicted localization of this enzyme in the apicoplast and the breadth of its function at the subcellular level, nuclear-encoded PfGyrA was disrupted using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing. Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) is known to rescue parasites from apicoplast inhibitors. Indeed, successful growth and characterization of PfΔGyrA was possible in the presence of IPP. PfGyrA disruption was accompanied by loss of plastid acyl-carrier protein (ACP) immunofluorescence and the plastid genome. Second, ciprofloxacin, an antibacterial gyrase inhibitor, has been used for malaria prophylaxis, but there is a need for a more detailed description of the mode of action of ciprofloxacin in malaria parasites. As predicted, PfΔGyrA clone supplemented with IPP was less sensitive to ciprofloxacin but not to the nuclear topoisomerase inhibitor etoposide. At high concentrations, however, ciprofloxacin continued to inhibit IPP-rescued PfΔGyrA, possibly suggesting that ciprofloxacin may have an additional nonapicoplast target in P. falciparum. Overall, we confirm that PfGyrA is an apicoplast enzyme in the malaria parasite, essential for blood-stage parasites, and a possible target of ciprofloxacin but perhaps not the only target.
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Amrane D, Primas N, Arnold CS, Hutter S, Louis B, Sanz-Serrano J, Azqueta A, Amanzougaghene N, Tajeri S, Mazier D, Verhaeghe P, Azas N, Botté C, Vanelle P. Antiplasmodial 2-thiophenoxy-3-trichloromethyl quinoxalines target the apicoplast of Plasmodium falciparum. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 224:113722. [PMID: 34364164 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The identification of a plant-like Achille's Heel relict, i.e. the apicoplast, that is essential for Plasmodium spp., the causative agent of malaria lead to an attractive drug target for new antimalarials with original mechanism of action. Although it is not photosynthetic, the apicoplast retains several anabolic pathways that are indispensable for the parasite. Based on previously identified antiplasmodial hit-molecules belonging to the 2-trichloromethylquinazoline and 3-trichloromethylquinoxaline series, we report herein an antiplasmodial Structure-Activity Relationships (SAR) study at position two of the quinoxaline ring of 16 newly synthesized compounds. Evaluation of their activity toward the multi-resistant K1 Plasmodium falciparum strain and cytotoxicity on the human hepatocyte HepG2 cell line revealed a hit compound (3k) with a PfK1 EC50 value of 0.3 μM and a HepG2 CC50 value of 56.0 μM (selectivity index = 175). Moreover, hit-compound 3k was not cytotoxic on VERO or CHO cell lines and was not genotoxic in the in vitro comet assay. Activity cliffs were observed when the trichloromethyl group was replaced by CH3, CF3 or H, showing that this group played a key role in the antiplasmodial activity. Biological investigations performed to determine the target and mechanism of action of the compound 3k strongly suggest that the apicoplast is the putative target as showed by severe alteration of apicoplaste biogenesis and delayed death response. Considering that there are very few molecules that affect the Plasmodium apicoplast, our work provides, for the first time, evidence of the biological target of trichloromethylated derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dyhia Amrane
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, Equipe Pharmaco-Chimie Radicalaire, Faculté de Pharmacie, 13385, Marseille Cedex 05, France
| | - Nicolas Primas
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, Equipe Pharmaco-Chimie Radicalaire, Faculté de Pharmacie, 13385, Marseille Cedex 05, France; APHM, Hôpital Conception, Service Central de la Qualité et de l'Information Pharmaceutiques, 13005, Marseille, France.
| | | | - Sébastien Hutter
- Aix Marseille Univ, IHU Méditerranée Infection, UMR VITROME, IRD, SSA, Mycology & Tropical Eucaryotic Pathogens, 13005, Marseille Cedex 05, France
| | - Béatrice Louis
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, Equipe Pharmaco-Chimie Radicalaire, Faculté de Pharmacie, 13385, Marseille Cedex 05, France
| | - Julen Sanz-Serrano
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, C/ Irunlarrea 1, CP 31008, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
| | - Amaya Azqueta
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, C/ Irunlarrea 1, CP 31008, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research, IdiSNA, Irunlarrea 3, 31008, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Nadia Amanzougaghene
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Shahin Tajeri
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Dominique Mazier
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Pierre Verhaeghe
- LCC-CNRS Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31400, Toulouse, France; CHU de Toulouse, Service Pharmacie, 330 Avenue de Grande-Bretagne, 31059, Toulouse Cedex 9, France
| | - Nadine Azas
- Aix Marseille Univ, IHU Méditerranée Infection, UMR VITROME, IRD, SSA, Mycology & Tropical Eucaryotic Pathogens, 13005, Marseille Cedex 05, France
| | - Cyrille Botté
- ApicoLipid Team, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Université Grenoble Alpes, La Tronche, France.
| | - Patrice Vanelle
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, Equipe Pharmaco-Chimie Radicalaire, Faculté de Pharmacie, 13385, Marseille Cedex 05, France; APHM, Hôpital Conception, Service Central de la Qualité et de l'Information Pharmaceutiques, 13005, Marseille, France.
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21
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Amrane D, Arnold CS, Hutter S, Sanz-Serrano J, Collia M, Azqueta A, Paloque L, Cohen A, Amanzougaghene N, Tajeri S, Franetich JF, Mazier D, Benoit-Vical F, Verhaeghe P, Azas N, Vanelle P, Botté C, Primas N. 2-Phenoxy-3-Trichloromethylquinoxalines Are Antiplasmodial Derivatives with Activity against the Apicoplast of Plasmodium falciparum. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14080724. [PMID: 34451821 PMCID: PMC8400257 DOI: 10.3390/ph14080724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The malaria parasite harbors a relict plastid called the apicoplast. Although not photosynthetic, the apicoplast retains unusual, non-mammalian metabolic pathways that are essential to the parasite, opening up a new perspective for the development of novel antimalarials which display a new mechanism of action. Based on the previous antiplasmodial hit-molecules identified in the 2-trichloromethylquinoxaline series, we report herein a structure–activity relationship (SAR) study at position two of the quinoxaline ring by synthesizing 20 new compounds. The biological evaluation highlighted a hit compound (3i) with a potent PfK1 EC50 value of 0.2 µM and a HepG2 CC50 value of 32 µM (Selectivity index = 160). Nitro-containing (3i) was not genotoxic, both in the Ames test and in vitro comet assay. Activity cliffs were observed when the 2-CCl3 group was replaced, showing that it played a key role in the antiplasmodial activity. Investigation of the mechanism of action showed that 3i presents a drug response by targeting the apicoplast and a quick-killing mechanism acting on another target site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dyhia Amrane
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, Equipe Pharmaco-Chimie Radicalaire, Faculté de Pharmacie, CEDEX 05, 13385 Marseille, France;
| | | | - Sébastien Hutter
- Aix Marseille Univ, IHU Méditerranée Infection, UMR VITROME, IRD, SSA, Mycology & Tropical Eucaryotic Pathogens, CEDEX 05, 13005 Marseille, France; (S.H.); (A.C.); (N.A.)
| | - Julen Sanz-Serrano
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, C/Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (J.S.-S.); (M.C.); (A.A.)
| | - Miguel Collia
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, C/Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (J.S.-S.); (M.C.); (A.A.)
| | - Amaya Azqueta
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, C/Irunlarrea 1, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (J.S.-S.); (M.C.); (A.A.)
- Navarra Institute for Health Research, IdiSNA, Irunlarrea 3, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Lucie Paloque
- LCC-CNRS, Université de Toulouse, CNRS UPR8241, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France; (L.P.); (F.B.-V.); (P.V.)
- MAAP, New Antimalarial Molecules and Pharmacological Approaches, MAAP, Inserm ERL 1289, 31400 Toulouse, France
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, IPBS, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France
| | - Anita Cohen
- Aix Marseille Univ, IHU Méditerranée Infection, UMR VITROME, IRD, SSA, Mycology & Tropical Eucaryotic Pathogens, CEDEX 05, 13005 Marseille, France; (S.H.); (A.C.); (N.A.)
| | - Nadia Amanzougaghene
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, 75013 Paris, France; (N.A.); (S.T.); (J.-F.F.); (D.M.)
| | - Shahin Tajeri
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, 75013 Paris, France; (N.A.); (S.T.); (J.-F.F.); (D.M.)
| | - Jean-François Franetich
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, 75013 Paris, France; (N.A.); (S.T.); (J.-F.F.); (D.M.)
| | - Dominique Mazier
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI, 75013 Paris, France; (N.A.); (S.T.); (J.-F.F.); (D.M.)
| | - Françoise Benoit-Vical
- LCC-CNRS, Université de Toulouse, CNRS UPR8241, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France; (L.P.); (F.B.-V.); (P.V.)
- MAAP, New Antimalarial Molecules and Pharmacological Approaches, MAAP, Inserm ERL 1289, 31400 Toulouse, France
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, IPBS, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France
| | - Pierre Verhaeghe
- LCC-CNRS, Université de Toulouse, CNRS UPR8241, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France; (L.P.); (F.B.-V.); (P.V.)
- CHU de Toulouse, Service Pharmacie, 330 Avenue de Grande-Bretagne, CEDEX 9, 31059 Toulouse, France
| | - Nadine Azas
- Aix Marseille Univ, IHU Méditerranée Infection, UMR VITROME, IRD, SSA, Mycology & Tropical Eucaryotic Pathogens, CEDEX 05, 13005 Marseille, France; (S.H.); (A.C.); (N.A.)
| | - Patrice Vanelle
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, Equipe Pharmaco-Chimie Radicalaire, Faculté de Pharmacie, CEDEX 05, 13385 Marseille, France;
- APHM, Hôpital Conception, Service Central de la Qualité et de l’Information Pharmaceutiques, 13005 Marseille, France
- Correspondence: (P.V.); (C.B.); (N.P.)
| | - Cyrille Botté
- ApicoLipid Team, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Université Grenoble Alpes, 38700 La Tronche, France;
- Correspondence: (P.V.); (C.B.); (N.P.)
| | - Nicolas Primas
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, Equipe Pharmaco-Chimie Radicalaire, Faculté de Pharmacie, CEDEX 05, 13385 Marseille, France;
- APHM, Hôpital Conception, Service Central de la Qualité et de l’Information Pharmaceutiques, 13005 Marseille, France
- Correspondence: (P.V.); (C.B.); (N.P.)
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22
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Swift RP, Rajaram K, Liu HB, Prigge ST. Dephospho-CoA kinase, a nuclear-encoded apicoplast protein, remains active and essential after Plasmodium falciparum apicoplast disruption. EMBO J 2021; 40:e107247. [PMID: 34031901 PMCID: PMC8365264 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2020107247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites contain an essential organelle called the apicoplast that houses metabolic pathways for fatty acid, heme, isoprenoid, and iron–sulfur cluster synthesis. Surprisingly, malaria parasites can survive without the apicoplast as long as the isoprenoid precursor isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) is supplemented in the growth medium, making it appear that isoprenoid synthesis is the only essential function of the organelle in blood‐stage parasites. In the work described here, we localized an enzyme responsible for coenzyme A synthesis, DPCK, to the apicoplast, but we were unable to delete DPCK, even in the presence of IPP. However, once the endogenous DPCK was complemented with the E. coli DPCK (EcDPCK), we were successful in deleting it. We were then able to show that DPCK activity is required for parasite survival through knockdown of the complemented EcDPCK. Additionally, we showed that DPCK enzyme activity remains functional and essential within the vesicles present after apicoplast disruption. These results demonstrate that while the apicoplast of blood‐stage P. falciparum parasites can be disrupted, the resulting vesicles remain biochemically active and are capable of fulfilling essential functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell P Swift
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Krithika Rajaram
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hans B Liu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sean T Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
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23
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Christensen SB. Natural Products That Changed Society. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9050472. [PMID: 33925870 PMCID: PMC8146924 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9050472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Until the end of the 19th century all drugs were natural products or minerals. During the 19th century chemists succeeded in isolating pure natural products such as quinine, morphine, codeine and other compounds with beneficial effects. Pure compounds enabled accurate dosing to achieve serum levels within the pharmacological window and reproducible clinical effects. During the 20th and the 21st century synthetic compounds became the major source of drugs. In spite of the impressive results achieved within the art of synthetic chemistry, natural products or modified natural products still constitute almost half of drugs used for treatment of cancer and diseases like malaria, onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis caused by parasites. A turning point in the fight against the devastating burden of malaria was obtained in the 17th century by the discovery that bark from trees belonging to the genus Cinchona could be used for treatment with varying success. However isolation and use of the active principle, quinine, in 1820, afforded a breakthrough in the treatment. In the 20th century the synthetic drug chloroquine severely reduced the burden of malaria. However, resistance made this drug obsolete. Subsequently artemisinin isolated from traditional Chinese medicine turned out to be an efficient antimalarial drug overcoming the problem of chloroquine resistance for a while. The use of synthetic analogues such as chloroquine or semisynthetic drugs such as artemether or artesunate further improved the possibilities for healing malaria. Onchocerciasis (river blindness) made life in large parts of Africa and South America miserable. The discovery of the healing effects of the macrocyclic lactone ivermectin enabled control and partly elimination of the disease by annual mass distribution of the drug. Also in the case of ivermectin improved semisynthetic derivatives have found their way into the clinic. Ivermectin also is an efficient drug for treatment of lymphatic filariasis. The serendipitous discovery of the ability of the spindle toxins to control the growth of fast proliferating cancer cells armed physicians with a new efficient tool for treatment of some cancer diseases. These possibilities have been elaborated through preparation of semisynthetic analogues. Today vincristine and vinblastine and semisynthetic analogues are powerful weapons against cancer diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Søren Brøgger Christensen
- The Museum of Natural Medicine & The Pharmacognostic Collection, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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24
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Pessanha de Carvalho L, Kreidenweiss A, Held J. Drug Repurposing: A Review of Old and New Antibiotics for the Treatment of Malaria: Identifying Antibiotics with a Fast Onset of Antiplasmodial Action. Molecules 2021; 26:2304. [PMID: 33921170 PMCID: PMC8071546 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26082304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is one of the most life-threatening infectious diseases and constitutes a major health problem, especially in Africa. Although artemisinin combination therapies remain efficacious to treat malaria, the emergence of resistant parasites emphasizes the urgent need of new alternative chemotherapies. One strategy is the repurposing of existing drugs. Herein, we reviewed the antimalarial effects of marketed antibiotics, and described in detail the fast-acting antibiotics that showed activity in nanomolar concentrations. Antibiotics have been used for prophylaxis and treatment of malaria for many years and are of particular interest because they might exert a different mode of action than current antimalarials, and can be used simultaneously to treat concomitant bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lais Pessanha de Carvalho
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tuebingen, 72074 Tuebingen, Germany; (L.P.d.C.); (A.K.)
| | - Andrea Kreidenweiss
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tuebingen, 72074 Tuebingen, Germany; (L.P.d.C.); (A.K.)
- Centre de Recherches Medicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné BP 242, Gabon
| | - Jana Held
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tuebingen, 72074 Tuebingen, Germany; (L.P.d.C.); (A.K.)
- Centre de Recherches Medicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné BP 242, Gabon
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25
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Pereira LM, de Luca G, Abichabki NDLM, Brochi JCV, Baroni L, Abreu-Filho PG, Yatsuda AP. Atovaquone, chloroquine, primaquine, quinine and tetracycline: antiproliferative effects of relevant antimalarials on Neospora caninum. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA = BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY : ORGAO OFICIAL DO COLEGIO BRASILEIRO DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA 2021; 30:e022120. [PMID: 33787719 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612021006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Neospora caninum is an apicomplexan parasite that causes abortion in cattle, resulting in significant economic losses. There is no commercial treatment for neosporosis, and drug repositioning is a fast strategy to test possible candidates against N. caninum. In this article, we describe the effects of atovaquone, chloroquine, quinine, primaquine and tetracycline on N. caninum proliferation. The IC50 concentrations in N. caninum were compared to the current information based on previous studies for Plasmodium and Toxoplasma gondii, correlating to the described mechanisms of action of each tested drug. The inhibitory patterns indicate similarities and differences among N. caninum, Plasmodium and T. gondii. For example, atovaquone demonstrates high antiparasitic activity in all the analyzed models, while chloroquine does not inhibit N. caninum. On the other hand, tetracycline is effective against Plasmodium and N. caninum, despite its low activity in T. gondii models. The repurposing of antimalarial drugs in N. caninum is a fast and inexpensive way to develop novel formulations using well-established compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiz Miguel Pereira
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - Gabriela de Luca
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - Nathália de Lima Martins Abichabki
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - Jade Cabestre Venancio Brochi
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - Luciana Baroni
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - Péricles Gama Abreu-Filho
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - Ana Patrícia Yatsuda
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
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26
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Pereira PHS, Garcia CRS. Melatonin action in Plasmodium infection: Searching for molecules that modulate the asexual cycle as a strategy to impair the parasite cycle. J Pineal Res 2021; 70:e12700. [PMID: 33025644 PMCID: PMC7757246 DOI: 10.1111/jpi.12700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Revised: 09/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Half of the world's population lives in countries at risk of malaria infection, which results in approximately 450,000 deaths annually. Malaria parasites infect erythrocytes in a coordinated manner, with cycle durations in multiples of 24 hours, which reflects a behavior consistent with the host's circadian cycle. Interference in cycle coordination can help the immune system to naturally fight infection. Consequently, there is a search for new drugs that interfere with the cycle duration for combined treatment with conventional antimalarials. Melatonin appears to be a key host hormone responsible for regulating circadian behavior in the parasite cycle. In addition to host factors, there are still unknown factors intrinsic to the parasite that control the cycle duration. In this review, we present a series of reports of indole compounds and melatonin derivatives with antimalarial activity that were tested on several species of Plasmodium to evaluate the cytotoxicity to parasites and human cells, in addition to the ability to interfere with the development of the erythrocytic cycle. Most of the reported compounds had an IC50 value in the low micromolar range, without any toxicity to human cells. Triptosil, an indole derivative of melatonin, was able to inhibit the effect of melatonin in vitro without causing changes to the parasitemia. The wide variety of tested compounds indicates that it is possible to develop a compound capable of safely eliminating parasites from the host and interfering with the life cycle, which is promising for the development of new combined therapies against malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro H. S. Pereira
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological AnalysesSchool of Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of São PauloSão PauloBrazil
| | - Celia R. S. Garcia
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological AnalysesSchool of Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of São PauloSão PauloBrazil
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27
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Kumarihamy M, Rosa LH, Techen N, Ferreira D, Croom EM, Duke SO, Tekwani BL, Khan S, Nanayakkara NPD. Antimalarials and Phytotoxins from Botryosphaeria dothidea Identified from a Seed of Diseased Torreya taxifolia. Molecules 2020; 26:molecules26010059. [PMID: 33374444 PMCID: PMC7795089 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26010059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The metabolic pathways in the apicoplast organelle of Plasmodium parasites are similar to those in plastids in plant cells and are suitable targets for malaria drug discovery. Some phytotoxins released by plant pathogenic fungi have been known to target metabolic pathways of the plastid; thus, they may also serve as potential antimalarial drug leads. An EtOAc extract of the broth of the endophyte Botryosphaeria dothidea isolated from a seed collected from a Torreya taxifolia plant with disease symptoms, showed in vitro antimalarial and phytotoxic activities. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of the extract afforded a mixture of two known isomeric phytotoxins, FRT-A and flavipucine (or their enantiomers, sapinopyridione and (-)-flavipucine), and two new unstable γ-lactam alkaloids dothilactaenes A and B. The isomeric mixture of phytotoxins displayed strong phytotoxicity against both a dicot and a monocot and moderate cytotoxicity against a panel of cell lines. Dothilactaene A showed no activity. Dothilactaene B was isolated from the active fraction, which showed moderate in vitro antiplasmodial activity with high selectivity index. In spite of this activity, its instability and various other biological activities shown by related compounds would preclude it from being a viable antimalarial lead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mallika Kumarihamy
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; (N.T.); (B.L.T.); (S.K.)
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; (D.F.); (E.M.C.J.)
- Correspondence: (M.K.); (N.P.D.N.); Tel.: +1-662-915-1661 (M.K.); +1-662-915-1019 (N.P.D.N.)
| | - Luiz H. Rosa
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil;
| | - Natascha Techen
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; (N.T.); (B.L.T.); (S.K.)
| | - Daneel Ferreira
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; (D.F.); (E.M.C.J.)
| | - Edward M. Croom
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; (D.F.); (E.M.C.J.)
| | - Stephen O. Duke
- Natural Products Utilization Research Unit, USDA-ARS, University, MS 38677, USA;
| | - Babu L. Tekwani
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; (N.T.); (B.L.T.); (S.K.)
| | - Shabana Khan
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; (N.T.); (B.L.T.); (S.K.)
- Division of Pharmacognosy, Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; (D.F.); (E.M.C.J.)
| | - N. P. Dhammika Nanayakkara
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA; (N.T.); (B.L.T.); (S.K.)
- Correspondence: (M.K.); (N.P.D.N.); Tel.: +1-662-915-1661 (M.K.); +1-662-915-1019 (N.P.D.N.)
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Okada M, Guo P, Nalder SA, Sigala PA. Doxycycline has distinct apicoplast-specific mechanisms of antimalarial activity. eLife 2020; 9:60246. [PMID: 33135634 PMCID: PMC7669263 DOI: 10.7554/elife.60246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Doxycycline (DOX) is a key antimalarial drug thought to kill Plasmodium parasites by blocking protein translation in the essential apicoplast organelle. Clinical use is primarily limited to prophylaxis due to delayed second-cycle parasite death at 1–3 µM serum concentrations. DOX concentrations > 5 µM kill parasites with first-cycle activity but are thought to involve off-target mechanisms outside the apicoplast. We report that 10 µM DOX blocks apicoplast biogenesis in the first cycle and is rescued by isopentenyl pyrophosphate, an essential apicoplast product, confirming an apicoplast-specific mechanism. Exogenous iron rescues parasites and apicoplast biogenesis from first- but not second-cycle effects of 10 µM DOX, revealing that first-cycle activity involves a metal-dependent mechanism distinct from the delayed-death mechanism. These results critically expand the paradigm for understanding the fundamental antiparasitic mechanisms of DOX and suggest repurposing DOX as a faster acting antimalarial at higher dosing whose multiple mechanisms would be expected to limit parasite resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Okada
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Ping Guo
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Shai-Anne Nalder
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Paul A Sigala
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
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29
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Burns AL, Sleebs BE, Siddiqui G, De Paoli AE, Anderson D, Liffner B, Harvey R, Beeson JG, Creek DJ, Goodman CD, McFadden GI, Wilson DW. Retargeting azithromycin analogues to have dual-modality antimalarial activity. BMC Biol 2020; 18:133. [PMID: 32993629 PMCID: PMC7526119 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-020-00859-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Resistance to front-line antimalarials (artemisinin combination therapies) is spreading, and development of new drug treatment strategies to rapidly kill Plasmodium spp. malaria parasites is urgently needed. Azithromycin is a clinically used macrolide antibiotic proposed as a partner drug for combination therapy in malaria, which has also been tested as monotherapy. However, its slow-killing 'delayed-death' activity against the parasite's apicoplast organelle and suboptimal activity as monotherapy limit its application as a potential malaria treatment. Here, we explore a panel of azithromycin analogues and demonstrate that chemical modifications can be used to greatly improve the speed and potency of antimalarial action. RESULTS Investigation of 84 azithromycin analogues revealed nanomolar quick-killing potency directed against the very earliest stage of parasite development within red blood cells. Indeed, the best analogue exhibited 1600-fold higher potency than azithromycin with less than 48 hrs treatment in vitro. Analogues were effective against zoonotic Plasmodium knowlesi malaria parasites and against both multi-drug and artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum lines. Metabolomic profiles of azithromycin analogue-treated parasites suggested activity in the parasite food vacuole and mitochondria were disrupted. Moreover, unlike the food vacuole-targeting drug chloroquine, azithromycin and analogues were active across blood-stage development, including merozoite invasion, suggesting that these macrolides have a multi-factorial mechanism of quick-killing activity. The positioning of functional groups added to azithromycin and its quick-killing analogues altered their activity against bacterial-like ribosomes but had minimal change on 'quick-killing' activity. Apicoplast minus parasites remained susceptible to both azithromycin and its analogues, further demonstrating that quick-killing is independent of apicoplast-targeting, delayed-death activity. CONCLUSION We show that azithromycin and analogues can rapidly kill malaria parasite asexual blood stages via a fast action mechanism. Development of azithromycin and analogues as antimalarials offers the possibility of targeting parasites through both a quick-killing and delayed-death mechanism of action in a single, multifactorial chemotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L Burns
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, 5005, Australia
| | - Brad E Sleebs
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Victoria, 3050, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3050, Australia
| | - Ghizal Siddiqui
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Amanda E De Paoli
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Dovile Anderson
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Benjamin Liffner
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, 5005, Australia
| | - Richard Harvey
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, 5005, Australia
| | - James G Beeson
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, 3004, Australia
- Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
- Central Clinical School and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Darren J Creek
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Christopher D Goodman
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Geoffrey I McFadden
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Danny W Wilson
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, 5005, Australia.
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, 3004, Australia.
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30
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Repurposing Drugs to Fight Hepatic Malaria Parasites. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25153409. [PMID: 32731386 PMCID: PMC7435416 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25153409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains one of the most prevalent infectious diseases worldwide, primarily affecting some of the most vulnerable populations around the globe. Despite achievements in the treatment of this devastating disease, there is still an urgent need for the discovery of new drugs that tackle infection by Plasmodium parasites. However, de novo drug development is a costly and time-consuming process. An alternative strategy is to evaluate the anti-plasmodial activity of compounds that are already approved for other purposes, an approach known as drug repurposing. Here, we will review efforts to assess the anti-plasmodial activity of existing drugs, with an emphasis on the obligatory and clinically silent liver stage of infection. We will also review the current knowledge on the classes of compounds that might be therapeutically relevant against Plasmodium in the context of other communicable diseases that are prevalent in regions where malaria is endemic. Repositioning existing compounds may constitute a faster solution to the current gap of prophylactic and therapeutic drugs that act on Plasmodium parasites, overall contributing to the global effort of malaria eradication.
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31
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Goodman CD, Uddin T, Spillman NJ, McFadden GI. A single point mutation in the Plasmodium falciparum FtsH1 metalloprotease confers actinonin resistance. eLife 2020; 9:58629. [PMID: 32678064 PMCID: PMC7386903 DOI: 10.7554/elife.58629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The antibiotic actinonin kills malaria parasites (Plasmodium falciparum) by interfering with apicoplast function. Early evidence suggested that actinonin inhibited prokaryote-like post-translational modification in the apicoplast; mimicking its activity against bacteria. However, Amberg Johnson et al. (2017) identified the metalloprotease TgFtsH1 as the target of actinonin in the related parasite Toxoplasma gondii and implicated P. falciparum FtsH1 as a likely target in malaria parasites. The authors were not, however, able to recover actinonin resistant malaria parasites, leaving the specific target of actinonin uncertain. We generated actinonin resistant P. falciparum by in vitro selection and identified a specific sequence change in PfFtsH1 associated with resistance. Introduction of this point mutation using CRISPr-Cas9 allelic replacement was sufficient to confer actinonin resistance in P. falciparum. Our data unequivocally identify PfFtsH1 as the target of actinonin and suggests that actinonin should not be included in the highly valuable collection of ‘irresistible’ drugs for combatting malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Taher Uddin
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
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32
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Hydroxylamine and Carboxymethoxylamine Can Inhibit Toxoplasma gondii Growth through an Aspartate Aminotransferase-Independent Pathway. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2020; 64:AAC.01889-19. [PMID: 31907178 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01889-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite and a successful parasitic pathogen in diverse organisms and host cell types. Hydroxylamine (HYD) and carboxymethoxylamine (CAR) have been reported as inhibitors of aspartate aminotransferases (AATs) and interfere with the proliferation in Plasmodium falciparum Therefore, AATs are suggested as drug targets against Plasmodium The T. gondii genome encodes only one predicted AAT in both T. gondii type I strain RH and type II strain PLK. However, the effects of HYD and CAR, as well as their relationship with AAT, on T. gondii remain unclear. In this study, we found that HYD and CAR impaired the lytic cycle of T. gondii in vitro, including the inhibition of invasion or reinvasion, intracellular replication, and egress. Importantly, HYD and CAR could control acute toxoplasmosis in vivo Further studies showed that HYD and CAR could inhibit the transamination activity of rTgAAT in vitro However, our results confirmed that deficiency of AAT in both RH and PLK did not reduce the virulence in mice, although the growth ability of the parasites was affected in vitro HYD and CAR could still inhibit the growth of AAT-deficient parasites. These findings indicated that HYD and CAR inhibition of T. gondii growth and control of toxoplasmosis can occur in an AAT-independent pathway. Overall, further studies focusing on the elucidation of the mechanism of inhibition are warranted. Our study hints at new substrates of HYD and CAR as potential drug targets to inhibit T. gondii growth.
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33
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Swift RP, Rajaram K, Liu HB, Dziedzic A, Jedlicka AE, Roberts AD, Matthews KA, Jhun H, Bumpus NN, Tewari SG, Wallqvist A, Prigge ST. A mevalonate bypass system facilitates elucidation of plastid biology in malaria parasites. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008316. [PMID: 32059044 PMCID: PMC7046295 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites rely on a plastid organelle for survival during the blood stages of infection. However, the entire organelle is dispensable as long as the isoprenoid precursor, isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), is supplemented in the culture medium. We engineered parasites to produce isoprenoid precursors from a mevalonate-dependent pathway, creating a parasite line that replicates normally after the loss of the apicoplast organelle. We show that carbon-labeled mevalonate is specifically incorporated into isoprenoid products, opening new avenues for researching this essential class of metabolites in malaria parasites. We also show that essential apicoplast proteins, such as the enzyme target of the drug fosmidomycin, can be deleted in this mevalonate bypass parasite line, providing a new method to determine the roles of other important apicoplast-resident proteins. Several antibacterial drugs kill malaria parasites by targeting basic processes, such as transcription, in the organelle. We used metabolomic and transcriptomic methods to characterize parasite metabolism after azithromycin treatment triggered loss of the apicoplast and found that parasite metabolism and the production of apicoplast proteins is largely unaltered. These results provide insight into the effects of apicoplast-disrupting drugs, several of which have been used to treat malaria infections in humans. Overall, the mevalonate bypass system provides a way to probe essential aspects of apicoplast biology and study the effects of drugs that target apicoplast processes. Malaria parasites rely on an organelle called the apicoplast for growth and survival. Antimalarial drugs such as azithromycin inhibit basic processes in the apicoplast and result in the disruption of the organelle. Surprisingly, addition of a single metabolite, isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), allows the parasites to survive in culture after disruption of the apicoplast. Unfortunately, using IPP to study this phenomenon has several limitations: IPP is prohibitively expensive, has to be used at high concentrations, and has a half-life less than 5 hours. To address these problems, we engineered parasites to express four enzymes from an alternative pathway capable of producing IPP in the parasites. We validated this new system and used it to metabolically label essential metabolites, to delete an essential apicoplast protein, and to characterize the state of apicoplast-disrupted parasites. A key finding from these studies comes from transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis of parasites treated with the drug azithromycin. We found that apicoplast disruption results in few changes in parasite metabolism. In particular, the expression of hundreds of nuclear-encoded apicoplast proteins are not affected by disruption of the apicoplast organelle, making it likely that apicoplast metabolic pathways and processes are still functional in apicoplast-disrupted parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell P. Swift
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Krithika Rajaram
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hans B. Liu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Amanda Dziedzic
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Anne E. Jedlicka
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Aleah D. Roberts
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Krista A. Matthews
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hugo Jhun
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Namandje N. Bumpus
- Department of Medicine (Division of Clinical Pharmacology), Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Shivendra G. Tewari
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command, Ft. Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Anders Wallqvist
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command, Ft. Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sean T. Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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34
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Kinetic Driver of Antibacterial Drugs against Plasmodium falciparum and Implications for Clinical Dosing. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019; 63:AAC.00416-19. [PMID: 31451506 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00416-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibacterial drugs are an important component of malaria therapy. We studied the interactions of clindamycin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and ciprofloxacin against Plasmodium falciparum under static and dynamic conditions. In microtiter plate assays (static conditions), and as expected, parasites displayed the delayed death response characteristic for apicoplast-targeting drugs. However, rescue by isopentenyl pyrophosphate was variable, ranging from 2,700-fold for clindamycin to just 1.7-fold for ciprofloxacin, suggesting that ciprofloxacin has targets other than the apicoplast. We also examined the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationships of these antibacterials in an in vitro glass hollow-fiber system that exposes parasites to dynamically changing drug concentrations. The same total dose and area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) of the drug was deployed either as a single short-lived high peak (bolus) or as a constant low concentration (infusion). All four antibacterials were unambiguously time-driven against malaria parasites: infusions had twice the efficacy of bolus regimens, for the same AUC. The time-dependent efficacy of ciprofloxacin against malaria is in contrast to its concentration-driven action against bacteria. In silico simulations of clinical dosing regimens and resulting pharmacokinetics revealed that current regimens do not maximize time above the MICs of these drugs. Our findings suggest that simple and rational changes to dosing may improve the efficacy of antibacterials against falciparum malaria.
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35
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Kennedy K, Crisafulli EM, Ralph SA. Delayed Death by Plastid Inhibition in Apicomplexan Parasites. Trends Parasitol 2019; 35:747-759. [PMID: 31427248 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2019.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The discovery of a plastid in apicomplexan parasites was hoped to be a watershed moment in the treatment of parasitic diseases as it revealed drug targets that are implicitly divergent from host molecular processes. Indeed, this organelle, known as the apicoplast, has since been a productive therapeutic target for pharmaceutical interventions against infections by Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Babesia, and Theileria. However, some inhibitors of the apicoplast are restricted in their treatment utility because of their slow-kill kinetics, and this characteristic is called the delayed death effect. Here we review the recent genetic and pharmacological experiments that interrogate the causes of delayed death and explore the foundation of this phenomenon in Plasmodium and Toxoplasma parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kit Kennedy
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Emily M Crisafulli
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Stuart A Ralph
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia.
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36
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Targeting the apicoplast in malaria. Biochem Soc Trans 2019; 47:973-983. [PMID: 31383817 DOI: 10.1042/bst20170563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Malaria continues to be one of the leading causes of human mortality in the world, and the therapies available are insufficient for eradication. Severe malaria is caused by the apicomplexan parasite Plasmodium falciparum Apicomplexan parasites, including the Plasmodium spp., are descendants of photosynthetic algae, and therefore they possess an essential plastid organelle, named the apicoplast. Since humans and animals have no plastids, the apicoplast is an attractive target for drug development. Indeed, after its discovery, the apicoplast was found to host the target pathways of some known antimalarial drugs, which motivated efforts for further research into its biological functions and biogenesis. Initially, many apicoplast inhibitions were found to result in 'delayed death', whereby parasite killing is seen only at the end of one invasion-egress cycle. This slow action is not in line with the current standard for antimalarials, which seeded scepticism about the potential of compounds targeting apicoplast functions as good candidates for drug development. Intriguingly, recent evidence of apicoplast inhibitors causing rapid killing could put this organelle back in the spotlight. We provide an overview of drugs known to inhibit apicoplast pathways, alongside recent findings in apicoplast biology that may provide new avenues for drug development.
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37
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Kennedy K, Cobbold SA, Hanssen E, Birnbaum J, Spillman NJ, McHugh E, Brown H, Tilley L, Spielmann T, McConville MJ, Ralph SA. Delayed death in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is caused by disruption of prenylation-dependent intracellular trafficking. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000376. [PMID: 31318858 PMCID: PMC6667170 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2019] [Revised: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites possess a plastid organelle called the apicoplast. Inhibitors that selectively target apicoplast housekeeping functions, including DNA replication and protein translation, are lethal for the parasite, and several (doxycycline, clindamycin, and azithromycin) are in clinical use as antimalarials. A major limitation of such drugs is that treated parasites only arrest one intraerythrocytic development cycle (approximately 48 hours) after treatment commences, a phenotype known as the ‘delayed death’ effect. The molecular basis of delayed death is a long-standing mystery in parasitology, and establishing the mechanism would aid rational clinical implementation of apicoplast-targeted drugs. Parasites undergoing delayed death transmit defective apicoplasts to their daughter cells and cannot produce the sole, blood-stage essential metabolic product of the apicoplast: the isoprenoid precursor isopentenyl-pyrophosphate. How the isoprenoid precursor depletion kills the parasite remains unknown. We investigated the requirements for the range of isoprenoids in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum and characterised the molecular and morphological phenotype of parasites experiencing delayed death. Metabolomic profiling reveals disruption of digestive vacuole function in the absence of apicoplast derived isoprenoids. Three-dimensional electron microscopy reveals digestive vacuole fragmentation and the accumulation of cytostomal invaginations, characteristics common in digestive vacuole disruption. We show that digestive vacuole disruption results from a defect in the trafficking of vesicles to the digestive vacuole. The loss of prenylation of vesicular trafficking proteins abrogates their membrane attachment and function and prevents the parasite from feeding. Our data show that the proximate cause of delayed death is an interruption of protein prenylation and consequent cellular trafficking defects. After treatment with drugs that target apicoplast functions, malaria parasites are initially superficially healthy and go on to infect new erythrocytes. This cell biology study shows that the parasites subsequently die in their second cycle due to trafficking defects caused by depletion of prenyl groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kit Kennedy
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Simon A. Cobbold
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Eric Hanssen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Advanced Microscopy Facility, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jakob Birnbaum
- Molecular Biology and Immunology Section, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Natalie J. Spillman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Emma McHugh
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Hannah Brown
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Leann Tilley
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tobias Spielmann
- Molecular Biology and Immunology Section, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Malcolm J. McConville
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Stuart A. Ralph
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
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38
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Pyruvate Homeostasis as a Determinant of Parasite Growth and Metabolic Plasticity in Toxoplasma gondii. mBio 2019; 10:mBio.00898-19. [PMID: 31186321 PMCID: PMC6561023 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00898-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a widespread intracellular pathogen infecting humans and a variety of animals. Previous studies have shown that Toxoplasma uses glucose and glutamine as the main carbon sources to support asexual reproduction, but neither nutrient is essential. Such metabolic flexibility may allow it to survive within diverse host cell types. Here, by focusing on the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase (PYK) that converts phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) into pyruvate, we found that Toxoplasma can also utilize lactate and alanine. We show that catabolism of all indicated carbon sources converges at pyruvate, and maintaining a constant pyruvate supply is critical to parasite growth. Toxoplasma expresses two PYKs: PYK1 in the cytosol and PYK2 in the apicoplast (a chloroplast relict). Genetic deletion of PYK2 did not noticeably affect parasite growth and virulence, which contrasts with the current model of carbon metabolism in the apicoplast. On the other hand, PYK1 was refractory to disruption. Conditional depletion of PYK1 resulted in global alteration of carbon metabolism, amylopectin accumulation, and reduced cellular ATP, leading to severe growth impairment. Notably, the attenuated growth of the PYK1-depleted mutant was partially rescued by lactate or alanine supplementation, and rescue by lactate required lactate dehydrogenase activity to convert it to pyruvate. Moreover, depletion of PYK1 in conjunction with PYK2 ablation led to accentuated loss of apicoplasts and complete growth arrest. Together, our results underline a critical role of pyruvate homeostasis in determining the metabolic flexibility and apicoplast maintenance, and they significantly extend our current understanding of carbon metabolism in T. gondii IMPORTANCE Toxoplasma gondii infects almost all warm-blooded animals, and metabolic flexibility is deemed critical for its successful parasitism in diverse hosts. Glucose and glutamine are the major carbon sources to support parasite growth. In this study, we found that Toxoplasma is also competent in utilizing lactate and alanine and, thus, exhibits exceptional metabolic versatility. Notably, all these nutrients need to be converted to pyruvate to fuel the lytic cycle, and achieving a continued pyruvate supply is vital to parasite survival and metabolic flexibility. Although pyruvate can be generated by two distinct pyruvate kinases, located in cytosol and apicoplast, respectively, the cytosolic enzyme is the main source of subcellular pyruvate, and cooperative usage of pyruvate among multiple organelles is critical for parasite growth and virulence. These findings expand our current understanding of carbon metabolism in Toxoplasma gondii and related parasites while providing a basis for designing novel antiparasitic interventions.
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Virji AZ, Thekkiniath J, Ma W, Lawres L, Knight J, Swei A, Roch KL, Mamoun CB. Insights into the evolution and drug susceptibility of Babesia duncani from the sequence of its mitochondrial and apicoplast genomes. Int J Parasitol 2019; 49:105-113. [PMID: 30176236 PMCID: PMC6395566 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2018.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Babesia microti and Babesia duncani are the main causative agents of human babesiosis in the United States. While significant knowledge about B. microti has been gained over the past few years, nothing is known about B. duncani biology, pathogenesis, mode of transmission or sensitivity to currently recommended therapies. Studies in immunocompetent wild type mice and hamsters have shown that unlike B. microti, infection with B. duncani results in severe pathology and ultimately death. The parasite factors involved in B. duncani virulence remain unknown. Here we report the first known completed sequence and annotation of the apicoplast and mitochondrial genomes of B. duncani. We found that the apicoplast genome of this parasite consists of a 34 kb monocistronic circular molecule encoding functions that are important for apicoplast gene transcription as well as translation and maturation of the organelle's proteins. The mitochondrial genome of B. duncani consists of a 5.9 kb monocistronic linear molecule with two inverted repeats of 48 bp at both ends. Using the conserved cytochrome b (Cytb) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (coxI) proteins encoded by the mitochondrial genome, phylogenetic analysis revealed that B. duncani defines a new lineage among apicomplexan parasites distinct from B. microti, Babesia bovis, Theileria spp. and Plasmodium spp. Annotation of the apicoplast and mitochondrial genomes of B. duncani identified targets for development of effective therapies. Our studies set the stage for evaluation of the efficacy of these drugs alone or in combination against B. duncani in culture as well as in animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azan Z Virji
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Jose Thekkiniath
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Wenxiu Ma
- Department of Statistics, University of California, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Lauren Lawres
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - James Knight
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Andrea Swei
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Ave, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
| | - Karine Le Roch
- Department of Cell Biology & Neuroscience, 900 University Avenue, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Choukri Ben Mamoun
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
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Boucher MJ, Yeh E. Disruption of Apicoplast Biogenesis by Chemical Stabilization of an Imported Protein Evades the Delayed-Death Phenotype in Malaria Parasites. mSphere 2019; 4:e00710-18. [PMID: 30674649 PMCID: PMC6344605 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00710-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.) contain a nonphotosynthetic plastid organelle called the apicoplast, which houses essential metabolic pathways and is required throughout the parasite life cycle. The biogenesis pathways responsible for apicoplast growth, division, and inheritance are of key interest as potential drug targets. Unfortunately, several known apicoplast biogenesis inhibitors are of limited clinical utility because they cause a peculiar "delayed-death" phenotype in which parasites do not stop replicating until the second lytic cycle posttreatment. Identifying apicoplast biogenesis pathways that avoid the delayed-death phenomenon is a priority. Here, we generated parasites targeting a murine dihydrofolate reductase (mDHFR) domain, which can be conditionally stabilized with the compound WR99210, to the apicoplast. Surprisingly, chemical stabilization of this exogenous fusion protein disrupted parasite growth in an apicoplast-specific manner after a single lytic cycle. WR99210-treated parasites exhibited an apicoplast biogenesis defect beginning within the same lytic cycle as drug treatment, indicating that stabilized mDHFR perturbs a non-delayed-death biogenesis pathway. While the precise mechanism-of-action of the stabilized fusion is still unclear, we hypothesize that it inhibits apicoplast protein import by stalling within and blocking translocons in the apicoplast membranes.IMPORTANCE Malaria is a major cause of global childhood mortality. To sustain progress in disease control made in the last decade, new antimalarial therapies are needed to combat emerging drug resistance. Malaria parasites contain a relict chloroplast called the apicoplast, which harbors new targets for drug discovery. Unfortunately, some drugs targeting apicoplast pathways exhibit a delayed-death phenotype, which results in a slow onset-of-action that precludes their use as fast-acting, frontline therapies. Identification of druggable apicoplast biogenesis factors that will avoid the delayed-death phenotype is an important priority. Here, we find that chemical stabilization of an apicoplast-targeted mDHFR domain disrupts apicoplast biogenesis and inhibits parasite growth after a single lytic cycle, suggesting a non-delayed-death target. Our finding indicates that further interrogation of the mechanism-of-action of this exogenous fusion protein may reveal novel therapeutic avenues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Boucher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Ellen Yeh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, California, USA
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Rajendran V, Singh C, Ghosh PC. Improved efficacy of doxycycline in liposomes against Plasmodium falciparum in culture and Plasmodium berghei infection in mice. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2018; 96:1145-1152. [PMID: 30075085 DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2018-0067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The rate at which Plasmodium falciparum is developing resistance to clinically used antimalarial drugs is alarming. Therefore, there is a compelling need to develop an efficient drug delivery system to improve the efficacy of existing antimalarial agents and circumvent drug resistance. Here, we report the antibacterial drug doxycycline (DOXY) in liposomal formulations exhibits enhanced antiplasmodial activity against blood stage forms of P. falciparum (3D7) in culture and established Plasmodium berghei NK-65 infection in murine model. Parasite killing on blood stage forms in culture was determined by a radiolabeled [3H] hypoxanthine incorporation assay and infected erythrocytes stained with Giemsa were counted using microscopy in vivo. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of DOXY-stearylamine liposome (IC50 0.36 μM) and DOXY-SPC:Chol-liposome (IC50 0.85 μM) exhibited marked growth inhibition of parasites compared with free DOXY (IC50 14 μM), with minimal toxicity to normal erythrocytes. Administration of polyethylene glycol distearoyl phosphatidylethanolamine-methoxy-polyethylene glycol2000 (DSPE-mPEG-2000) coated liposomes loaded with DOXY at 2.5 mg/kg per day resulted in efficacious killing of blood parasites with improved survival in mice relative to the free drug in both chloroquine sensitive and resistant strains of P. berghei infection. This is the first report to demonstrate that DOXY in liposomal system has immense chemotherapeutic potential against plasmodial infections at lower dosages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinoth Rajendran
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110021, India.,Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110021, India
| | - Chanchal Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110021, India.,Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110021, India
| | - Prahlad C Ghosh
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110021, India.,Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110021, India
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