1
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Miron-Ocampo A, Beattie SR, Guin S, Conway T, Meyers MJ, Moye-Rowley WS, Krysan DJ. CWHM-974 is a fluphenazine derivative with improved antifungal activity against Candida albicans due to reduced susceptibility to multidrug transporter-mediated resistance mechanisms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2023; 67:e0056723. [PMID: 37702508 PMCID: PMC10583685 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00567-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) transporters such as ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) and Major Facilitator Superfamily proteins are important mediators of antifungal drug resistance, particularly with respect to azole class drugs. Consequently, identifying molecules that are not susceptible to this mechanism of resistance is an important goal for new antifungal drug discovery. As part of a project to optimize the antifungal activity of clinically used phenothiazines, we synthesized a fluphenazine derivative (CWHM-974) with 8-fold higher activity against Candida spp. compared to the fluphenazine and with activity against Candida spp. with reduced fluconazole susceptibility due to increased MDR transporters. Here, we show that the improved C. albicans activity is because fluphenazine induces its own resistance by triggering expression of Candida drug resistance (CDR) transporters while CWHM-974 induces expression but does not appear to be a substrate for the transporters or is insensitive to their effects through other mechanisms. We also found that fluphenazine and CWHM-974 are antagonistic with fluconazole in C. albicans but not in C. glabrata, despite inducing CDR1 expression to high levels. Overall, CWHM-974 is one of the few examples of a molecule in which relatively small structural modifications significantly reduced susceptibility to multidrug transporter-mediated resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aracely Miron-Ocampo
- Microbiology/Immunology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Sarah R. Beattie
- Department of Pediatrics, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Soumitra Guin
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Thomas Conway
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Marvin J. Meyers
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - W. Scott Moye-Rowley
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Damian J. Krysan
- Microbiology/Immunology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
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2
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McMahon CL, Esqueda M, Yu JJ, Wall G, Romo JA, Vila T, Chaturvedi A, Lopez-Ribot JL, Wormley F, Hung CY. Development of an Imaging Flow Cytometry Method for Fungal Cytological Profiling and Its Potential Application in Antifungal Drug Development. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:722. [PMID: 37504711 PMCID: PMC10381375 DOI: 10.3390/jof9070722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Automated imaging techniques have been in increasing demand for the more advanced analysis and efficient characterization of cellular phenotypes. The success of the image-based profiling method hinges on assays that can rapidly and simultaneously capture a wide range of phenotypic features. We have developed an automated image acquisition method for fungal cytological profiling (FCP) using an imaging flow cytometer that can objectively measure over 250 features of a single fungal cell. Fungal cells were labeled with calcofluor white and FM4-64FX, which bind to the cell wall and lipophilic membrane, respectively. Images of single cells were analyzed using IDEAS® software. We first acquired FCPs of fungal cells treated with fluconazole, amphotericin B, and caspofungin, each with a distinct mode of action, to establish FCP databases of profiles associated with specific antifungal treatment. Once fully established, we investigated the potential application of this technique as a screening methodology to identify compounds with novel antifungal activity against Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans. Altogether, we have developed a rapid, powerful, and novel image-profiling method for the phenotypic characterization of fungal cells, also with potential applications in antifungal drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney L McMahon
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Marisol Esqueda
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Jieh-Juen Yu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Gina Wall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Jesus A Romo
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Taissa Vila
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Ashok Chaturvedi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Jose L Lopez-Ribot
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Floyd Wormley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Chiung-Yu Hung
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
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3
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Miron-Ocampo A, Beattie SR, Guin S, Conway T, Meyers MJ, Moye-Rowley WS, Krysan DJ. CWHM-974 is a fluphenazine derivative with improved antifungal activity against Candida albicans due to reduced susceptibility to multidrug transporter-mediated resistance mechanisms. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.01.538946. [PMID: 37205554 PMCID: PMC10187223 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.01.538946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) transporters such as ATP Binding Cassette (ABC) and Major Facilitator Superfamily (MFS) proteins are important mediators of antifungal drug resistance, particularly with respect to azole class drugs. Consequently, identifying molecules that are not susceptible to this mechanism of resistance is an important goal for new antifungal drug discovery. As part of a project to optimize the antifungal activity of clinically used phenothiazines, we synthesized a fluphenazine derivative (CWHM-974) with 8-fold higher activity against Candida spp. compared to the fluphenazine and with activity against Candida spp. with reduced fluconazole susceptibility due to increased multidrug resistance transporters. Here, we show that the improved C. albicans activity is because fluphenazine induces its own resistance by triggering expression of CDR transporters while CWHM-974 induces expression but does not appear to be a substrate for the transporters or is insensitive to their effects through other mechanisms. We also found that fluphenazine and CWHM-974 are antagonistic with fluconazole in C. albicans but not in C. glabrata , despite inducing CDR1 expression to high levels. Overall, CWHM-974 represents a unique example of a medicinal chemistry-based conversion of chemical scaffold from MDR-sensitive to MDR-resistant and, hence, active against fungi that have developed resistance to clinically used antifungals such as the azoles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aracely Miron-Ocampo
- Microbiology/Immunology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
| | - Sarah R. Beattie
- Department of Pediatrics Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
| | - Soumitra Guin
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis MO
| | - Thomas Conway
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, University of Iowa, Iowa City IA 52242
| | | | - W. Scott Moye-Rowley
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, University of Iowa, Iowa City IA 52242
| | - Damian J. Krysan
- Microbiology/Immunology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
- Department of Pediatrics Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, University of Iowa, Iowa City IA 52242
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4
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Donlin MJ, Meyers MJ. Repurposing and optimization of drugs for discovery of novel antifungals. Drug Discov Today 2022; 27:2008-2014. [PMID: 35489676 PMCID: PMC11182377 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2022.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Although fungal diseases are a major and growing public health concern, there are only four major classes of drug to treat primary fungal pathogens. The pipeline of new antifungals in clinical development is relatively thin compared with other disease classes. One approach to rapidly identify and provide novel treatment options is to repurpose existing drugs as antifungals. However, such proposed drug-repurposing candidates often suffer suboptimal efficacy and pharmacokinetics (PK) for fungal diseases. Herein, we briefly review the current antifungal drug pipeline and recent approaches to optimize existing drugs into novel molecules with unique modes of action relative to existing antifungal drug classes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen J Donlin
- Edward. A. Doisy Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA; Saint Louis University Institute for Drug and Biotherapeutic Innovation, USA.
| | - Marvin J Meyers
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Louis University, St Louis, MO, USA; Saint Louis University Institute for Drug and Biotherapeutic Innovation, USA
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5
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Ma Z, Qiu S, Chen HC, Zhang D, Lu YL, Chen XL. Maleimide structure: a promising scaffold for the development of antimicrobial agents. JOURNAL OF ASIAN NATURAL PRODUCTS RESEARCH 2022; 24:1-14. [PMID: 33511872 DOI: 10.1080/10286020.2021.1877675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Natural compounds bearing maleimide rings are a series of secondary metabolites derived from fungi/marine microorganisms, which are characterized by a general structure -CO-N(R)-CO-, and the R group is normally substituted with alkyl or aryl groups. Maleimide compounds show various biological activities such as antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer activity. In this review, the broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities of 15 maleimide compounds from natural sources and 32 artificially synthesized maleimides were summarized, especially against Candida albicans, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, and Staphylococcus aureus. It highlights that maleimide scaffold has tremendous potential to be utilized in the development of novel antimicrobial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Ma
- Institute of Fermentation Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Shuo Qiu
- Institute of Fermentation Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Han-Chi Chen
- Institute of Fermentation Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Dong Zhang
- Institute of Fermentation Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Yue-Le Lu
- Institute of Fermentation Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Xiao-Long Chen
- Institute of Fermentation Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
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6
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A Yeast-Based Screening Unravels Potential Therapeutic Molecules for Mitochondrial Diseases Associated with Dominant ANT1 Mutations. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22094461. [PMID: 33923309 PMCID: PMC8123201 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial diseases result from inherited or spontaneous mutations in mitochondrial or nuclear DNA, leading to an impairment of the oxidative phosphorylation responsible for the synthesis of ATP. To date, there are no effective pharmacological therapies for these pathologies. We performed a yeast-based screening to search for therapeutic drugs to be used for treating mitochondrial diseases associated with dominant mutations in the nuclear ANT1 gene, which encodes for the mitochondrial ADP/ATP carrier. Dominant ANT1 mutations are involved in several degenerative mitochondrial pathologies characterized by the presence of multiple deletions or depletion of mitochondrial DNA in tissues of affected patients. Thanks to the presence in yeast of the AAC2 gene, orthologue of human ANT1, a yeast mutant strain carrying the M114P substitution equivalent to adPEO-associated L98P mutation was created. Five molecules were identified for their ability to suppress the defective respiratory growth phenotype of the haploid aac2M114P. Furthermore, these molecules rescued the mtDNA mutability in the heteroallelic AAC2/aac2M114P strain, which mimics the human heterozygous condition of adPEO patients. The drugs were effective in reducing mtDNA instability also in the heteroallelic strain carrying the R96H mutation equivalent to the more severe de novo dominant missense mutation R80H, suggesting a general therapeutic effect on diseases associated with dominant ANT1 mutations.
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7
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Rossato L, Camargo Dos Santos M, Vitale RG, de Hoog S, Ishida K. Alternative treatment of fungal infections: Synergy with non-antifungal agents. Mycoses 2020; 64:232-244. [PMID: 33098146 DOI: 10.1111/myc.13203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Fungal infections are responsible for high mortality rates in immunocompromised and high-risk surgical patients. Therapy failures during the last decades due to increasing multidrug resistance demand innovative strategies for novel and effective antifungal drugs. Synergistic combinations of antifungals with non-antifungal agents highlight a pragmatic strategy to reduce the development of drug resistance and potentially repurpose known compounds with other functions to bypass costly and time-consuming novel drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana Rossato
- Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde, Federal University of Grande Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
| | | | - Roxana G Vitale
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET) and Hospital JM Ramos Mejía, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sybren de Hoog
- Center of Expertise in Mycology of Radboud University Medical Center, Canisius Wilhelmina Hospital, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Kelly Ishida
- Laboratory of Antifungal Chemotherapy, Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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8
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Ni S, Li B, Xu Y, Mao F, Li X, Lan L, Zhu J, Li J. Targeting virulence factors as an antimicrobial approach: Pigment inhibitors. Med Res Rev 2019; 40:293-338. [PMID: 31267561 DOI: 10.1002/med.21621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The fascinating and dangerous colored pathogens contain unique chemically pigmented molecules, which give varied and efficient assistance as virulence factors to the crucial reproduction and growth of microbes. Therefore, multiple novel strategies and inhibitors have been developed in recent years that target virulence factor pigments. However, despite the importance and significance of this topic, it has not yet been comprehensively reviewed. Moreover, research groups around the world have made successful progress against antibacterial infections by targeting pigment production, including our serial works on the discovery of CrtN inhibitors against staphyloxanthin production in Staphylococcus aureus. On the basis of the previous achievements and recent progress of our group in this field, this article will be the first comprehensive review of pigment inhibitors against colored pathogens, especially S. aureus infections, and this article includes design strategies, representative case studies, advantages, limitations, and perspectives to guide future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuaishuai Ni
- Cancer Institute, Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Baoli Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yixiang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Fei Mao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaokang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Lefu Lan
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Material Medical, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jin Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Jian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
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9
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Beekman CN, Meckler L, Kim E, Bennett RJ. Galleria mellonella as an insect model for P. destructans, the cause of White-nose Syndrome in bats. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0201915. [PMID: 30183704 PMCID: PMC6124720 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudogymnoascus destructans is the fungal pathogen responsible for White-nose Syndrome (WNS), a disease that has killed millions of bats in North America over the last decade. A major obstacle to research on P. destructans has been the lack of a tractable infection model for monitoring virulence. Here, we establish a high-throughput model of infection using larvae of Galleria mellonella, an invertebrate used to study host-pathogen interactions for a wide range of microbial species. We demonstrate that P. destructans can kill G. mellonella larvae in an inoculum-dependent manner when infected larvae are housed at 13°C or 18°C. Larval killing is an active process, as heat-killed P. destructans spores caused significantly decreased levels of larval death compared to live spores. We also show that fungal spores that were germinated prior to inoculation were able to kill larvae 3–4 times faster than non-germinated spores. Lastly, we identified chemical inhibitors of P. destructans and used G. mellonella to evaluate these inhibitors for their ability to reduce virulence. We demonstrate that amphotericin B can effectively block larval killing by P. destructans and thereby establish that this infection model can be used to screen biocontrol agents against this fungal pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chapman N. Beekman
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Brown University, Providence, RI United States of America
| | - Lauren Meckler
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Brown University, Providence, RI United States of America
| | - Eleanor Kim
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Brown University, Providence, RI United States of America
| | - Richard J. Bennett
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Brown University, Providence, RI United States of America
- * E-mail:
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10
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Abstract
The fungal pathogens Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Aspergillus fumigatus have transitioned from a rare curiosity to a leading cause of human mortality. The management of infections caused by these organisms is intimately dependent on the efficacy of antifungal agents; however, fungi that are resistant to these treatments are regularly isolated in the clinic, impeding our ability to control infections. Given the significant impact fungal pathogens have on human health, it is imperative to understand the molecular mechanisms that govern antifungal drug resistance. This review describes our current knowledge of the mechanisms by which antifungal drug resistance evolves in experimental populations and clinical settings. We explore current antifungal treatment options and discuss promising strategies to impede the evolution of drug resistance. By tackling antifungal drug resistance as an evolutionary problem, there is potential to improve the utility of current treatments and accelerate the development of novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Robbins
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1M1, Canada; , ,
| | - Tavia Caplan
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1M1, Canada; , ,
| | - Leah E Cowen
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1M1, Canada; , ,
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11
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Montoya MC, DiDone L, Heier RF, Meyers MJ, Krysan DJ. Antifungal Phenothiazines: Optimization, Characterization of Mechanism, and Modulation of Neuroreceptor Activity. ACS Infect Dis 2018; 4:499-507. [PMID: 29058407 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.7b00157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
New classes of antifungal drugs are an urgent unmet clinical need. One approach to the challenge of developing new antifungal drugs is to optimize the antifungal properties of currently used drugs with favorable pharmacologic properties, so-called drug or scaffold repurposing. New therapies for cryptococcal meningitis are particularly important given its worldwide burden of disease and limited therapeutic options. We report the first systematic structure-activity study of the anticryptococcal properties of the phenothiazines. We also show that the antifungal activity of the phenothiazine scaffold correlates well with its calmodulin antagonism properties and, thereby, provides the first insights into the mechanism of its antifungal properties. Guided by this mechanism, we have generated improved trifluoperazine derivatives with increased anticryptococcal activity and, importantly, reduced affinity for receptors that modulate undesired neurological effects. Taken together, these data suggest that phenothiazines represent a potentially useful scaffold for further optimization in the search for new antifungal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marhiah C. Montoya
- Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, New York 14642, United States
| | - Louis DiDone
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, New York 14642, United States
| | - Richard F. Heier
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, 1402 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
| | - Marvin J. Meyers
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, 1402 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Louis University, 1402 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
| | - Damian J. Krysan
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, New York 14642, United States
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, New York 14642, United States
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12
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Azevedo RVDM, Rizzo J, Rodrigues ML. Virulence Factors as Targets for Anticryptococcal Therapy. J Fungi (Basel) 2016; 2:jof2040029. [PMID: 29376946 PMCID: PMC5715936 DOI: 10.3390/jof2040029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Revised: 11/18/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The global mortality due to cryptococcosis caused by Cryptococcus neoformans or C. gattii is unacceptably high. Currently available therapies are decades old and may be impacted by drug resistance. Therefore, the need for more effective antifungal drugs for cryptococcosis is evident. A number of Cryptococcus virulence factors have been studied in detail, providing crucial information about the fungal biology and putative molecular targets for antifungals. This review focuses on the use of well-described virulence factors of Cryptococcus as potential anticryptococcal agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata V D M Azevedo
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Saúde (CDTS), 21040-361 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| | - Juliana Rizzo
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica (IBqM), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| | - Marcio L Rodrigues
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Saúde (CDTS), 21040-361 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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13
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Coelho C, Casadevall A. Cryptococcal therapies and drug targets: the old, the new and the promising. Cell Microbiol 2016; 18:792-9. [PMID: 26990050 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2016] [Revised: 02/28/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Half a century after the introduction of Amphotericin B the management of cryptococcosis remains unsatisfactory. The disease, caused primarily by the two fungal species Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, remains responsible for considerable morbidity and mortality despite standard medical care. Current therapeutic options are limited to Amphotericin B, azoles and 5-flucytosine. However, this organism has numerous well-characterized virulence mechanisms that are amenable to pharmacological interference and are thus potential therapeutic targets. Here, we discuss existing approved antifungal drugs, resistance mechanisms to these drugs and non-standard antifungal drugs that have potential in treatment of cryptococcosis, including immunomodulatory strategies that synergize with antifungal drugs, such as cytokine administration or monoclonal antibodies. Finally, we summarize attempts to target well-described virulence factors of Cryptococcus, the capsule or fungal melanin. This review emphasizes the pressing need for new therapeutic alternatives for cryptococcosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Coelho
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
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14
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Thioridazine inhibits gene expression control of the cell wall signaling pathway (CWI) in the human pathogenic fungus Paracoccidioides
brasiliensis. Mol Genet Genomics 2016; 291:1347-62. [DOI: 10.1007/s00438-016-1184-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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15
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Rossato L, Loreto ÉS, Zanette RA, Chassot F, Santurio JM, Alves SH. In vitro synergistic effects of chlorpromazine and sertraline in combination with amphotericin B against Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2016; 61:399-403. [DOI: 10.1007/s12223-016-0449-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Cytotoxicity of phenothiazine derivatives associated with mitochondrial dysfunction: A structure-activity investigation. Toxicology 2015; 330:44-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2015.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Revised: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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17
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Ells R, Kemp G, Albertyn J, Kock JL, Pohl CH. Phenothiazine is a potent inhibitor of prostaglandin E2production byCandida albicansbiofilms. FEMS Yeast Res 2013; 13:849-55. [DOI: 10.1111/1567-1364.12093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2013] [Revised: 09/05/2013] [Accepted: 09/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ruan Ells
- Department of Microbial; Biochemical and Food Biotechnology; University of the Free State; Bloemfontein South Africa
| | - Gabré Kemp
- Department of Microbial; Biochemical and Food Biotechnology; University of the Free State; Bloemfontein South Africa
| | - Jacobus Albertyn
- Department of Microbial; Biochemical and Food Biotechnology; University of the Free State; Bloemfontein South Africa
| | - Johan L.F. Kock
- Department of Microbial; Biochemical and Food Biotechnology; University of the Free State; Bloemfontein South Africa
| | - Carolina H. Pohl
- Department of Microbial; Biochemical and Food Biotechnology; University of the Free State; Bloemfontein South Africa
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18
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Butts A, DiDone L, Koselny K, Baxter BK, Chabrier-Rosello Y, Wellington M, Krysan DJ. A repurposing approach identifies off-patent drugs with fungicidal cryptococcal activity, a common structural chemotype, and pharmacological properties relevant to the treatment of cryptococcosis. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2013; 12:278-87. [PMID: 23243064 PMCID: PMC3571299 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00314-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
New, more accessible therapies for cryptococcosis represent an unmet clinical need of global importance. We took a repurposing approach to identify previously developed drugs with fungicidal activity toward Cryptococcus neoformans, using a high-throughput screening assay designed to detect drugs that directly kill fungi. From a set of 1,120 off-patent medications and bioactive molecules, we identified 31 drugs/molecules with fungicidal activity, including 15 drugs for which direct antifungal activity had not previously been reported. A significant portion of the drugs are orally bioavailable and cross the blood-brain barrier, features key to the development of a widely applicable anticryptococcal agent. Structural analysis of this set revealed a common chemotype consisting of a hydrophobic moiety linked to a basic amine, features that are common to drugs that cross the blood-brain barrier and access the phagolysosome, two important niches of C. neoformans. Consistent with their fungicidal activity, the set contains eight drugs that are either additive or synergistic in combination with fluconazole. Importantly, we identified two drugs, amiodarone and thioridazine, with activity against intraphagocytic C. neoformans. Finally, the set of drugs is also enriched for molecules that inhibit calmodulin, and we have confirmed that seven drugs directly bind C. neoformans calmodulin, providing a molecular target that may contribute to the mechanism of antifungal activity. Taken together, these studies provide a foundation for the optimization of the antifungal properties of a set of pharmacologically attractive scaffolds for the development of novel anticryptococcal therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Damian J. Krysan
- Pediatrics
- Microbiology/Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
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19
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Galgóczy L, Bácsi A, Homa M, Virágh M, Papp T, Vágvölgyi C. In vitro antifungal activity of phenothiazines and their combination with amphotericin B against different Candida species. Mycoses 2011; 54:e737-43. [PMID: 21605196 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2010.02010.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Candidiosis is a mycosis that is currently increasingly affecting the population in consequence of its frequency and the severity of its complications, especially among immunocompromised hosts. In this work, the in vitro anticandidal activities of two phenothiazines (PTZs), chlorpromazine (CPZ) and trifluoperazine (TFP), and their combinations with amphotericin B (AMB) were tested against 12 different Candida strains representing 12 species (Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Candida guillermondii, Candida inconspicua, Candida krusei, Candida lusitaniae, Candida lypolitica, Candida norvegica, Candida parapsilosis, Candida pulcherrima, Candida tropicalis and Candida zeylanoides). When used alone, both tested PTZs exerted antifungal effects against these strains. In their combinations, these PTZs and AMB mainly acted antagonistically at higher concentrations, but additively and synergistically at lower concentrations as concerns the clinically most important species (C. albicans and C. parapsilosis). For C. albicans, only synergistic interactions were revealed between CPZ and AMB. Synergistic, additive or no interactions were demonstrated between the investigated compounds for the most PTZ-susceptible (C. glabrata to TFP and C. krusei to CPZ) and insusceptible strains (C. glabrata to CPZ and C. lypolitica to TFP).
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Affiliation(s)
- László Galgóczy
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.
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Galgóczy L, Papp T, Kovács L, Ordögh L, Vágvölgyi C. In vitro activity of phenothiazines and their combinations with amphotericin B against Zygomycetes causing rhinocerebral zygomycosis. Med Mycol 2008; 47:331-5. [PMID: 18798117 DOI: 10.1080/13693780802378853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The in vitro antifungal activities of two phenothiazine (PTZ) compounds, trifluoperazine (TFP) and chlorpromazine (CPZ) separately and in combination with amphotericin B (AMB) were tested against eight fungal isolates known to be possible agents of rhinocerebral zygomycosis. While both PTZs individually had antifungal effects against these filamentous fungi, only the antifungal activity of TFP increased in presence of AMB. TFP and AMB acted synergistically and caused full inhibition of all strains tested except for Absidia glauca. In contrast, CPZ was found to act antagonistically with AMB with all of studied isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- László Galgóczy
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.
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22
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Vitale RG, Afeltra J, Meis JFGM, Verweij PE. Activity and post antifungal effect of chlorpromazine and trifluopherazine against Aspergillus, Scedosporium and zygomycetes. Mycoses 2007; 50:270-6. [PMID: 17576318 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2007.01371.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The phenothiazine compounds chlorpromazine and trifluopherazine are antipsychotic agents that exhibit antimicrobial activity against bacteria, some protozoa and yeasts. Data of activity against filamentous fungi are lacking. The in vitro activity and postantifungal effect (PAFE) of chlorpromazine and trifluopherazine was determined against Aspergillus species, zygomycetes and Scedosporium species. In vitro susceptibility testing was performed with CLSI M38A and the PAFE was determined with previously established methods. Both drugs inhibited the growth of all fungi tested at concentrations of 16 to 64 microg ml(-1). For Aspergillus species the mean PAFE was 3.7 and 4.7 h; for zygomycetes, 3.1 and 3.4 h; for Scedosporium, 4.3 and 5.3 h for chlorpromazine and trifluoroperazine respectively. These are the first drugs shown to induce PAFE against Scedosporium. We show that phenothiazine compounds have in vitro antifungal activity and exhibit PAFE against a broad range of filamentous fungal pathogens. Although the exact mechanism of action is unknown, further studies are needed to explore the clinical usefulness of phenothiazine compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxana G Vitale
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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23
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Singh A, Sharma S, Khuller GK. cAMP regulates vegetative growth and cell cycle in Candida albicans. Mol Cell Biochem 2007; 304:331-41. [PMID: 17557192 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-007-9516-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2007] [Accepted: 05/16/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrate here the regulatory role of cAMP in cell cycle of Candida albicans. cAMP was found to be a positive signal for growth and morphogenesis. Phosphodiesterase inhibitor aminophylline exhibited significant effects, i.e., increased growth, as well as induced morphogenesis. Atropine and trifluoperazine negatively regulated (inhibited) growth and did not induce morphogenesis. These changes were attributed to increase in cAMP levels and protein kinase A (PKA) activity in presence of aminophylline, while reduction was observed in atropine and trifluoperazine (TFP) grown cells. Alteration in cAMP signaling pathway affected the cell cycle progression in Candida albicans. Increased cAMP levels in aminophylline grown cells reduced the duration of cell cycle by inciting the cell cycle-specific expression of G1 cyclins (CLN1 and CLN2). However atropine and trifluoperazine delayed the expression of G1 cyclins and hence prolonged the cell cycle. Implication of cAMP signaling pathway in both the cell cycle and morphogenesis further opened the channels to explore the potential of this pathway to serve as a target for development of new antifungal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajay Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education & Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh 160012, India
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24
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Pina-Vaz C, Rodrigues AG, Costa-de-Oliveira S, Ricardo E, Mårdh PA. Potent synergic effect between ibuprofen and azoles on Candida resulting from blockade of efflux pumps as determined by FUN-1 staining and flow cytometry. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 56:678-85. [PMID: 16115827 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dki264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Resistance to antifungals often relates to efflux pumps exporting drugs; several modulators may block them, reverting resistance. Verapamil, beta-oestradiol and progesterone, known efflux pump inhibitors of human neoplastic cells, and ibuprofen were tested as potential modulators of resistance of Candida spp. METHODS Forty-two clinical isolates of Candida (38 fluconazole-resistant), two ATCC type strains and two C. albicans strains with known mechanisms of fluconazole resistance were incubated with subinhibitory concentrations of the modulators. After exposure, MICs of fluconazole, itraconazole and voriconazole were re-determined. Simultaneously, yeasts exposed to modulators were stained with FUN-1 and analysed by flow cytometry. 3H-labelled itraconazole was also used to study efflux in the presence and absence of modulators. RESULTS Fluconazole MICs decreased in most strains after exposure to modulators, including control strains with documented efflux overexpression. No significant MIC variation was noticed for: all C. krusei strains tested, for the resistant strain by target change, for susceptible strains, and for a very few other clinical isolates. Reverted resistant phenotypes showed cross-resistance to itraconazole and to voriconazole, which was also reverted by the modulators. For these strains, an increase in FUN-1 staining and increased accumulation of 3H-labelled itraconazole were noticed after incubation with modulators. CONCLUSIONS Resistance related to overexpression of efflux pumps was common among clinical isolates and could be reverted by the assayed modulators, particularly ibuprofen. The mechanism of resistance in all tested C. krusei and in a few other strains seems, however, to be of a different nature. Ibuprofen is a promising compound in association with azoles, deserving future clinical trials. FUN-1 proved to be a good marker of efflux in Candida.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cidália Pina-Vaz
- Department of Microbiology, Porto Faculty of Medicine, Alameda Prof. Hernani Monteiro, 4200 Porto, Portugal.
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25
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Mattana A, Biancu G, Alberti L, Accardo A, Delogu G, Fiori PL, Cappuccinelli P. In vitro evaluation of the effectiveness of the macrolide rokitamycin and chlorpromazine against Acanthamoeba castellanii. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48:4520-7. [PMID: 15561820 PMCID: PMC529218 DOI: 10.1128/aac.48.12.4520-4527.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2004] [Revised: 06/03/2004] [Accepted: 07/27/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study demonstrates the in vitro effectiveness of the macrolide rokitamycin and the phenothiazine compound chlorpromazine against Acanthamoeba castellanii. Growth curve evaluations revealed that both drugs inhibit trophozoite growth in dose- and time-dependent ways. The effects of both drugs when they were used at the MICs at which 100% of isolates are inhibited were amoebistatic, but at higher doses they were amoebicidal as well as cysticidal. Experiments showed that when rokitamycin was associated with chlorpromazine or amphotericin B, rokitamycin enhanced their activities. Furthermore, low doses of rokitamycin and chlorpromazine, alone or in combination, blocked the cytopathic effect of A. castellanii against WKD cells derived from the human cornea. These results may have important significance in the development of new anti-Acanthamoeba compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Mattana
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy.
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26
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Abstract
The antifungal activity of synthetic, nonchemotherapeutic compounds, antineoplastic agents and antibacterial drugs, such as sulphonamides, has been known since the early 20th century (1932). In this context, the term "nonantifungal" is taken to include a variety of compounds that are employed in the management of pathological conditions of nonfungal infectious etiology but have been shown to exhibit broad-spectrum antifungal activity. In this review, the antifungal properties of compounds such as chlorpromazine, proton pump inhibitors, antiarrhythmic agents, cholesterol-lowering agents, antineoplastic and immunosuppressive agents, antiparasitic drugs and antibiotics are described. Since fungi are eukaryotic cells, they share many pathways with human cells, thus increasing the probability of antifungal activity of "nonfungal drugs". The potential of these drugs for treatment of fungal infections has been investigated sporadically using the drugs alone or in combination with "classic" antifungal agents. A review of the literature, supplemented with a number of more recent investigations, suggests that some of these compounds enhance the activity of conventional antifungal agents, eliminate natural resistance to specific antifungal drugs (reversal of resistance) or exhibit strong activity against certain fungal strains in vitro and in animal models. The role of these agents in the epidemiology and in the clinical manifestations of fungal infections and the potential of certain drugs for treatment of invasive fungal infections require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Afeltra
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Nijmegen, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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27
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Abstract
Melanins are enigmatic pigments that are produced by a wide variety of microorganisms including several species of pathogenic bacteria, fungi and helminths. The study of melanin is difficult because these pigments defy complete biochemical and structural analysis. Nevertheless, the availability of new reagents in the form of monoclonal antibodies and melanin-binding peptides, combined with the application of various physical techniques, has provided insights into the process of melanization. Melanization is important in microbial pathogenesis because it has been associated with virulence in many microorganisms. Melanin appears to contribute to virulence by reducing the susceptibility of melanized microbes to host defence mechanisms. However, the interaction of melanized microbes and the host is complex and includes immune responses to melanin-related antigens. Production of melanin has also been linked to protection against environmental insults. Interference with melanization is a potential strategy for antimicrobial drug and pesticide development. The process of melanization poses fascinating problems in cell biology and provides a type of pathogenic strategy that is common to highly diverse pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D Nosanchuk
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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28
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Sharma S, Kaur H, Khuller GK. Cell cycle effects of the phenothiazines: trifluoperazine and chlorpromazine in Candida albicans. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2001; 199:185-90. [PMID: 11377865 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2001.tb10672.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The study demonstrates the in vitro effectiveness of phenothiazine compounds, i.e. chlorpromazine and trifluoperazine against Candida albicans. Anticandidal effect of these drugs is suggested to be because of their interaction with Ca(2+)/calmodulin dependent protein phosphorylation. 3H-thymidine uptake studies revealed that both these compounds affect the DNA synthesis along with decrease in activities of nuclear calmodulin (CaM) and Ca(2+)/calmodulin dependent protein kinase (CaMPK). Failure in cell growth was due to defect in CaM mediated cell cycle arrest. Flow cytometric analysis showed that progression through G(1) and mitotic phase was affected when cells after alpha-factor arrest were grown in the presence of chlorpromazine or trifluoperazine. These drugs also produced significant decline in the cellular lipids and phospholipids. 14C-acetate incorporation studies further substantiated these results. We suggest that chlorpromazine or trifluoperazine affect the cell cycle through DNA synthesis (S phase) and cell division phases which are governed by calmodulin and Ca(2+)/calmodulin dependent protein phosphorylation and lipids and phospholipids appear to be additional targets of phenothiazine compounds in C. albicans. These results will have important significance in the development of new anticandidal compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sharma
- Department of Biochemistry, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, -160 012, Chandigarh, India
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Abstract
Melanins represent virulence factors for several pathogenic fungi; the number of examples is growing. Thus, albino mutants of several genera (in one case, mutated precisely in the melanizing enzyme) exhibit decreased virulence in mice. We consider the phenomenon in relation to known chemical properties of melanin, beginning with biosynthesis from ortho-hydroquinone precursors which, when oxidized enzymatically to quinones, polymerize spontaneously to melanin. It follows that melanizing intermediates are cross-linking reagents; melanization stabilizes the external cell wall against hydrolysis and is thought to determine semipermeability in the osmotic ram (the appressorium) of certain plant pathogens. Polymeric melanins undergo reversible oxidation-reduction reactions between cell wall-penetrating quinone and hydroquinone oxidation states and thus represent polymeric redox buffers; using strong oxidants, it is possible to titrate the melanin on living cells and thereby demonstrate protection conferred by melanin in several species. The amount of buffering per cell approximately neutralizes the amount of oxidant generated by a single macrophage. Moreover, the intermediate oxidation state, the semiquinone, is a very stable free radical and is thought to trap unpaired electrons. We have suggested that the oxidation state of external melanin may be regulated by external Fe(II). An independent hypothesis holds that in Cryptococcus neoformans, an important function of the melanizing enzyme (apart from melanization) is the oxidation of Fe(II) to Fe(III), thereby forestalling generation of the harmful hydroxyl radical from H(2)O(2). Thus, problems in fungal pathogenesis have led to evolving hypotheses regarding melanin functioning.
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30
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Abstract
Melanins represent virulence factors for several pathogenic fungi; the number of examples is growing. Thus, albino mutants of several genera (in one case, mutated precisely in the melanizing enzyme) exhibit decreased virulence in mice. We consider the phenomenon in relation to known chemical properties of melanin, beginning with biosynthesis from ortho-hydroquinone precursors which, when oxidized enzymatically to quinones, polymerize spontaneously to melanin. It follows that melanizing intermediates are cross-linking reagents; melanization stabilizes the external cell wall against hydrolysis and is thought to determine semipermeability in the osmotic ram (the appressorium) of certain plant pathogens. Polymeric melanins undergo reversible oxidation-reduction reactions between cell wall-penetrating quinone and hydroquinone oxidation states and thus represent polymeric redox buffers; using strong oxidants, it is possible to titrate the melanin on living cells and thereby demonstrate protection conferred by melanin in several species. The amount of buffering per cell approximately neutralizes the amount of oxidant generated by a single macrophage. Moreover, the intermediate oxidation state, the semiquinone, is a very stable free radical and is thought to trap unpaired electrons. We have suggested that the oxidation state of external melanin may be regulated by external Fe(II). An independent hypothesis holds that in Cryptococcus neoformans, an important function of the melanizing enzyme (apart from melanization) is the oxidation of Fe(II) to Fe(III), thereby forestalling generation of the harmful hydroxyl radical from H(2)O(2). Thus, problems in fungal pathogenesis have led to evolving hypotheses regarding melanin functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- E S Jacobson
- McGuire Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Richmond, Virginia 23249, USA.
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31
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Kristiansen JE, Hansen JB. Inhibition of HIV replication by neuroleptic agents and their potential use in HIV infected patients with AIDS related dementia. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2000; 14:209-13. [PMID: 10773489 DOI: 10.1016/s0924-8579(99)00157-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A series of neuroleptic agents and their structural isomers have been tested as inhibitors of HIV-replication. At non-toxic concentrations, cis (Z)- and trans (E)-flupentixol and several derivatives of the 5HT-uptake-inhibitors paroxetine and femoxetine, inhibit HIV-1 replication. The findings indicated that these compounds could be used in combination with other anti-retroviral therapy in HIV-1 infected patients with AIDS-related dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Kristiansen
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, County of Sønderjylland, 6400 Sønderborg, Sygehus, Denmark
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Pina-Vaz C, Rodrigues AG, Sansonetty F, Martinez-De-Oliveira J, Fonseca AF, Mårdh PA. Antifungal activity of local anesthetics against Candida species. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2000; 8:124-37. [PMID: 10968594 PMCID: PMC1784683 DOI: 10.1155/s1064744900000168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the activity of benzydamine, lidocaine, and bupivacaine, three drugs with local anesthetic activity, against Candida albicans and non-albicans strains and to clarify their mechanism of activity. METHODS The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined for 20 Candida strains (18 clinical isolates and two American Type Culture Collection strains). The fungistatic activity was studied with the fluorescent probe FUN-1 and observation under epifluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. The fungicidal activity of the three drugs was assayed by viability counts. Membrane alterations induced in the yeast cells were evaluated by staining with propidium iodide, by quantitation of intracellular K+ leakage and by transmission electron microscopy of intact yeast cells and prepared spheroplasts. RESULTS The MIC ranged from 12.5-50.0 microg/mL, 5.0-40.0 mg/mL, and 2.5-10.0 mg/mL for benzydamine, lidocaine, and bupivacaine, respectively. The inhibitory activity of these concentrations could be detected with the fluorescent probe FUN-1 after incubation for 60 minutes. A very fast fungicidal activity was shown by 0.2, 50, and 30 mg/mL of benzydamine, lidocaine, and bupivacaine, respectively. CONCLUSIONS At lower concentrations, the tested drugs have a fungistatic activity, due to yeast metabolic impairment, while at higher concentrations they are fungicidal, due to direct damage to the cytoplasmic membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Pina-Vaz
- Department of Microbiology, Porto School of Medicine, University of Porto, Portugal.
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34
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Wang Y, Casadevall A. Susceptibility of melanized and nonmelanized Cryptococcus neoformans to the melanin-binding compounds trifluoperazine and chloroquine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40:541-5. [PMID: 8851567 PMCID: PMC163154 DOI: 10.1128/aac.40.3.541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is an opportunistic fungal pathogen which becomes heavily melanized in the presence of phenolic substrates such as L-dopa. Various drugs are known to bind to melanin with high affinity, including the antipsychotic agent trifluoperazine and the antimalarial agent chloroquine. We hypothesized that drugs which bind melanin may have different toxicities for melanized and nonmelanized C. neoformans cells. The effects of trifluoperazine and chloroquine or C. neoformans were determined by measuring cell viability after exposure to these drugs. Cell viability was measured by CFU determination and flow cytometry with propidium iodide staining. Melanized cells were more susceptible than nonmelanized cells to the fungicidal effects of trifluoperazine. Chloroquine had no fungicidal effect on either melanized or nonmelanized C. neoformans under the conditions studied. Flow cytometry of trifluoperazine-treated C. neoformans cells stained with the mitochondrial stain dihydrorhodamine 123 revealed fluorescence changes consistent with mitochondrial damage. Our results indicate that melanized and nonmelanized C. neoformans cells can differ in susceptibility to certain drugs and suggest that strategies which target melanin may be productive for antifungal-drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
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35
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Fellah Y, Mandin D, Dubois P, Ombetta-Goka JE, Guenzet J, Chaumont JP, Frangin Y. Growth inhibition of Cryptococcus neoformans by 2-(1-piperazinyl)-5-(1,2-diarylethyl)-4,6-dichloropyrimidines: synthesis and in vitro studies. Eur J Med Chem 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/s0223-5234(96)80010-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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36
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Buchan A, Kelly V, Kinsman O, Gooday G, Gow N. Effect of trifluoperazine on growth, morphogenesis and pathogenicity ofCandida albicans. Med Mycol 1993. [DOI: 10.1080/02681219380000561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
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37
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Hector RF, Yee E, Collins MS. Use of DBA/2N mice in models of systemic candidiasis and pulmonary and systemic aspergillosis. Infect Immun 1990; 58:1476-8. [PMID: 2323826 PMCID: PMC258651 DOI: 10.1128/iai.58.5.1476-1478.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mouse models of systemic candidiasis and pulmonary and systemic aspergillosis were established by using DBA/2N mice, which are known to be deficient in the C5 component of complement. In experiments comparing lethality in the respective models in DBA/2N versus outbred CFW mice, results showed that the 50% lethal dose values for the DBA/2N mice were 10- to 1,000-fold lower than those for the outbred mice, depending on the experiment. Additionally, onset of death was somewhat delayed for the DBA/2N mice. In the case of the pulmonary aspergillosis model, administration of cortisone acetate was necessary to ensure lethality after intranasal infection, but only a single dose was necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- R F Hector
- Cutter Biological, Berkeley, California 94710
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