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Li Y, Zhang S, Chen Z, Huang W, Huang Y, Fang H, Liu Q. Evolution of quorum sensing process and their regulatory role on biochemical metabolism during the organic loading rate increase in dry anaerobic digestion. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 363:142954. [PMID: 39069103 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2024] [Revised: 07/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
The organic loading rate (OLR) is a critical parameter affecting the stability of dry anaerobic digestion (AD) of kitchen waste (KW), and significantly impacting the variations in physicochemical parameters and microbial communities. However, the evolution of quorum sensing (QS) and their role on anaerobic biochemical metabolism during the increase in OLR in dry AD remain unknown. Therefore, this study systematically elucidated the matter through multi-omics analysis based on a pilot-scale dry AD of KW. The results demonstrated that fluctuations in the OLR significantly influenced the microbial QS in dry AD. When the OLR ≤4.0 g·VS/L·d, the system operated stably, and methane production increased. The enrichment of Proteobacteria was crucial for sustaining high levels of functional genes associated with various types of QS, including acyl-homoserine lactones (AI-1), autoinducer-2 (AI-2), autoinducer-3 (AI-3), and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). This enabled cooperative communication among microbes under low OLR. Furthermore, most genes associated with these QS processes positively affected hydrolysis, acidogenesis, and methanogenesis. When the OLR increased to 6.0 g·VS/L·d, the fatty acids and hydrogen partial pressure increased significantly. The autoinducing peptides (AIP)-type became the predominant QS and was positively correlated with fatty acids abundance. Syntrophaceticus and Syntrophomonas may promote syntrophic oxidation of acetate at high OLR through AIP-type QS. These findings provided new insights into the QS processes of microbes during dry AD of KW and a theoretical foundation for optimizing biochemical metabolic processes in dry AD through QS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanzeng Li
- College of Harbour and Coastal Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021, China; Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Shenghua Zhang
- College of Harbour and Coastal Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021, China.
| | - Zhou Chen
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Weizhao Huang
- Xiamen Xinyuan Environmental Service Co., LTD., Xiamen, 361000, China
| | - Yunfeng Huang
- College of Harbour and Coastal Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Hongda Fang
- College of Harbour and Coastal Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Qin Liu
- College of Harbour and Coastal Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen, 361021, China
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2
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Humphreys JR, Bean Z, Twycross J, Winzer K. The Lanthipeptide Synthetase-like Protein CA_C0082 Is an Effector of Agr Quorum Sensing in Clostridium acetobutylicum. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1460. [PMID: 37374961 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11061460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Lanthipeptide synthetases are present in all domains of life. They catalyze a crucial step during lanthipeptide biosynthesis by introducing thioether linkages during posttranslational peptide modification. Lanthipeptides have a wide range of functions, including antimicrobial and morphogenetic activities. Intriguingly, several Clostridium species contain lanthipeptide synthetase-like genes of the class II (lanM) family but lack other components of the lanthipeptide biosynthetic machinery. In all instances, these genes are located immediately downstream of putative agr quorum sensing operons. The physiological role and mode of action of the encoded LanM-like proteins remain uncertain as they lack conserved catalytic residues. Here we show for the industrial organism Clostridium acetobutylicum that the LanM-like protein CA_C0082 is not required for the production of active AgrD-derived signaling peptide but nevertheless acts as an effector of Agr quorum sensing. Expression of CA_C0082 was shown to be controlled by the Agr system and is a prerequisite for granulose (storage polymer) formation. The accumulation of granulose, in turn, was shown to be required for maximal spore formation but also to reduce early solvent formation. CA_C0082 and its putative homologs appear to be closely associated with Agr systems predicted to employ signaling peptides with six-membered ring structures and may represent a new subfamily of LanM-like proteins. This is the first time their contribution to bacterial Agr signaling has been described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan R Humphreys
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Zak Bean
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Jamie Twycross
- School of Computer Science, Jubilee Campus, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG8 1BB, UK
| | - Klaus Winzer
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
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3
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Humphreys JR, Debebe BJ, Diggle SP, Winzer K. Clostridium beijerinckii strain degeneration is driven by the loss of Spo0A activity. Front Microbiol 2023; 13:1075609. [PMID: 36704551 PMCID: PMC9871927 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1075609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Solventogenic clostridia represent a diverse group of anaerobic, spore-forming bacteria capable of producing acetone, butanol and ethanol through their unique biphasic metabolism. An intrinsic problem with these organisms however is their tendency to degenerate when repeatedly subcultured or when grown continuously. This phenomenon sees cells lose their ability to produce solvents and spores, posing a significant problem for industrial applications. To investigate the mechanistic and evolutionary basis of degeneration we combined comparative genomics, ultra-deep sequencing, and concepts of sociomicrobiology using Clostridium beijerinckii NCIMB 8052 as our model organism. These approaches revealed spo0A, the master regulator gene involved in spore and solvent formation, to be key to the degeneration process in this strain. Comparative genomics of 71 degenerate variants revealed four distinct hotspot regions that contained considerably more mutations than the rest of the genome. These included spo0A as well as genes suspected to regulate its expression and activity. Ultra-deep sequencing of populations during the subculturing process showed transient increases in mutations we believe linked to the spo0A network, however, these were ultimately dominated by mutations in the master regulator itself. Through frequency-dependent fitness assays, we found that spo0A mutants gained a fitness advantage, relative to the wild type, presumably allowing for propagation throughout the culture. Combined, our data provides new insights into the phenomenon of clostridial strain degeneration and the C. beijerinckii NCIMB 8052 solvent and spore regulation network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan R. Humphreys
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Bisrat J. Debebe
- DeepSeq, Centre for Genetics and Genomics, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen P. Diggle
- Center for Microbial Dynamics and Infection, School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Klaus Winzer
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom,*Correspondence: Klaus Winzer, ✉
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4
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Liu D, Ge S, Wang Z, Li M, Zhuang W, Yang P, Chen Y, Ying H. Identification of a sensor histidine kinase (BfcK) controlling biofilm formation in Clostridium acetobutylicum. Chin J Chem Eng 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cjche.2021.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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5
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Ahmed UKB, Ballard JD. Autoinducing peptide-based quorum signaling systems in Clostridioides difficile. Curr Opin Microbiol 2022; 65:81-86. [PMID: 34773906 PMCID: PMC8792308 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2021.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The autoinducing peptide-based Agr system in Clostridioides difficile is involved in virulence factor expression, motility, and sporulation. This review highlights several of the recent discoveries regarding C. difficile Agr. Typical Agr systems rely on the combined activities of four proteins involved in peptide expression, peptide processing, peptide sensing, and transcriptional regulation. As emphasized in this review, at least two C. difficile Agr systems (Agr1 and Agr3) lack the set of proteins associated with this regulatory network. In line with this, recent finding indicate Agr1 can function in ways that may not depend on accumulation of extracellular peptide. Also, described are the similarities and differences in Agr systems within the pathogenic Clostridia.
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6
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Piatek P, Humphreys C, Raut MP, Wright PC, Simpson S, Köpke M, Minton NP, Winzer K. Agr Quorum Sensing influences the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway in Clostridium autoethanogenum. Sci Rep 2022; 12:411. [PMID: 35013405 PMCID: PMC8748961 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03999-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Acetogenic bacteria are capable of fermenting CO2 and carbon monoxide containing waste-gases into a range of platform chemicals and fuels. Despite major advances in genetic engineering and improving these biocatalysts, several important physiological functions remain elusive. Among these is quorum sensing, a bacterial communication mechanism known to coordinate gene expression in response to cell population density. Two putative agr systems have been identified in the genome of Clostridium autoethanogenum suggesting bacterial communication via autoinducing signal molecules. Signal molecule-encoding agrD1 and agrD2 genes were targeted for in-frame deletion. During heterotrophic growth on fructose as a carbon and energy source, single deletions of either gene did not produce an observable phenotype. However, when both genes were simultaneously inactivated, final product concentrations in the double mutant shifted to a 1.5:1 ratio of ethanol:acetate, compared to a 0.2:1 ratio observed in the wild type control, making ethanol the dominant fermentation product. Moreover, CO2 re-assimilation was also notably reduced in both hetero- and autotrophic growth conditions. These findings were supported through comparative proteomics, which showed lower expression of carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, formate dehydrogenase A and hydrogenases in the ∆agrD1∆agrD2 double mutant, but higher levels of putative alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases and bacterial micro-compartment proteins. These findings suggest that Agr quorum sensing, and by inference, cell density play a role in carbon resource management and use of the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway as an electron sink.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawel Piatek
- Department of Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, SINTEF Industry, 7465, Trondheim, Norway
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Christopher Humphreys
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Mahendra P Raut
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The ChELSI Institute, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD, UK
| | - Phillip C Wright
- University of Southampton, University Road, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Sean Simpson
- LanzaTech Inc., 8045 Lamon Ave, Suite 400, Skokie, IL, 60077, USA
| | - Michael Köpke
- LanzaTech Inc., 8045 Lamon Ave, Suite 400, Skokie, IL, 60077, USA
| | - Nigel P Minton
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Klaus Winzer
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.
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7
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Patakova P, Branska B, Vasylkivska M, Jureckova K, Musilova J, Provaznik I, Sedlar K. Transcriptomic studies of solventogenic clostridia, Clostridium acetobutylicum and Clostridium beijerinckii. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 58:107889. [PMID: 34929313 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Solventogenic clostridia are not a strictly defined group within the genus Clostridium but its representatives share some common features, i.e. they are anaerobic, non-pathogenic, non-toxinogenic and endospore forming bacteria. Their main metabolite is typically 1-butanol but depending on species and culture conditions, they can form other metabolites such as acetone, isopropanol, ethanol, butyric, lactic and acetic acids, and hydrogen. Although these organisms were previously used for the industrial production of solvents, they later fell into disuse, being replaced by more efficient chemical production. A return to a more biological production of solvents therefore requires a thorough understanding of clostridial metabolism. Transcriptome analysis, which reflects the involvement of individual genes in all cellular processes within a population, at any given (sampling) moment, is a valuable tool for gaining a deeper insight into clostridial life. In this review, we describe techniques to study transcription, summarize the evolution of these techniques and compare methods for data processing and visualization of solventogenic clostridia, particularly the species Clostridium acetobutylicum and Clostridium beijerinckii. Individual approaches for evaluating transcriptomic data are compared and their contributions to advancements in the field are assessed. Moreover, utilization of transcriptomic data for reconstruction of computational clostridial metabolic models is considered and particular models are described. Transcriptional changes in glucose transport, central carbon metabolism, the sporulation cycle, butanol and butyrate stress responses, the influence of lignocellulose-derived inhibitors on growth and solvent production, and other respective topics, are addressed and common trends are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Patakova
- University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
| | - Barbora Branska
- University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Maryna Vasylkivska
- University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | | | - Jana Musilova
- Brno University of Technology, Technicka 10, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ivo Provaznik
- Brno University of Technology, Technicka 10, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Sedlar
- Brno University of Technology, Technicka 10, 61600 Brno, Czech Republic
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8
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Tabraiz S, Petropoulos E, Shamurad B, Quintela-Baluja M, Mohapatra S, Acharya K, Charlton A, Davenport RJ, Dolfing J, Sallis PJ. Temperature and immigration effects on quorum sensing in the biofilms of anaerobic membrane bioreactors. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 293:112947. [PMID: 34289594 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 04/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Quorum sensing (QS), a microbial communication mechanism modulated by acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) molecules impacts biofilm formation in bioreactors. This study investigated the effects of temperature and immigration on AHL levels and biofouling in anaerobic membrane bioreactors. The hypothesis was that the immigrant microbial community would increase the AHL-mediated QS, thus stimulating biofouling and that low temperatures would exacerbate this. We observed that presence of immigrants, especially when exposed to low temperatures indeed increased AHL concentrations and fouling in the biofilms on the membranes. At low temperature, the concentrations of the main AHLs observed, N-dodecanoyl-L-homoserine lactone and N-decanoyl-L-homoserine lactone, were significantly higher in the biofilms than in the sludge and correlated significantly with the abundance of immigrant bacteria. Apparently low temperature, immigration and denser community structure in the biofilm stressed the communities, triggering AHL production and excretion. These insights into the social behaviour of reactor communities responding to low temperature and influx of immigrants have implications for biofouling control in bioreactors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shamas Tabraiz
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle, NE1 7RU, UK; School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, CT1 1QU, UK.
| | | | - Burhan Shamurad
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle, NE1 7RU, UK
| | | | - Sanjeeb Mohapatra
- Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 117411, Singapore
| | - Kishor Acharya
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle, NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Alex Charlton
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | | | - Jan Dolfing
- Faculty of Engineering and Environment, Northumbria University, Newcastle, NE1 8QH, UK
| | - Paul J Sallis
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle, NE1 7RU, UK
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9
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Molloy EM, Dell M, Hänsch VG, Dunbar KL, Feldmann R, Oberheide A, Seyfarth L, Kumpfmüller J, Horch T, Arndt H, Hertweck C. Enzyme‐Primed Native Chemical Ligation Produces Autoinducing Cyclopeptides in Clostridia. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202016378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn M. Molloy
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology HKI Beutenbergstr. 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Maria Dell
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology HKI Beutenbergstr. 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Veit G. Hänsch
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology HKI Beutenbergstr. 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Kyle L. Dunbar
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology HKI Beutenbergstr. 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Romy Feldmann
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology HKI Beutenbergstr. 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Ansgar Oberheide
- Institute for Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry Friedrich Schiller University Jena Humboldtstr. 10 07743 Jena Germany
| | - Lydia Seyfarth
- Institute for Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry Friedrich Schiller University Jena Humboldtstr. 10 07743 Jena Germany
| | - Jana Kumpfmüller
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology HKI Beutenbergstr. 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Therese Horch
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology HKI Beutenbergstr. 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Hans‐Dieter Arndt
- Institute for Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry Friedrich Schiller University Jena Humboldtstr. 10 07743 Jena Germany
| | - Christian Hertweck
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology HKI Beutenbergstr. 11a 07745 Jena Germany
- Faculty of Biological Sciences Friedrich Schiller University Jena 07743 Jena Germany
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10
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Diallo M, Kengen SWM, López-Contreras AM. Sporulation in solventogenic and acetogenic clostridia. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:3533-3557. [PMID: 33900426 PMCID: PMC8102284 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11289-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 04/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The Clostridium genus harbors compelling organisms for biotechnological production processes; while acetogenic clostridia can fix C1-compounds to produce acetate and ethanol, solventogenic clostridia can utilize a wide range of carbon sources to produce commercially valuable carboxylic acids, alcohols, and ketones by fermentation. Despite their potential, the conversion by these bacteria of carbohydrates or C1 compounds to alcohols is not cost-effective enough to result in economically viable processes. Engineering solventogenic clostridia by impairing sporulation is one of the investigated approaches to improve solvent productivity. Sporulation is a cell differentiation process triggered in bacteria in response to exposure to environmental stressors. The generated spores are metabolically inactive but resistant to harsh conditions (UV, chemicals, heat, oxygen). In Firmicutes, sporulation has been mainly studied in bacilli and pathogenic clostridia, and our knowledge of sporulation in solvent-producing or acetogenic clostridia is limited. Still, sporulation is an integral part of the cellular physiology of clostridia; thus, understanding the regulation of sporulation and its connection to solvent production may give clues to improve the performance of solventogenic clostridia. This review aims to provide an overview of the triggers, characteristics, and regulatory mechanism of sporulation in solventogenic clostridia. Those are further compared to the current knowledge on sporulation in the industrially relevant acetogenic clostridia. Finally, the potential applications of spores for process improvement are discussed.Key Points• The regulatory network governing sporulation initiation varies in solventogenic clostridia.• Media composition and cell density are the main triggers of sporulation.• Spores can be used to improve the fermentation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamou Diallo
- Wageningen Food and Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Servé W M Kengen
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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11
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Molloy EM, Dell M, Hänsch VG, Dunbar KL, Feldmann R, Oberheide A, Seyfarth L, Kumpfmüller J, Horch T, Arndt HD, Hertweck C. Enzyme-Primed Native Chemical Ligation Produces Autoinducing Cyclopeptides in Clostridia. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:10670-10679. [PMID: 33625794 PMCID: PMC8251862 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202016378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Clostridia coordinate many important processes such as toxin production, infection, and survival by density‐dependent communication (quorum sensing) using autoinducing peptides (AIPs). Although clostridial AIPs have been proposed to be (thio)lactone‐containing peptides, their true structures remain elusive. Here, we report the genome‐guided discovery of an AIP that controls endospore formation in Ruminiclostridium cellulolyticum. Through a combination of chemical synthesis and chemical complementation assays with a mutant strain, we reveal that the genuine chemical mediator is a homodetic cyclopeptide (cAIP). Kinetic analyses indicate that the mature cAIP is produced via a cryptic thiolactone intermediate that undergoes a rapid S→N acyl shift, in a manner similar to intramolecular native chemical ligation (NCL). Finally, by implementing a chemical probe in a targeted screen, we show that this novel enzyme‐primed, intramolecular NCL is a widespread feature of clostridial AIP biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn M Molloy
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology, HKI, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Maria Dell
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology, HKI, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Veit G Hänsch
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology, HKI, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Kyle L Dunbar
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology, HKI, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Romy Feldmann
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology, HKI, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Ansgar Oberheide
- Institute for Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstr. 10, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Lydia Seyfarth
- Institute for Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstr. 10, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Jana Kumpfmüller
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology, HKI, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Therese Horch
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology, HKI, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Hans-Dieter Arndt
- Institute for Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstr. 10, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Hertweck
- Dept. of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology, HKI, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany.,Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07743, Jena, Germany
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12
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Gao Y, Zhou X, Zhang MM, Liu YJ, Guo XP, Lei CR, Li WJ, Lu D. Response characteristics of the membrane integrity and physiological activities of the mutant strain Y217 under exogenous butanol stress. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:2455-2472. [PMID: 33606076 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11174-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Butanol inhibits bacterial activity by destroying the cell membrane of Clostridium acetobutylicum strains and altering functionality. Butanol toxicity also results in destruction of the phosphoenolpyruvate-carbohydrate phosphotransferase system (PTS), thereby preventing glucose transport and phosphorylation and inhibiting transmembrane transport and assimilation of sugars, amino acids, and other nutrients. In this study, based on the addition of exogenous butanol, the tangible macro indicators of changes in the carbon ion beam irradiation-mutant Y217 morphology were observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The mutant has lower microbial adhesion to hydrocarbon (MATH) value than C. acetobutylicum ATCC 824 strain. FDA fluorescence intensity and conductivity studies demonstrated the intrinsically low membrane permeability of the mutant membrane, with membrane potential remaining relatively stable. Monounsaturated FAs (MUFAs) accounted for 35.17% of the mutant membrane, and the saturated fatty acids (SFA)/unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) ratio in the mutant cell membrane was 1.65. In addition, we conducted DNA-level analysis of the mutant strain Y217. Expectedly, through screening, we found gene mutant sites encoding membrane-related functions in the mutant, including ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter-related genes, predicted membrane proteins, and the PTS transport system. It is noteworthy that an unreported predicted membrane protein (CAC 3309) may be related to changes in mutant cell membrane properties. KEY POINTS: • Mutant Y217 exhibited better membrane integrity and permeability. • Mutant Y217 was more resistant to butanol toxicity. • Some membrane-related genes of mutant Y217 were mutated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Gao
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, 730000, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Xiang Zhou
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, 730000, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Miao-Miao Zhang
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, 730000, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 100049, China.,Gansu Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources Exploitation and Application, Lanzhou, 730070, China
| | - Ya-Jun Liu
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 100049, China.,Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, China
| | - Xiao-Peng Guo
- School of Life Science and Engineering, Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou, China
| | - Cai-Rong Lei
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, 730000, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Wen-Jian Li
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, 730000, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 100049, China.,Gansu Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources Exploitation and Application, Lanzhou, 730070, China
| | - Dong Lu
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, 730000, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 100049, China. .,Gansu Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources Exploitation and Application, Lanzhou, 730070, China.
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13
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Diversity of Acyl Homoserine Lactone Molecules in Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactors Treating Sewage at Psychrophilic Temperatures. MEMBRANES 2020; 10:membranes10110320. [PMID: 33143124 PMCID: PMC7693955 DOI: 10.3390/membranes10110320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This study explores the types of acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) and their concentrations in different compartments of different conventional anaerobic bioreactors: (i) an upflow anaerobic membrane bioreactor (UAnMBR, biofilm/mixed liquor (sludge)); (ii) an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR, biofilm/mixed liquor (sludge)); and (iii) an upflow sludge blanket (UASB, sludge only), all operating at 15 °C. Ten types of the AHL, namely C4-HSL, 3-oxo-C4-HSL, C6-HSL, 3-oxo-C6-HSL, C8-HSL, 3-oxo-C8-HSL, C10-HSL, 3-oxo-C10-HSL, C12-HSL, and 3-oxo-C12-HSL, which were investigated in this study, were found in UAnMBR and UASB, whilst only six of them (C4-HSL, 3-oxo-C4-HSL, C8-HSL, C10-HSL, 3-oxo-C10-HSL, and C12-HSL) were found in AnMBR. Concentrations of total AHL were generally higher in the biofilm than the sludge for both membrane bioreactors trialed. C10-HSL was the predominant AHL found in all reactors (biofilm and sludge) followed by C4-HSL and C8-HSL. Overall, the UAnMBR biofilm and sludge had 10-fold higher concentrations of AHL compared to the AnMBR. C10-HSL was only correlated with bacteria (p < 0.05), whilst other types of AHL were correlated with both bacteria and archaea. This study improves our understanding of AHL-mediated Quorum Sensing (QS) in the biofilms/sludge of UAnMBR and AnMBR, and provides new information that could contribute to the development of quorum quenching anti-fouling strategies in such systems.
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14
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McBrayer DN, Cameron CD, Tal-Gan Y. Development and utilization of peptide-based quorum sensing modulators in Gram-positive bacteria. Org Biomol Chem 2020; 18:7273-7290. [PMID: 32914160 PMCID: PMC7530124 DOI: 10.1039/d0ob01421d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Quorum sensing (QS) is a mechanism by which bacteria regulate cell density-dependent group behaviors. Gram-positive bacteria generally rely on auto-inducing peptide (AIP)-based QS signaling to regulate their group behaviors. To develop synthetic modulators of these behaviors, the natural peptide needs to be identified and its structure-activity relationships (SARs) with its cognate receptor (either membrane-bound or cytosolic) need to be understood. SAR information allows for the rational design of peptides or peptide mimics with enhanced characteristics, which in turn can be utilized in studies to understand species-specific QS mechanisms and as lead scaffolds for the development of therapeutic candidates that target QS. In this review, we discuss recent work associated with the approaches used towards forwarding each of these steps in Gram-positive bacteria, with a focus on species that have received less attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic N McBrayer
- Department of Chemistry, SUNY New Paltz, 1 Hawk Drive, New Paltz, NY 12561, USA. and Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, 1664 N. Virginia Street, Reno, NV 89557, USA.
| | - Crissey D Cameron
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, 1664 N. Virginia Street, Reno, NV 89557, USA.
| | - Yftah Tal-Gan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, 1664 N. Virginia Street, Reno, NV 89557, USA.
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15
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Diallo M, Kint N, Monot M, Collas F, Martin-Verstraete I, van der Oost J, Kengen SWM, López-Contreras AM. Transcriptomic and Phenotypic Analysis of a spoIIE Mutant in Clostridium beijerinckii. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:556064. [PMID: 33042064 PMCID: PMC7522474 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.556064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
SpoIIE is a phosphatase involved in the activation of the first sigma factor of the forespore, σ F , during sporulation. A ΔspoIIE mutant of Clostridium beijerinckii NCIMB 8052, previously generated by CRISPR-Cas9, did not sporulate but still produced granulose and solvents. Microscopy analysis also showed that the cells of the ΔspoIIE mutant are elongated with the presence of multiple septa. This observation suggests that in C. beijerinckii, SpoIIE is necessary for the completion of the sporulation process, as seen in Bacillus and Clostridium acetobutylicum. Moreover, when grown in reactors, the spoIIE mutant produced higher levels of solvents than the wild type strain. The impact of the spoIIE inactivation on gene transcription was assessed by comparative transcriptome analysis at three time points (4 h, 11 h and 23 h). Approximately 5% of the genes were differentially expressed in the mutant compared to the wild type strain at all time points. Out of those only 12% were known sporulation genes. As expected, the genes belonging to the regulon of the sporulation specific transcription factors (σ F , σ E , σ G , σ K ) were strongly down-regulated in the mutant. Inactivation of spoIIE also caused differential expression of genes involved in various cell processes at each time point. Moreover, at 23 h, genes involved in butanol formation and tolerance, as well as in cell motility, were up-regulated in the mutant. In contrast, several genes involved in cell wall composition, oxidative stress and amino acid transport were down-regulated. These results indicate an intricate interdependence of sporulation and stationary phase cellular events in C. beijerinckii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamou Diallo
- Wageningen Food and Biobased Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Nicolas Kint
- Laboratoire Pathogènese des Bactéries Anaérobies, Institut Pasteur, UMR CNRS 2001, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Marc Monot
- Biomics platform, C2RT, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Florent Collas
- Wageningen Food and Biobased Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Isabelle Martin-Verstraete
- Laboratoire Pathogènese des Bactéries Anaérobies, Institut Pasteur, UMR CNRS 2001, Université de Paris, Paris, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
| | - John van der Oost
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Servé W. M. Kengen
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
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16
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Jiménez-Bonilla P, Zhang J, Wang Y, Blersch D, de-Bashan LE, Guo L, Wang Y. Enhancing the tolerance of Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum to lignocellulosic-biomass-derived inhibitors for efficient biobutanol production by overexpressing efflux pumps genes from Pseudomonas putida. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2020; 312:123532. [PMID: 32502888 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Furan aldehydes and phenolic compounds generated during biomass pretreatment can inhibit fermentation for biofuel production. Efflux pumps actively transport small molecules out of cells, thus sustaining normal microbial metabolism. Pseudomonas putida has outstanding tolerance to butanol and other small molecules, and we hypothesize that its efflux pump could play essential roles for such robustness. Here, we overexpressed efflux pump genes from P. putida to enhance tolerance of hyper-butanol producing Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum to fermentation inhibitors. Interestingly, overexpression of the whole unit resulted in decreased tolerance, while overexpression of the subunit (srpB) alone exerted significant enhanced robustness of the strain. Compared to the control, the engineered strain had enhanced capability to grow in media containing 17% more furfural or 50% more ferulic acid, and produced ~14 g/L butanol (comparable to fermentation under regular conditions without inhibitors). This study provided valuable reference for boosting microbial robustness towards efficient biofuel production from lignocellulosic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Jiménez-Bonilla
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA; School of Chemistry, National University (UNA), Heredia, Costa Rica
| | - Jie Zhang
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Yifen Wang
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA; Center for Bioenergy and Bioproducts, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - David Blersch
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Luz-Estela de-Bashan
- Environmental Microbiology Group, Northwestern Center for Biological Research (CIBNOR), Av. IPN 195, La Paz, B.C.S. 23096, Mexico; The Bashan Institute of Science, 1730 Post Oak Court, Auburn, AL 36830, USA; Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Auburn University, 301 Funchess Hall, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Liang Guo
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA; Center for Bioenergy and Bioproducts, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
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17
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Kotte AK, Severn O, Bean Z, Schwarz K, Minton NP, Winzer K. RRNPP-type quorum sensing affects solvent formation and sporulation in Clostridium acetobutylicum. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2020; 166:579-592. [PMID: 32375981 PMCID: PMC7376267 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The strictly anaerobic bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum is well known for its ability to convert sugars into organic acids and solvents, most notably the potential biofuel butanol. However, the regulation of its fermentation metabolism, in particular the shift from acid to solvent production, remains poorly understood. The aim of this study was to investigate whether cell-cell communication plays a role in controlling the timing of this shift or the extent of solvent formation. Analysis of the available C. acetobutylicum genome sequences revealed the presence of eight putative RRNPP-type quorum-sensing systems, here designated qssA to qssH, each consisting of an RRNPP-type regulator gene followed by a small open reading frame encoding a putative signalling peptide precursor. The identified regulator and signal peptide precursor genes were designated qsrA to qsrH and qspA to qspH, respectively. Triplicate regulator mutants were generated in strain ATCC 824 for each of the eight systems and screened for phenotypic changes. The qsrB mutants showed increased solvent formation during early solventogenesis and hence the QssB system was selected for further characterization. Overexpression of qsrB severely reduced solvent and endospore formation and this effect could be overcome by adding short synthetic peptides to the culture medium representing a specific region of the QspB signalling peptide precursor. In addition, overexpression of qspB increased the production of acetone and butanol and the initial (48 h) titre of heat-resistant endospores. Together, these findings establish a role for QssB quorum sensing in the regulation of early solventogenesis and sporulation in C. acetobutylicum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Kathrin Kotte
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
- Present address: Independent Commodity Intelligence Service, Bishopsgate, London, UK
| | - Oliver Severn
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
- Present address: Singer Instruments, Roadwater, Watchet, UK
| | - Zak Bean
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
- Present address: CHAIN Biotechnology Ltd, MediCity, Nottingham, UK
| | - Katrin Schwarz
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
- Present address: Azotic Technologies Ltd, BioCity, Nottingham, UK
| | - Nigel P. Minton
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Klaus Winzer
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, University Park, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
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18
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Feng J, Zong W, Wang P, Zhang ZT, Gu Y, Dougherty M, Borovok I, Wang Y. RRNPP-type quorum-sensing systems regulate solvent formation, sporulation and cell motility in Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2020; 13:84. [PMID: 32411297 PMCID: PMC7206700 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-020-01723-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum N1-4 (HMT) is a strictly anaerobic, spore-forming Gram-positive bacterium capable of hyper-butanol production through the well-known acetone-butanol-ethanol fermentation process. Recently, five putative RRNPP-type QSSs (here designated as QSS1 to QSS5) were predicted in this bacterial strain, each of which comprises a putative RRNPP-type regulator (QssR1 to QssR5) and a cognate signaling peptide precursor (QssP1 to QssP5). In addition, both proteins are encoded by the same operon. The functions of these multiple RRNPP-type QSSs are unknown. RESULTS To elucidate the function of multiple RRNPP-type QSSs as related to cell metabolism and solvent production in N1-4 (HMT), we constructed qssR-deficient mutants ΔR1, ΔR2, ΔR3 and ΔR5 through gene deletion using CRISPR-Cas9 and N1-4-dcas9-R4 (with the QssR4 expression suppressed using CRISPR-dCas9). We also constructed complementation strains by overexpressing the corresponding regulator gene. Based on systematic characterization, results indicate that QSS1, QSS2, QSS3, and QSS5 positively regulate the sol operon expression and thus solvent production, but they likely negatively regulate cell motility. Consequently, QSS4 might not directly regulate solvent production, but positively affect cell migration. In addition, QSS3 and QSS5 appear to positively regulate sporulation efficiency. CONCLUSIONS Our study provides the first insights into the roles of multiple RRNPP-type QSSs of C. saccharoperbutylacetonicum for the regulation of solvent production, cell motility, and sporulation. Results of this study expand our knowledge of how multiple paralogous QSSs are involved in the regulation of essential bacterial metabolism pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Feng
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, 350 Mell Street, Auburn, AL 36849 USA
| | - Wenming Zong
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, 350 Mell Street, Auburn, AL 36849 USA
- School of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036 China
| | - Pixiang Wang
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, 350 Mell Street, Auburn, AL 36849 USA
| | - Zhong-Tian Zhang
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, 350 Mell Street, Auburn, AL 36849 USA
| | - Yanyan Gu
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, 350 Mell Street, Auburn, AL 36849 USA
| | - Mark Dougherty
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, 350 Mell Street, Auburn, AL 36849 USA
| | - Ilya Borovok
- School of Molecular Cell Biology and Biotechnology, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 6997801 Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, 350 Mell Street, Auburn, AL 36849 USA
- Center for Bioenergy and Bioproducts, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 USA
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19
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Wu S, Liu J, Liu C, Yang A, Qiao J. Quorum sensing for population-level control of bacteria and potential therapeutic applications. Cell Mol Life Sci 2020; 77:1319-1343. [PMID: 31612240 PMCID: PMC11104945 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-019-03326-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Quorum sensing (QS), a microbial cell-to-cell communication process, dynamically regulates a variety of metabolism and physiological activities. In this review, we provide an update on QS applications based on autoinducer molecules including acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs), auto-inducing peptides (AIPs), autoinducer 2 (AI-2) and indole in population-level control of bacteria, and highlight the potential in developing novel clinical therapies. We summarize the development in the combination of various genetic circuits such as genetic oscillators, toggle switches and logic gates with AHL-based QS devices in Gram-negative bacteria. An overview is then offered to the state-of-the-art of much less researched applications of AIP-based QS devices with Gram-positive bacteria, followed by a review of the applications of AI-2 and indole based QS for interspecies communication among microbial communities. Building on these general-purpose QS applications, we highlight the disruptions and manipulations of QS devices as potential clinical therapies for diseases caused by biofilm formation, antibiotic resistance and the phage invasion. The last part of reviewed literature is dedicated to mathematical modelling for QS applications. Finally, the key challenges and future perspectives of QS applications in monoclonal synthetic biology and synthetic ecology are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengbo Wu
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Jiaheng Liu
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin, 300072, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, Ministry of Education (Tianjin University), Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Chunjiang Liu
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Aidong Yang
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3PJ, UK.
| | - Jianjun Qiao
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China.
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin, 300072, China.
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, Ministry of Education (Tianjin University), Tianjin, 300072, China.
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20
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Tobias NJ, Brehm J, Kresovic D, Brameyer S, Bode HB, Heermann R. New Vocabulary for Bacterial Communication. Chembiochem 2020; 21:759-768. [PMID: 31709676 PMCID: PMC7154725 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Quorum sensing (QS) is widely accepted as a procedure that bacteria use to converse. However, prevailing thinking places acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs) at the forefront of this communication pathway in Gram-negative bacteria. With the advent of high-throughput genomics and the subsequent influx of bacterial genomes, bioinformatics analysis has determined that the genes encoding AHL biosynthesis, originally discovered to be indispensable for QS (LuxI-like proteins and homologues), are often absent in QS-capable bacteria. Instead, the sensing protein (LuxR-like proteins) is present with an apparent inability to produce any outgoing AHL signal. Recently, several signals for these LuxR solos have been identified. Herein, advances in the field of QS are discussed, with a particular focus on recent research in the field of bacterial cell-cell communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J. Tobias
- Fachbereich BiowissenschaftenMerck-Stiftungsprofessur für Molekulare BiotechnologieGoethe-Universität FrankfurtMax-von-Laue-Strasse 960438Frankfurt am MainGermany
- LOEWE Center for Translational Biodiversity in Genomics (TBG)Frankfurt am MainGermany
| | - Jannis Brehm
- Institut für Molekulare PhysiologieMikrobiologie und WeinforschungJohannes-Gutenberg-Universität MainzJohann-Joachim-Becher-Weg 1355128MainzGermany
| | - Darko Kresovic
- Fachbereich BiowissenschaftenMerck-Stiftungsprofessur für Molekulare BiotechnologieGoethe-Universität FrankfurtMax-von-Laue-Strasse 960438Frankfurt am MainGermany
| | - Sophie Brameyer
- Biozentrum, Bereich MikrobiologieLudwig-Maximilians-Universität MünchenGroßhaderner Strasse 2–482152MartinsriedGermany
| | - Helge B. Bode
- Fachbereich BiowissenschaftenMerck-Stiftungsprofessur für Molekulare BiotechnologieGoethe-Universität FrankfurtMax-von-Laue-Strasse 960438Frankfurt am MainGermany
- LOEWE Center for Translational Biodiversity in Genomics (TBG)Frankfurt am MainGermany
- Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (BMLS)Goethe-Universität FrankfurtMax-von-Laue-Strasse 1560438Frankfurt am MainGermany
| | - Ralf Heermann
- Institut für Molekulare PhysiologieMikrobiologie und WeinforschungJohannes-Gutenberg-Universität MainzJohann-Joachim-Becher-Weg 1355128MainzGermany
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21
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Sedlar K, Kolek J, Gruber M, Jureckova K, Branska B, Csaba G, Vasylkivska M, Zimmer R, Patakova P, Provaznik I. A transcriptional response of Clostridium beijerinckii NRRL B-598 to a butanol shock. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2019; 12:243. [PMID: 31636702 PMCID: PMC6790243 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-019-1584-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND One of the main obstacles preventing solventogenic clostridia from achieving higher yields in biofuel production is the toxicity of produced solvents. Unfortunately, regulatory mechanisms responsible for the shock response are poorly described on the transcriptomic level. Although the strain Clostridium beijerinckii NRRL B-598, a promising butanol producer, has been studied under different conditions in the past, its transcriptional response to a shock caused by butanol in the cultivation medium remains unknown. RESULTS In this paper, we present a transcriptional response of the strain during a butanol challenge, caused by the addition of butanol to the cultivation medium at the very end of the acidogenic phase, using RNA-Seq. We resequenced and reassembled the genome sequence of the strain and prepared novel genome and gene ontology annotation to provide the most accurate results. When compared to samples under standard cultivation conditions, samples gathered during butanol shock represented a well-distinguished group. Using reference samples gathered directly before the addition of butanol, we identified genes that were differentially expressed in butanol challenge samples. We determined clusters of 293 down-regulated and 301 up-regulated genes whose expression was affected by the cultivation conditions. Enriched term "RNA binding" among down-regulated genes corresponded to the downturn of translation and the cluster contained a group of small acid-soluble spore proteins. This explained phenotype of the culture that had not sporulated. On the other hand, up-regulated genes were characterized by the term "protein binding" which corresponded to activation of heat-shock proteins that were identified within this cluster. CONCLUSIONS We provided an overall transcriptional response of the strain C. beijerinckii NRRL B-598 to butanol shock, supplemented by auxiliary technologies, including high-pressure liquid chromatography and flow cytometry, to capture the corresponding phenotypic response. We identified genes whose regulation was affected by the addition of butanol to the cultivation medium and inferred related molecular functions that were significantly influenced. Additionally, using high-quality genome assembly and custom-made gene ontology annotation, we demonstrated that this settled terminology, widely used for the analysis of model organisms, could also be applied to non-model organisms and for research in the field of biofuels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karel Sedlar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 616 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Kolek
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Markus Gruber
- Institut für Informatik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Amalienstraße 17, 80333 Munich, Germany
| | - Katerina Jureckova
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 616 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Branska
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Gergely Csaba
- Institut für Informatik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Amalienstraße 17, 80333 Munich, Germany
| | - Maryna Vasylkivska
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Ralf Zimmer
- Institut für Informatik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Amalienstraße 17, 80333 Munich, Germany
| | - Petra Patakova
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Ivo Provaznik
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 12, 616 00 Brno, Czech Republic
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22
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Wen Z, Lu M, Ledesma-Amaro R, Li Q, Jin M, Yang S. TargeTron Technology Applicable in Solventogenic Clostridia: Revisiting 12 Years' Advances. Biotechnol J 2019; 15:e1900284. [PMID: 31475782 DOI: 10.1002/biot.201900284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium has great potential in industrial application and medical research. But low DNA repair capacity and plasmids transformation efficiency severely delay development and application of genetic tools based on homologous recombination (HR). TargeTron is a gene editing technique dependent on the mobility of group II introns, rather than homologous recombination, which makes it very suitable for gene disruption of Clostridium. The application of TargeTron technology in solventogenic Clostridium is academically reported in 2007 and this tool has been introduced in various clostridia as it is easy to operate, time saving, and reliable. TargeTron has made great progress in solventogenic Clostridium in the aspects of acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentation pathway modification, important functional genes identification, and xylose metabolic pathway analysis and reconstruction. In the review, 12 years' advances of TargeTron technology applicable in solventogenic Clostridium, including its principle, technical characteristics, application, and efforts to expand its capabilities, or to avoid potential drawbacks, are revisisted. Some other technologies as putative competitors or collaborators are also discussed. It is believed that TargeTron combined with CRISPR/Cas-assisted gene/base editing and gene-expression regulation system will make a better future for clostridial genetic modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Wen
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science & Technology, Nanjing, 210094, China
| | - Minrui Lu
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science & Technology, Nanjing, 210094, China
| | | | - Qi Li
- College of Life Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Longquan, Chengdu, 610101, China
| | - Mingjie Jin
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science & Technology, Nanjing, 210094, China
| | - Sheng Yang
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China.,Huzhou Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Shanghai Institutes of Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhejiang, 313000, China
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Koo T, Lee J, Hwang S. Development of an interspecies interaction model: An experiment on Clostridium cadaveris and Clostridium sporogenes under anaerobic condition. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2019; 237:247-254. [PMID: 30798043 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.02.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2018] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The specific primer and probe sets for quantifying Clostridium cadaveris and Clostridium sporogenes using a quantitative real-time PCR were designed. Each primer and probe set detected only the target species very specifically. The two species were cultivated in pure and mixed culture in batch mode with glucose as the only carbon source. The designed QPCR sets were used successfully to estimate the biokinetic parameters of each species in pure culture: i.e., maximum specific growth rate μmax, half saturation concentration Ks, growth yield Y, and decay coefficient Kd. of C. cadaveris and C. sporogenes were 0.311 ± 0.020 and 0.360 ± 0.019 h-1, 4.241 ± 1.653 and 5.171 ± 1.097 g/L, 0.301 ± 0.065 and 0.199 ± 0.037 1011 copies/g, 0.005 ± 0.043 and 0.009 ± 0.025 h-1, respectively. The effect of interspecific interaction of on substrate consumption rate and microbial growth was evaluated using mixed culture; curve fitting and comparison of coefficients detected increase in substrate consumption rate but decrease in microbial growth rate; these results imply interspecific interaction effect. A new model was of the interspecific interaction was developed, with focus on accuracy, realism, simplicity and biological significance. This interspecific interaction model may be extended to more-complex bioprocesses such as biological wastewater treatment systems and anaerobic digestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taewoan Koo
- Division of Environmental Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, Gyeongbuk, South Korea
| | - Joonyeob Lee
- Division of Environmental Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, Gyeongbuk, South Korea
| | - Seokhwan Hwang
- Division of Environmental Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, Gyeongbuk, South Korea.
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Acidogenesis, solventogenesis, metabolic stress response and life cycle changes in Clostridium beijerinckii NRRL B-598 at the transcriptomic level. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1371. [PMID: 30718562 PMCID: PMC6362236 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37679-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium beijerinckii NRRL B-598 is a sporulating, butanol and hydrogen producing strain that utilizes carbohydrates by the acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentative pathway. The pathway consists of two metabolic phases, acidogenesis and solventogenesis, from which the latter one can be coupled with sporulation. Thorough transcriptomic profiling during a complete life cycle and both metabolic phases completed with flow cytometry, microscopy and a metabolites analysis helped to find out key genes involved in particular cellular events. The description of genes/operons that are closely involved in metabolism or the cell cycle is a necessary condition for metabolic engineering of the strain and will be valuable for all C. beijerinckii strains and other Clostridial species. The study focused on glucose transport and catabolism, hydrogen formation, metabolic stress response, binary fission, motility/chemotaxis and sporulation, which resulted in the composition of the unique image reflecting clostridial population changes. Surprisingly, the main change in expression of individual genes was coupled with the sporulation start and not with the transition from acidogenic to solventogenic metabolism. As expected, solvents formation started at pH decrease and the accumulation of butyric and acetic acids in the cultivation medium.
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25
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Mull RW, Harrington A, Sanchez LA, Tal-Gan Y. Cyclic Peptides that Govern Signal Transduction Pathways: From Prokaryotes to Multi-Cellular Organisms. Curr Top Med Chem 2018; 18:625-644. [PMID: 29773060 DOI: 10.2174/1568026618666180518090705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic peptide scaffolds are key components of signal transduction pathways in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms since they act as chemical messengers that activate or inhibit specific cognate receptors. In prokaryotic organisms these peptides are utilized in non-essential pathways, such as quorum sensing, that are responsible for virulence and pathogenicity. In the more evolved eukaryotic systems, cyclic peptide hormones play a key role in the regulation of the overall function of multicellular organisms, mainly through the endocrine system. This review will highlight several prokaryote and eukaryote systems that use cyclic peptides as their primary signals and the potential associated with utilizing these scaffolds for the discovery of novel therapeutics for a wide range of diseases and illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan W Mull
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, United States
| | - Anthony Harrington
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, United States
| | - Lucia A Sanchez
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, United States
| | - Yftah Tal-Gan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, United States
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26
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Characterization of quorum sensing system in Clostridium chauvoei. Anaerobe 2018; 52:92-99. [PMID: 29928976 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2018.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium chauvoei causes fatal black quarter infection in cattle and buffaloes. The quorum sensing (QS) system, a bacterial cell to cell communication process, of the pathogen was characterized in the current study. The results indicated that C. chauvoei lacked luxS (autoinducer-2) based quorum sensing as detected by the sensor strain Vibrio harveyi BB170. This was supported by absence of luxS gene in C. chauvoei genome. However, the genomic analysis indicated the presence of agrBD system in all three genomes of C. chauvoei available at the NCBI database. The AgrD, which synthesizes QS messenger auto-inducing peptide, was a 44 amino acid protein which shared 59% identity and 75% similarity with AgrD of C. perfringens strain 13 and 56% identity (20% coverage) with Staphylococcus aureus N315. The functional cysteine amino acid was conserved in all the strains. The genomic organisation further suggests the presence of diguanylate cyclase, a gene responsible for synthesis of secondary messenger cyclic di-GMP, at 3' immediate downstream of agrD gene. The real time expression analysis for agrD gene indicated that expression was better at 37 °C (1.9-3.7 fold increase) compared to a higher temperature of 40 °C. However, stable expression was observed at different growth stages (log and early stationary phase) with 0.8-1.4 fold changes in expression pattern. The results indicate the presence of a constitutively expressed agrBD quorum sensing system in C. chauvoei.
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Patakova P, Kolek J, Sedlar K, Koscova P, Branska B, Kupkova K, Paulova L, Provaznik I. Comparative analysis of high butanol tolerance and production in clostridia. Biotechnol Adv 2018; 36:721-738. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Revised: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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28
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Branska B, Pechacova Z, Kolek J, Vasylkivska M, Patakova P. Flow cytometry analysis of Clostridium beijerinckii NRRL B-598 populations exhibiting different phenotypes induced by changes in cultivation conditions. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2018; 11:99. [PMID: 29632557 PMCID: PMC5887253 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-018-1096-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Biobutanol production by clostridia via the acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) pathway is a promising future technology in bioenergetics , but identifying key regulatory mechanisms for this pathway is essential in order to construct industrially relevant strains with high tolerance and productivity. We have applied flow cytometric analysis to C. beijerinckii NRRL B-598 and carried out comparative screening of physiological changes in terms of viability under different cultivation conditions to determine its dependence on particular stages of the life cycle and the concentration of butanol. RESULTS Dual staining by propidium iodide (PI) and carboxyfluorescein diacetate (CFDA) provided separation of cells into four subpopulations with different abilities to take up PI and cleave CFDA, reflecting different physiological states. The development of a staining pattern during ABE fermentation showed an apparent decline in viability, starting at the pH shift and onset of solventogenesis, although an appreciable proportion of cells continued to proliferate. This was observed for sporulating as well as non-sporulating phenotypes at low solvent concentrations, suggesting that the increase in percentage of inactive cells was not a result of solvent toxicity or a transition from vegetative to sporulating stages. Additionally, the sporulating phenotype was challenged with butanol and cultivation with a lower starting pH was performed; in both these experiments similar trends were obtained-viability declined after the pH breakpoint, independent of the actual butanol concentration in the medium. Production characteristics of both sporulating and non-sporulating phenotypes were comparable, showing that in C. beijerinckii NRRL B-598, solventogenesis was not conditional on sporulation. CONCLUSION We have shown that the decline in C. beijerinckii NRRL B-598 culture viability during ABE fermentation was not only the result of accumulated toxic metabolites, but might also be associated with a special survival strategy triggered by pH change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Branska
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Zora Pechacova
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Kolek
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Maryna Vasylkivska
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Patakova
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technicka 5, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
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The industrial anaerobe Clostridium acetobutylicum uses polyketides to regulate cellular differentiation. Nat Commun 2017; 8:1514. [PMID: 29138399 PMCID: PMC5686105 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01809-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyketides are an important class of bioactive small molecules valued not only for their diverse therapeutic applications, but also for their role in controlling interesting biological phenotypes in their producing organisms. While numerous polyketides are known to be derived from aerobic organisms, only a single family of polyketides has been identified from anaerobic organisms. Here we uncover a family of polyketides native to the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum, an organism well-known for its historical use as an industrial producer of the organic solvents acetone, butanol, and ethanol. Through mutational analysis and chemical complementation assays, we demonstrate that these polyketides act as chemical triggers of sporulation and granulose accumulation in this strain. This study represents a significant addition to the body of work demonstrating the existence and importance of polyketides in anaerobes, and showcases a strategy of manipulating the secondary metabolism of an organism to improve traits relevant for industrial applications. Polyketides are secondary metabolites mainly found in aerobic organisms with wide applications in medicine and agriculture. Here, the authors uncover new polyketides native to the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum and show their role in triggering sporulation and granulose accumulation.
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30
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Transcriptomic profiles of Clostridium ljungdahlii during lithotrophic growth with syngas or H 2 and CO 2 compared to organotrophic growth with fructose. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13135. [PMID: 29030620 PMCID: PMC5640608 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-12712-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium ljungdahlii derives energy by lithotrophic and organotrophic acetogenesis. C. ljungdahlii was grown organotrophically with fructose and also lithotrophically, either with syngas - a gas mixture containing hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and carbon monoxide (CO), or with H2 and CO2. Gene expression was compared quantitatively by microarrays using RNA extracted from all three conditions. Gene expression with fructose and with H2/CO2 was compared by RNA-Seq. Upregulated genes with both syngas and H2/CO2 (compared to fructose) point to the urea cycle, uptake and degradation of peptides and amino acids, response to sulfur starvation, potentially NADPH-producing pathways involving (S)-malate and ornithine, quorum sensing, sporulation, and cell wall remodeling, suggesting a global and multicellular response to lithotrophic conditions. With syngas, the upregulated (R)-lactate dehydrogenase gene represents a route of electron transfer from ferredoxin to NAD. With H2/CO2, flavodoxin and histidine biosynthesis genes were upregulated. Downregulated genes corresponded to an intracytoplasmic microcompartment for disposal of methylglyoxal, a toxic byproduct of glycolysis, as 1-propanol. Several cytoplasmic and membrane-associated redox-active protein genes were differentially regulated. The transcriptomic profiles of C. ljungdahlii in lithotrophic and organotrophic growth modes indicate large-scale physiological and metabolic differences, observations that may guide biofuel and commodity chemical production with this species.
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31
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Xue C, Zhao J, Chen L, Yang ST, Bai F. Recent advances and state-of-the-art strategies in strain and process engineering for biobutanol production by Clostridium acetobutylicum. Biotechnol Adv 2017; 35:310-322. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 01/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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32
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Verbeke TJ, Giannone RJ, Klingeman DM, Engle NL, Rydzak T, Guss AM, Tschaplinski TJ, Brown SD, Hettich RL, Elkins JG. Pentose sugars inhibit metabolism and increase expression of an AgrD-type cyclic pentapeptide in Clostridium thermocellum. Sci Rep 2017; 7:43355. [PMID: 28230109 PMCID: PMC5322536 DOI: 10.1038/srep43355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium thermocellum could potentially be used as a microbial biocatalyst to produce renewable fuels directly from lignocellulosic biomass due to its ability to rapidly solubilize plant cell walls. While the organism readily ferments sugars derived from cellulose, pentose sugars from xylan are not metabolized. Here, we show that non-fermentable pentoses inhibit growth and end-product formation during fermentation of cellulose-derived sugars. Metabolomic experiments confirmed that xylose is transported intracellularly and reduced to the dead-end metabolite xylitol. Comparative RNA-seq analysis of xylose-inhibited cultures revealed several up-regulated genes potentially involved in pentose transport and metabolism, which were targeted for disruption. Deletion of the ATP-dependent transporter, CbpD partially alleviated xylose inhibition. A putative xylitol dehydrogenase, encoded by Clo1313_0076, was also deleted resulting in decreased total xylitol production and yield by 41% and 46%, respectively. Finally, xylose-induced inhibition corresponds with the up-regulation and biogenesis of a cyclical AgrD-type, pentapeptide. Medium supplementation with the mature cyclical pentapeptide also inhibits bacterial growth. Together, these findings provide new foundational insights needed for engineering improved pentose utilizing strains of C. thermocellum and reveal the first functional Agr-type cyclic peptide to be produced by a thermophilic member of the Firmicutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobin J Verbeke
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.,Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Richard J Giannone
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.,Chemical Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Dawn M Klingeman
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.,Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Nancy L Engle
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.,Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Thomas Rydzak
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.,Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Adam M Guss
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.,Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Timothy J Tschaplinski
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.,Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Steven D Brown
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.,Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Robert L Hettich
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.,Chemical Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - James G Elkins
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA.,Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
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33
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Yoo M, Croux C, Meynial-Salles I, Soucaille P. Metabolic flexibility of a butyrate pathway mutant of Clostridium acetobutylicum. Metab Eng 2017; 40:138-147. [PMID: 28159643 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2017.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Revised: 12/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Clostridium acetobutylicum possesses two homologous buk genes, buk (or buk1) and buk2, which encode butyrate kinases involved in the last step of butyrate formation. To investigate the contribution of buk in detail, an in-frame deletion mutant was constructed. However, in all the Δbuk mutants obtained, partial deletions of the upstream ptb gene were observed, and low phosphotransbutyrylase and butyrate kinase activities were measured. This demonstrates that i) buk (CA_C3075) is the key butyrate kinase-encoding gene and that buk2 (CA_C1660) that is poorly transcribed only plays a minor role; and ii) strongly suggests that a Δbuk mutant is not viable if the ptb gene is not also inactivated, probably due to the accumulation of butyryl-phosphate, which might be toxic for the cell. One of the ΔbukΔptb mutants was subjected to quantitative transcriptomic (mRNA molecules/cell) and fluxomic analyses in acidogenic, solventogenic and alcohologenic chemostat cultures. In addition to the low butyrate production, drastic changes in metabolic fluxes were also observed for the mutant: i) under acidogenic conditions, the primary metabolite was butanol and a new metabolite, 2-hydroxy-valerate, was produced ii) under solventogenesis, 58% increased butanol production was obtained compared to the control strain under the same conditions, and a very high yield of butanol formation (0.3gg-1) was reached; and iii) under alcohologenesis, the major product was lactate. Furthermore, at the transcriptional level, adhE2, which encodes an aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase and is known to be a gene specifically expressed in alcohologenesis, was surprisingly highly expressed in all metabolic states in the mutant. The results presented here not only support the key roles of buk and ptb in butyrate formation but also highlight the metabolic flexibility of C. acetobutylicum in response to genetic alteration of its primary metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minyeong Yoo
- Université de Toulouse, INSA, UPS, INP, LISBP, Toulouse, France; INRA, UMR792, Toulouse, France; CNRS, UMR5504, Toulouse, France.
| | - Christian Croux
- Université de Toulouse, INSA, UPS, INP, LISBP, Toulouse, France; INRA, UMR792, Toulouse, France; CNRS, UMR5504, Toulouse, France.
| | - Isabelle Meynial-Salles
- Université de Toulouse, INSA, UPS, INP, LISBP, Toulouse, France; INRA, UMR792, Toulouse, France; CNRS, UMR5504, Toulouse, France.
| | - Philippe Soucaille
- Université de Toulouse, INSA, UPS, INP, LISBP, Toulouse, France; INRA, UMR792, Toulouse, France; CNRS, UMR5504, Toulouse, France; Metabolic Explorer, Biopôle Clermont-Limagne, Saint Beauzire, France.
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34
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Towards improved butanol production through targeted genetic modification of Clostridium pasteurianum. Metab Eng 2017; 40:124-137. [PMID: 28119139 PMCID: PMC5367854 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2017.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Revised: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Declining fossil fuel reserves, coupled with environmental concerns over their continued extraction and exploitation have led to strenuous efforts to identify renewable routes to energy and fuels. One attractive option is to convert glycerol, a by-product of the biodiesel industry, into n-butanol, an industrially important chemical and potential liquid transportation fuel, using Clostridium pasteurianum. Under certain growth conditions this Clostridium species has been shown to predominantly produce n-butanol, together with ethanol and 1,3-propanediol, when grown on glycerol. Further increases in the yields of n-butanol produced by C. pasteurianum could be accomplished through rational metabolic engineering of the strain. Accordingly, in the current report we have developed and exemplified a robust tool kit for the metabolic engineering of C. pasteurianum and used the system to make the first reported in-frame deletion mutants of pivotal genes involved in solvent production, namely hydA (hydrogenase), rex (Redox response regulator) and dhaBCE (glycerol dehydratase). We were, for the first time in C. pasteurianum, able to eliminate 1,3-propanediol synthesis and demonstrate its production was essential for growth on glycerol as a carbon source. Inactivation of both rex and hydA resulted in increased n-butanol titres, representing the first steps towards improving the utilisation of C. pasteurianum as a chassis for the industrial production of this important chemical.
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35
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Zetzmann M, Sánchez-Kopper A, Waidmann MS, Blombach B, Riedel CU. Identification of the agr Peptide of Listeria monocytogenes. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:989. [PMID: 27446029 PMCID: PMC4916163 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) is an important food-borne human pathogen that is able to strive under a wide range of environmental conditions. Its accessory gene regulator (agr) system was shown to impact on biofilm formation and virulence and has been proposed as one of the regulatory mechanisms involved in adaptation to these changing environments. The Lm agr operon is homologous to the Staphylococcus aureus system, which includes an agrD-encoded autoinducing peptide that stimulates expression of the agr genes via the AgrCA two-component system and is required for regulation of target genes. The aim of the present study was to identify the native autoinducing peptide (AIP) of Lm using a luciferase reporter system in wildtype and agrD deficient strains, rational design of synthetic peptides and mass spectrometry. Upon deletion of agrD, luciferase reporter activity driven by the PII promoter of the agr operon was completely abolished and this defect was restored by co-cultivation of the agrD-negative reporter strain with a producer strain. Based on the sequence and structures of known AIPs of other organisms, a set of potential Lm AIPs was designed and tested for PII-activation. This led to the identification of a cyclic pentapeptide that was able to induce PII-driven luciferase reporter activity and restore defective invasion of the agrD deletion mutant into Caco-2 cells. Analysis of supernatants of a recombinant Escherichia coli strain expressing AgrBD identified a peptide identical in mass and charge to the cyclic pentapeptide. The Lm agr system is specific for this pentapeptide since the AIP of Lactobacillus plantarum, which also is a pentapeptide yet with different amino acid sequence, did not induce PII activity. In summary, the presented results provide further evidence for the hypothesis that the agrD gene of Lm encodes a secreted AIP responsible for autoregulation of the agr system of Lm. Additionally, the structure of the native Lm AIP was identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Zetzmann
- Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Ulm Ulm, Germany
| | - Andrés Sánchez-Kopper
- Institute of Biochemical Engineering, University of StuttgartStuttgart, Germany; CEQIATEC, Costa Rica Institute of TechnologyCartago, Costa Rica
| | - Mark S Waidmann
- Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Ulm Ulm, Germany
| | - Bastian Blombach
- Institute of Biochemical Engineering, University of Stuttgart Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Christian U Riedel
- Institute of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Ulm Ulm, Germany
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Raut MP, Couto N, Pham TK, Evans C, Noirel J, Wright PC. Quantitative proteomic analysis of the influence of lignin on biofuel production by Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2016; 9:113. [PMID: 27247624 PMCID: PMC4886415 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-016-0523-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clostridium acetobutylicum has been a focus of research because of its ability to produce high-value compounds that can be used as biofuels. Lignocellulose is a promising feedstock, but the lignin-cellulose-hemicellulose biomass complex requires chemical pre-treatment to yield fermentable saccharides, including cellulose-derived cellobiose, prior to bioproduction of acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) and hydrogen. Fermentation capability is limited by lignin and thus process optimization requires knowledge of lignin inhibition. The effects of lignin on cellular metabolism were evaluated for C. acetobutylicum grown on medium containing either cellobiose only or cellobiose plus lignin. Microscopy, gas chromatography and 8-plex iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomic technologies were applied to interrogate the effect of lignin on cellular morphology, fermentation and the proteome. RESULTS Our results demonstrate that C. acetobutylicum has reduced performance for solvent production when lignin is present in the medium. Medium supplemented with 1 g L(-1) of lignin led to delay and decreased solvents production (ethanol; 0.47 g L(-1) for cellobiose and 0.27 g L(-1) for cellobiose plus lignin and butanol; 0.13 g L(-1) for cellobiose and 0.04 g L(-1) for cellobiose plus lignin) at 20 and 48 h, respectively, resulting in the accumulation of acetic acid and butyric acid. Of 583 identified proteins (FDR < 1 %), 328 proteins were quantified with at least two unique peptides. Up- or down-regulation of protein expression was determined by comparison of exponential and stationary phases of cellobiose in the presence and absence of lignin. Of relevance, glycolysis and fermentative pathways were mostly down-regulated, during exponential and stationary growth phases in presence of lignin. Moreover, proteins involved in DNA repair, transcription/translation and GTP/ATP-dependent activities were also significantly affected and these changes were associated with altered cell morphology. CONCLUSIONS This is the first comprehensive analysis of the cellular responses of C. acetobutylicum to lignin at metabolic and physiological levels. These data will enable targeted metabolic engineering strategies to optimize biofuel production from biomass by overcoming limitations imposed by the presence of lignin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahendra P. Raut
- />The ChELSI Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD UK
| | - Narciso Couto
- />The ChELSI Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD UK
| | - Trong K. Pham
- />The ChELSI Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD UK
| | - Caroline Evans
- />The ChELSI Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD UK
| | - Josselin Noirel
- />The ChELSI Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD UK
- />Chaire de Bioinformatique, LGBA, Conservatoire National Des Arts Et Métiers, 75003 Paris, France
| | - Phillip C. Wright
- />The ChELSI Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD UK
- />School of Chemical Engineering and Advanced Materials, Faculty of Science, Agriculture & Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU UK
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Martin-Verstraete I, Peltier J, Dupuy B. The Regulatory Networks That Control Clostridium difficile Toxin Synthesis. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:E153. [PMID: 27187475 PMCID: PMC4885068 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8050153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2016] [Revised: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenic clostridia cause many human and animal diseases, which typically arise as a consequence of the production of potent exotoxins. Among the enterotoxic clostridia, Clostridium difficile is the main causative agent of nosocomial intestinal infections in adults with a compromised gut microbiota caused by antibiotic treatment. The symptoms of C. difficile infection are essentially caused by the production of two exotoxins: TcdA and TcdB. Moreover, for severe forms of disease, the spectrum of diseases caused by C. difficile has also been correlated to the levels of toxins that are produced during host infection. This observation strengthened the idea that the regulation of toxin synthesis is an important part of C. difficile pathogenesis. This review summarizes our current knowledge about the regulators and sigma factors that have been reported to control toxin gene expression in response to several environmental signals and stresses, including the availability of certain carbon sources and amino acids, or to signaling molecules, such as the autoinducing peptides of quorum sensing systems. The overlapping regulation of key metabolic pathways and toxin synthesis strongly suggests that toxin production is a complex response that is triggered by bacteria in response to particular states of nutrient availability during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Martin-Verstraete
- Laboratoire Pathogenèse des Bactéries Anaérobes, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Dr Roux Paris, Paris 75015, France.
- UFR Sciences du vivant, University Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Cellule Pasteur, Paris 75015, France.
| | - Johann Peltier
- Laboratoire Pathogenèse des Bactéries Anaérobes, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Dr Roux Paris, Paris 75015, France.
| | - Bruno Dupuy
- Laboratoire Pathogenèse des Bactéries Anaérobes, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Dr Roux Paris, Paris 75015, France.
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Yoo M, Croux C, Meynial-Salles I, Soucaille P. Elucidation of the roles of adhE1 and adhE2 in the primary metabolism of Clostridium acetobutylicum by combining in-frame gene deletion and a quantitative system-scale approach. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2016; 9:92. [PMID: 27118994 PMCID: PMC4845359 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-016-0507-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clostridium acetobutylicum possesses two homologous adhE genes, adhE1 and adhE2, which have been proposed to be responsible for butanol production in solventogenic and alcohologenic cultures, respectively. To investigate their contributions in detail, in-frame deletion mutants of each gene were constructed and subjected to quantitative transcriptomic (mRNA molecules/cell) and fluxomic analyses in acidogenic, solventogenic, and alcohologenic chemostat cultures. RESULTS Under solventogenesis, compared to the control strain, only ΔadhE1 mutant exhibited significant changes showing decreased butanol production and transcriptional expression changes in numerous genes. In particular, adhE2 was over expressed (126-fold); thus, AdhE2 can partially replace AdhE1 for butanol production (more than 30 % of the in vivo butanol flux) under solventogenesis. Under alcohologenesis, only ΔadhE2 mutant exhibited striking changes in gene expression and metabolic fluxes, and butanol production was completely lost. Therefore, it was demonstrated that AdhE2 is essential for butanol production and thus metabolic fluxes were redirected toward butyrate formation. Under acidogenesis, metabolic fluxes were not significantly changed in both mutants except the complete loss of butanol formation in ΔadhE2, but numerous changes in gene expression were observed. Furthermore, most of the significantly up- or down-regulated genes under this condition showed the same pattern of change in both mutants. CONCLUSIONS This quantitative system-scale analysis confirms the proposed roles of AdhE1 and AdhE2 in butanol formation that AdhE1 is the key enzyme under solventogenesis, whereas AdhE2 is the key enzyme for butanol formation under acidogenesis and alcohologenesis. Our study also highlights the metabolic flexibility of C. acetobutylicum to genetic alterations of its primary metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minyeong Yoo
- />INSA, UPS, INP, LISBP, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
- />INRA, UMR792, Toulouse, France
- />CNRS, UMR5504, Toulouse, France
| | - Christian Croux
- />INSA, UPS, INP, LISBP, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
- />INRA, UMR792, Toulouse, France
- />CNRS, UMR5504, Toulouse, France
| | - Isabelle Meynial-Salles
- />INSA, UPS, INP, LISBP, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
- />INRA, UMR792, Toulouse, France
- />CNRS, UMR5504, Toulouse, France
| | - Philippe Soucaille
- />INSA, UPS, INP, LISBP, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
- />INRA, UMR792, Toulouse, France
- />CNRS, UMR5504, Toulouse, France
- />Metabolic Explorer, Biopôle Clermont-Limagne, Saint Beauzire, France
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Edwards AN, Tamayo R, McBride SM. A novel regulator controls Clostridium difficile sporulation, motility and toxin production. Mol Microbiol 2016; 100:954-71. [PMID: 26915493 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Clostridium difficile is an anaerobic pathogen that forms spores which promote survival in the environment and transmission to new hosts. The regulatory pathways by which C. difficile initiates spore formation are poorly understood. We identified two factors with limited similarity to the Rap sporulation proteins of other spore-forming bacteria. In this study, we show that disruption of the gene CD3668 reduces sporulation and increases toxin production and motility. This mutant was more virulent and exhibited increased toxin gene expression in the hamster model of infection. Based on these phenotypes, we have renamed this locus rstA, for regulator of sporulation and toxins. Our data demonstrate that RstA is a bifunctional protein that upregulates sporulation through an unidentified pathway and represses motility and toxin production by influencing sigD transcription. Conserved RstA orthologs are present in other pathogenic and industrial Clostridium species and may represent a key regulatory protein controlling clostridial sporulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrianne N Edwards
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Rita Tamayo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Shonna M McBride
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Ehsaan M, Kuit W, Zhang Y, Cartman ST, Heap JT, Winzer K, Minton NP. Mutant generation by allelic exchange and genome resequencing of the biobutanol organism Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2016; 9:4. [PMID: 26732067 PMCID: PMC4700727 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-015-0410-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clostridium acetobutylicum represents a paradigm chassis for the industrial production of the biofuel biobutanol and a focus for metabolic engineering. We have previously developed procedures for the creation of in-frame, marker-less deletion mutants in the pathogen Clostridium difficile based on the use of pyrE and codA genes as counter selection markers. In the current study we sought to test their suitability for use in C. acetobutylicum. RESULTS Both systems readily allowed the isolation of in-frame deletions of the C. acetobutylicum ATCC 824 spo0A and the cac824I genes, leading to a sporulation minus phenotype and improved transformation, respectively. The pyrE-based system was additionally used to inactivate a putative glycogen synthase (CA_C2239, glgA) and the pSOL1 amylase gene (CA_P0168, amyP), leading to lack of production of granulose and amylase, respectively. Their isolation provided the opportunity to make use of one of the key pyrE system advantages, the ability to rapidly complement mutations at appropriate gene dosages in the genome. In both cases, their phenotypes were restored in terms of production of granulose (glgA) and amylase (amyP). Genome re-sequencing of the ATCC 824 COSMIC consortium laboratory strain used revealed the presence of 177 SNVs and 49 Indels, including a 4916-bp deletion in the pSOL1 megaplasmid. A total of 175 SNVs and 48 Indels were subsequently shown to be present in an 824 strain re-acquired (Nov 2011) from the ATCC and are, therefore, most likely errors in the published genome sequence, NC_003030 (chromosome) and NC_001988 (pSOL1). CONCLUSIONS The codA or pyrE counter selection markers appear equally effective in isolating deletion mutants, but there is considerable merit in using a pyrE mutant as the host as, through the use of ACE (Allele-Coupled Exchange) vectors, mutants created (by whatever means) can be rapidly complemented concomitant with restoration of the pyrE allele. This avoids the phenotypic effects frequently observed with high copy number plasmids and dispenses with the need to add antibiotic to ensure plasmid retention. Our study also revealed a surprising number of errors in the ATCC 824 genome sequence, while at the same time emphasising the need to re-sequence commonly used laboratory strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Ehsaan
- />Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD UK
| | - Wouter Kuit
- />Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD UK
- />MicCell Bioservices B.V., Edisonstraat 101, 7006 RB Doetinchem, The Netherlands
| | - Ying Zhang
- />Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD UK
| | - Stephen T. Cartman
- />Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD UK
- />Intermediates Sustainability, INVISTA Intermediates, Wilton Centre, Redcar, TS10 4RF UK
| | - John T. Heap
- />Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD UK
- />Department of Life Sciences, Centre for Synthetic Biology and Innovation, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ UK
| | - Klaus Winzer
- />Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD UK
| | - Nigel P. Minton
- />Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD UK
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Liu D, Xu J, Wang Y, Chen Y, Shen X, Niu H, Guo T, Ying H. Comparative transcriptomic analysis of Clostridium acetobutylicum biofilm and planktonic cells. J Biotechnol 2016; 218:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2015.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Revised: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Ramió-Pujol S, Ganigué R, Bañeras L, Colprim J. How can alcohol production be improved in carboxydotrophic clostridia? Process Biochem 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2015.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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43
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Updates on the sporulation process in Clostridium species. Res Microbiol 2015; 166:225-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2014.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Revised: 12/07/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Rajput A, Gupta AK, Kumar M. Prediction and analysis of quorum sensing peptides based on sequence features. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0120066. [PMID: 25781990 PMCID: PMC4363368 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0120066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Quorum sensing peptides (QSPs) are the signaling molecules used by the Gram-positive bacteria in orchestrating cell-to-cell communication. In spite of their enormous importance in signaling process, their detailed bioinformatics analysis is lacking. In this study, QSPs and non-QSPs were examined according to their amino acid composition, residues position, motifs and physicochemical properties. Compositional analysis concludes that QSPs are enriched with aromatic residues like Trp, Tyr and Phe. At the N-terminal, Ser was a dominant residue at maximum positions, namely, first, second, third and fifth while Phe was a preferred residue at first, third and fifth positions from the C-terminal. A few motifs from QSPs were also extracted. Physicochemical properties like aromaticity, molecular weight and secondary structure were found to be distinguishing features of QSPs. Exploiting above properties, we have developed a Support Vector Machine (SVM) based predictive model. During 10-fold cross-validation, SVM achieves maximum accuracy of 93.00%, Mathew’s correlation coefficient (MCC) of 0.86 and Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) of 0.98 on the training/testing dataset (T200p+200n). Developed models performed equally well on the validation dataset (V20p+20n). The server also integrates several useful analysis tools like “QSMotifScan”, “ProtFrag”, “MutGen” and “PhysicoProp”. Our analysis reveals important characteristics of QSPs and on the basis of these unique features, we have developed a prediction algorithm “QSPpred” (freely available at: http://crdd.osdd.net/servers/qsppred).
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Affiliation(s)
- Akanksha Rajput
- Bioinformatics Centre, Institute of Microbial Technology, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Sector 39-A, Chandigarh-160036, India
| | - Amit Kumar Gupta
- Bioinformatics Centre, Institute of Microbial Technology, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Sector 39-A, Chandigarh-160036, India
| | - Manoj Kumar
- Bioinformatics Centre, Institute of Microbial Technology, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Sector 39-A, Chandigarh-160036, India
- * E-mail:
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Structure-function analysis of peptide signaling in the Clostridium perfringens Agr-like quorum sensing system. J Bacteriol 2015; 197:1807-18. [PMID: 25777675 DOI: 10.1128/jb.02614-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 03/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The accessory growth regulator (Agr)-like quorum sensing (QS) system of Clostridium perfringens controls the production of many toxins, including beta toxin (CPB). We previously showed (J. E. Vidal, M. Ma, J. Saputo, J. Garcia, F. A. Uzal, and B. A. McClane, Mol Microbiol 83:179-194, 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2011.07925.x) that an 8-amino-acid, AgrD-derived peptide named 8-R upregulates CPB production by this QS system. The current study synthesized a series of small signaling peptides corresponding to sequences within the C. perfringens AgrD polypeptide to investigate the C. perfringens autoinducing peptide (AIP) structure-function relationship. When both linear and cyclic ring forms of these peptides were added to agrB null mutants of type B strain CN1795 or type C strain CN3685, the 5-amino-acid peptides, whether in a linear or ring (thiolactone or lactone) form, induced better signaling (more CPB production) than peptide 8-R for both C. perfringens strains. The 5-mer thiolactone ring peptide induced faster signaling than the 5-mer linear peptide. Strain-related variations in sensing these peptides were detected, with CN3685 sensing the synthetic peptides more strongly than CN1795. Consistent with those synthetic peptide results, Transwell coculture experiments showed that CN3685 exquisitely senses native AIP signals from other isolates (types A, B, C, and D), while CN1795 barely senses even its own AIP. Finally, a C. perfringens AgrD sequence-based peptide with a 6-amino-acid thiolactone ring interfered with CPB production by several C. perfringens strains, suggesting potential therapeutic applications. These results indicate that AIP signaling sensitivity and responsiveness vary among C. perfringens strains and suggest C. perfringens prefers a 5-mer AIP to initiate Agr signaling. IMPORTANCE Clostridium perfringens possesses an Agr-like quorum sensing (QS) system that regulates virulence, sporulation, and toxin production. The current study used synthetic peptides to identify the structure-function relationship for the signaling peptide that activates this QS system. We found that a 5-mer peptide induces optimal signaling. Unlike other Agr systems, a linear version of this peptide (in addition to thiolactone and lactone versions) could induce signaling. Two C. perfringens strains were found to vary in sensitivity to these peptides. We also found that a 6-mer peptide can inhibit toxin production by some strains, suggesting therapeutic applications.
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Tan Y, Liu ZY, Liu Z, Zheng HJ, Li FL. Comparative transcriptome analysis between csrA-disruption Clostridium acetobutylicum and its parent strain. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2015; 11:1434-42. [DOI: 10.1039/c4mb00600c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
This study represented the first attempt to investigate the global regulation of CsrA through transcriptome analysis in Gram-positive bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Tan
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels
- Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Qingdao 266101
- China
| | - Zi-Yong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels
- Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Qingdao 266101
- China
| | - Zhen Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels
- Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Qingdao 266101
- China
| | - Hua-Jun Zheng
- Shanghai-MOST Key Laboratory of Health and Disease Genomics
- Chinese National Human Genome Center at Shanghai
- Shanghai 201203
- China
| | - Fu-Li Li
- Key Laboratory of Biofuels
- Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Qingdao 266101
- China
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Vivant AL, Garmyn D, Gal L, Piveteau P. The Agr communication system provides a benefit to the populations of Listeria monocytogenes in soil. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2014; 4:160. [PMID: 25414837 PMCID: PMC4222237 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2014.00160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we investigated whether the Agr communication system of the pathogenic bacterium Listeria monocytogenes was involved in adaptation and competitiveness in soil. Alteration of the ability to communicate, either by deletion of the gene coding the response regulator AgrA (response-negative mutant) or the signal pro-peptide AgrD (signal-negative mutant), did not affect population dynamics in soil that had been sterilized but survival was altered in biotic soil suggesting that the Agr system of L. monocytogenes was involved to face the complex soil biotic environment. This was confirmed by a set of co-incubation experiments. The fitness of the response-negative mutant was lower either in the presence or absence of the parental strain but the fitness of the signal-negative mutant depended on the strain with which it was co-incubated. The survival of the signal-negative mutant was higher when co-cultured with the parental strain than when co-cultured with the response-negative mutant. These results showed that the ability to respond to Agr communication provided a benefit to listerial cells to compete. These results might also indicate that in soil, the Agr system controls private goods rather than public goods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Laure Vivant
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche1347 Agroécologie, Université de BourgogneDijon, France
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Unités Mixtes de Recherche1347 AgroécologieDijon, France
| | - Dominique Garmyn
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche1347 Agroécologie, Université de BourgogneDijon, France
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Unités Mixtes de Recherche1347 AgroécologieDijon, France
| | - Laurent Gal
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Unités Mixtes de Recherche1347 AgroécologieDijon, France
- AgroSup Dijon, Unités Mixtes de Recherche1347 AgroécologieDijon, France
| | - Pascal Piveteau
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche1347 Agroécologie, Université de BourgogneDijon, France
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Unités Mixtes de Recherche1347 AgroécologieDijon, France
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Abstract
ABSTRACT
Clostridia are Gram-positive, anaerobic, endospore-forming bacteria, incapable of dissimilatory sulfate reduction. Comprising approximately 180 species, the genus
Clostridium
is one of the largest bacterial genera. Physiology is mostly devoted to acid production. Numerous pathways are known, such as the homoacetate fermentation by acetogens, the propionate fermentation by
Clostridium propionicum
, and the butyrate/butanol fermentation by
C. acetobutylicum
, a well-known solvent producer. Clostridia degrade sugars, alcohols, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, and polymers such as starch and cellulose. Energy conservation can be performed by substrate-level phosphorylation as well as by the generation of ion gradients. Endospore formation resembles the mechanism elucidated in
Bacillus
. Morphology, contents, and properties of spores are very similar to bacilli endospores. Sporulating clostridia usually form swollen mother cells and accumulate the storage substance granulose. However, clostridial sporulation differs by not employing the so-called phosphorelay. Initiation starts by direct phosphorylation of the master regulator Spo0A. The cascade of sporulation-specific sigma factors is again identical to what is known from
Bacillus
. The onset of sporulation is coupled in some species to either solvent (acetone, butanol) or toxin (e.g.,
C. perfringens
enterotoxin) formation. The germination of spores is often induced by various amino acids, often in combination with phosphate and sodium ions. In medical applications,
C. butyricum
spores are used as a
C. difficile
prophylaxis and as treatment against diarrhea. Recombinant spores are currently under investigation and testing as antitumor agents, because they germinate only in hypoxic tissues (i.e., tumor tissue), allowing precise targeting and direct killing of tumor cells.
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Shulami S, Shenker O, Langut Y, Lavid N, Gat O, Zaide G, Zehavi A, Sonenshein AL, Shoham Y. Multiple regulatory mechanisms control the expression of the Geobacillus stearothermophilus gene for extracellular xylanase. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:25957-75. [PMID: 25070894 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.592873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Geobacillus stearothermophilus T-6 produces a single extracellular xylanase (Xyn10A) capable of producing short, decorated xylo-oligosaccharides from the naturally branched polysaccharide, xylan. Gel retardation assays indicated that the master negative regulator, XylR, binds specifically to xylR operators in the promoters of xylose and xylan-utilization genes. This binding is efficiently prevented in vitro by xylose, the most likely molecular inducer. Expression of the extracellular xylanase is repressed in medium containing either glucose or casamino acids, suggesting that carbon catabolite repression plays a role in regulating xynA. The global transcriptional regulator CodY was shown to bind specifically to the xynA promoter region in vitro, suggesting that CodY is a repressor of xynA. The xynA gene is located next to an uncharacterized gene, xynX, that has similarity to the NIF3 (Ngg1p interacting factor 3)-like protein family. XynX binds specifically to a 72-bp fragment in the promoter region of xynA, and the expression of xynA in a xynX null mutant appeared to be higher, indicating that XynX regulates xynA. The specific activity of the extracellular xylanase increases over 50-fold during early exponential growth, suggesting cell density regulation (quorum sensing). Addition of conditioned medium to fresh and low cell density cultures resulted in high expression of xynA, indicating that a diffusible extracellular xynA density factor is present in the medium. The xynA density factor is heat-stable, sensitive to proteases, and was partially purified using reverse phase liquid chromatography. Taken together, these results suggest that xynA is regulated by quorum-sensing at low cell densities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smadar Shulami
- From the Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel and
| | - Ofer Shenker
- From the Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel and
| | - Yael Langut
- From the Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel and
| | - Noa Lavid
- From the Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel and
| | - Orit Gat
- From the Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel and
| | - Galia Zaide
- From the Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel and
| | - Arie Zehavi
- From the Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel and
| | - Abraham L Sonenshein
- the Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02111
| | - Yuval Shoham
- From the Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel and
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Conserved oligopeptide permeases modulate sporulation initiation in Clostridium difficile. Infect Immun 2014; 82:4276-91. [PMID: 25069979 DOI: 10.1128/iai.02323-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The anaerobic gastrointestinal pathogen Clostridium difficile must form a metabolically dormant spore to survive in oxygenic environments and be transmitted from host to host. The regulatory factors by which C. difficile initiates and controls the early stages of sporulation in C. difficile are not highly conserved in other Clostridium or Bacillus species. Here, we investigated the role of two conserved oligopeptide permeases, Opp and App, in the regulation of sporulation in C. difficile. These permeases are known to positively affect sporulation in Bacillus species through the import of sporulation-specific quorum-sensing peptides. In contrast to other spore-forming bacteria, we discovered that inactivating these permeases in C. difficile resulted in the earlier expression of early sporulation genes and increased sporulation in vitro. Furthermore, disruption of opp and app resulted in greater virulence and increased the amounts of spores recovered from feces in the hamster model of C. difficile infection. Our data suggest that Opp and App indirectly inhibit sporulation, likely through the activities of the transcriptional regulator SinR and its inhibitor, SinI. Taken together, these results indicate that the Opp and App transporters serve a different function in controlling sporulation and virulence in C. difficile than in Bacillus subtilis and suggest that nutrient availability plays a significant role in pathogenesis and sporulation in vivo. This study suggests a link between the nutritional status of the environment and sporulation initiation in C. difficile.
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