Relationship between membrane damage and cell death in pressure-treated Escherichia coli cells: differences between exponential- and stationary-phase cells and variation among strains

Metabolic adaptations of Shewanella eurypsychrophilus YLB-09 for survival in the high-pressure environment of the deep sea

Elucidation of the adaptation mechanisms and survival strategies of deep-sea microorganisms to extreme environments could provide a theoretical basis for the industrial development of extreme enzymes. There is currently a lack of understanding of the metabolic adaptation mechanisms of deep-sea microorganisms to high-pressure environments. The objective of this study was to investigate the metabolic regulatory mechanisms enabling a strain of the deep-sea bacterium Shewanella eurypsychrophilus to thrive under high-pressure conditions. To achieve this, we used nuclear magnetic resonance-based metabolomic and RNA sequencing-based transcriptomic analyses of S. eurypsychrophilus strain YLB-09, which was previously isolated by our research group and shown to be capable of tolerating high pressure levels and low temperatures. We found that high-pressure conditions had pronounced impacts on the metabolic pattern of YLB-09, as evidenced by alterations in energy, amino acid, and glycerolipid metabolism, among other processes. YLB-09 adapted to the high-pressure conditions of the deep sea by switching from aerobic intracellular energy metabolism to trimethylamine N-oxide respiration, altering the amino acid profile, and regulating the composition and the fluidity of cell membrane. The findings of our study demonstrate the capacity of microorganisms to alter their metabolism in response to elevated pressure, thereby establishing a foundation for a more profound understanding of the survival mechanisms of life in high-pressure environments.

Functionalization of Alginate Hydrogels with a Multifunctional Peptide Supports Mesenchymal Stem Cell Adhesion and Reduces Bacterial Colonization

Hydrogels with cell adhesive moieties stand out as promising materials to enhance tissue healing and regeneration. Nonetheless, bacterial infections of the implants represent an unmet major concern. In the present work, we developed an alginate hydrogel modified with a multifunctional peptide containing the RGD cell adhesive motif in combination with an antibacterial peptide derived from the 1-11 region of lactoferrin (LF). The RGD-LF branched peptide was successfully anchored to the alginate backbone by carbodiimide chemistry, as demonstrated by 1H NMR and fluorescence measurements. The functionalized hydrogel presented desirable physicochemical properties (porosity, swelling and rheological behavior) to develop biomaterials for tissue engineering. The viability of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) on the peptide-functionalized hydrogels was excellent, with values higher than 85 % at day 1, and higher than 95 % after 14 days in culture. Moreover, the biological characterization demonstrated the ability of the hydrogels to significantly enhance ALP activity of MSCs as well as to decrease bacterial colonization of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative models. Such results prove the potential of the functionalized hydrogels as novel biomaterials for tissue engineering, simultaneously displaying cell adhesive activity and the capacity to prevent bacterial contamination, a dual bioactivity commonly not found for these types of hydrogels.

Elucidating the Mode of Action of Hybrid Nanoparticles of Cu/Zn Against Copper-Tolerant Xanthomonas euvesicatoria

The widespread presence of tolerance to copper in Xanthomonas species has resulted in the need to develop alternative approaches to control plant diseases caused by xanthomonads. In recent years, nanotechnological approaches have resulted in the identification of novel materials to control plant pathogens. With many metal-based nanomaterials having shown promise for disease control, an important question relates to the mode of action of these new materials. In this study, we used several approaches, such as scanning electron microscopy, propidium monoazide quantitative polymerase chain reaction, epifluorescence microscopy, and RNA sequencing to elucidate the mode of action of a Cu/Zn hybrid nanoparticle against copper-tolerant strains of Xanthomonas euvesicatoria. We demonstrate that Cu/Zn did not activate copper resistance genes (i.e., copA and copB) in the copper-tolerant bacterium but functioned by disrupting the bacterial cell structure and perturbing important biological processes such as cell respiration and chemical homeostasis.

Novel insights into the co-selection of metal-driven antibiotic resistance in bacteria: a study of arsenic and antibiotic co-exposure

The simultaneous development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria due to metal exposure poses a significant threat to the environment and human health. This study explored how exposure to both arsenic and antibiotics affects the ability of an arsenite oxidizer, Achromobacter xylosoxidans CAW4, to transform arsenite and its antibiotic resistance patterns. The bacterium was isolated from arsenic-contaminated groundwater in the Chandpur district of Bangladesh. We determined the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of arsenite, cefotaxime, and tetracycline for A. xylosoxidans CAW4, demonstrating a multidrug resistance (MDR) trait. Following this determination, we aimed to mimic an environment where A. xylosoxidans CAW4 was exposed to both arsenite and antibiotics. We enabled the strain to grow in sub-MIC concentrations of 1 mM arsenite, 40 µg/mL cefotaxime, and 20 µg/mL tetracycline. The expression dynamics of the arsenite oxidase (aioA) gene in the presence or absence of antibiotics were analyzed. The findings indicated that simultaneous exposure to arsenite and antibiotics adversely affected the bacteria's capacity to metabolize arsenic. However, when arsenite was present in antibiotics-containing media, it promoted bacterial growth. The study observed a global downregulation of the aioA gene in arsenic-antibiotic conditions, indicating the possibility of increased susceptibility through co-resistance across the entire bacterial population of the environment. This study interprets that bacterial arsenic-metabolizing ability can rescue the bacteria from antibiotic stress, further disseminating environmental cross-resistance. Therefore, the co-selection of metal-driven antibiotic resistance in bacteria highlights the need for effective measures to address this emerging threat to human health and the environment.

Effects of certain physical stresses on the composition of the membrane of bacteria implicated in food and environmental contamination

Bacterial membranes are implicated in the adaptation process of bacteria to numerous environmental conditions. In this context, our aim was to explain the consequences of a few physical stressor factors, like UV radiations and magnetic fields underlying the structural adaptation of cellular membranes to physical factors. The goal was also to review the state of the art about the link between membrane composition and bacterial resistance. According to comparative studies between ionizing γ-radiation, non-ionizing UVc radiations and Static Magnetic Field SMF, the response of some Gram negative bacteria appears to be generalized and was manifested by a membrane unsaturation, because of a production peak of unsaturated fatty acids. However, disturbances found inside the membrane, after UVB and Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) exposure were marked by a lower unsaturated fatty acids rate. This result is not concordant to disturbance seen after UVC treatment, even if the treatment is by UV radiation.

Unraveling the mechanistic insights of sophorolipid-capped gold nanoparticle-induced cell death in Vibrio cholerae

IMPORTANCE

Vibrio cholerae, a Gram-negative bacterium, is the causative agent of a fatal disease, "cholera." Prevention of cholera outbreak is possible by eliminating the bacteria from the environment. However, antimicrobial resistance developed in microorganisms has posed a threat and challenges to its treatment. Application of nanoparticles is a useful and effective option for the elimination of such microorganisms. Metal-based nanopaticles exhibit microbial toxicity through non-specific mechanisms. To prevent resistance development and increase antibacterial efficiency, rational designing of nanoparticles is required. Thus, knowledge on the exact mechanism of action of nanoparticles is highly essential. In this study, we explore the possible mechanisms of antibacterial activity of AuNPs-SL against V. cholerae. We show that the interaction of AuNPs-SL with V. cholerae enhances ROS production and membrane depolarization, change in permeability, and leakage of intracellular content. This action leads to the depletion of cellular ATP level, DNA damage, and subsequent cell death.

Synergistic effects of sequential light treatment with 222-nm/405-nm and 280-nm/405-nm wavelengths on inactivation of foodborne pathogens

Light-based technologies of different wavelengths can inactivate pathogenic microorganisms, but each wavelength has its limitations. This work explores the potential of sequential treatments with different wavelengths for enhancing the disinfection performance of individual treatments by employing various bactericidal mechanisms. The effectiveness, inactivation kinetics, and bactericidal mechanisms of treatments with 222/405, 280/405, and 405 nm alone against Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were evaluated. Inactivation experiments were performed in thin liquid bacterial suspensions that were treated either individually with 48 h of 405-nm light or sequentially with (i) 30 s of 222-nm far-UV-C light, followed by 48 h of 405-nm light, or (ii) 30 s of 280-nm far-UV-C light, followed by 48 h of 405-nm light. Survivors were recovered and enumerated by standard plate counting. All inactivation curves were non-linear and followed the Weibull model (0.99 ≥ R2 ≥ 0.70). Synergistic effects were found for E. coli, L. monocytogenes, and S. Typhimurium, with maximum inactivation level increases of 2.9, 3.3, and 1.1 log CFU after the sequential treatments, respectively. Marginal synergy was found for S. aureus, and an antagonistic effect was found for P. aeruginosa after sequential treatments. Significant differences in reactive oxygen species accumulation were found (P < 0.05) after various treatment combinations, and the performance of sequential treatments was correlated with cellular oxidative damage. The sequential wavelength treatments proposed demonstrate the potential for enhanced disinfection of multiple foodborne pathogens compared with individual wavelength treatments, which can have significant food safety benefits. IMPORTANCE Nonthermal light-based technologies offer a chemical-free method to mitigate microbial contamination in the food and healthcare industries. However, each individual wavelength has different limitations in terms of efficacy and operating conditions, which limits their practical applicability. In this study, bactericidal synergism of sequential treatments with different wavelengths was identified. Pre-treatments with 280 and 222 nm enhanced the disinfection performance of follow-up 405-nm treatments for multiple foodborne pathogens by inducing higher levels of cellular membrane damage and oxidative stress. These findings deliver useful information for light equipment manufacturers, food processors, and healthcare users, who can design and optimize effective light-based systems to realize the full potential of germicidal light technologies. The results from the sequential treatments offer practical solutions to improve the germicidal efficacy of visible light systems, as well as provide inspiration for future hurdle disinfection systems design, with a positive impact on food safety and public health.

Highly Effective Salt-Activated Alcohol-Based Disinfectants with Enhanced Antimicrobial Activity

Surfaces contaminated with pathogens raise concerns about the increased risk of disease transmission and infection. To clean biocontaminated surfaces, alcohol-based disinfectants have been predominantly used for disinfecting high-touch areas in diverse settings. However, due to its limited antimicrobial activities and concern over the emergence of alcohol-tolerant strains, much effort has been made to develop highly efficient disinfectant formulations. In this study, we hypothesize that the addition of a physical pathogen inactivation mechanism by salt recrystallization (besides the existing chemical inactivation mechanism by alcohol in such formulations) can improve inactivation efficiency by preventing the emergence of alcohol tolerance. To this end, we employed the drying-induced salt recrystallization process to implement the concept of highly efficient alcohol-based disinfectant formulations. To identify the individual and combined effects of isopropyl alcohol (IPA) and NaCl, time-dependent morphological/structural changes of various IPA solutions containing NaCl have been characterized by optical microscopy/X-ray diffraction analysis. Their antimicrobial activities have been tested on surfaces (glass slide, polystyrene Petri dish, and stainless steel) contaminated with Gram-positive/negative bacteria (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica Typhimurium) and viruses (A/PR8/34 H1N1 influenza virus and HCoV-OC43 human coronavirus). We found that additional salt crystallization during the drying of the alcohol solution facilitated stronger biocidal effects than IPA-only formulations, regardless of the types of solid surfaces and pathogens, including alcohol-tolerant strains adapted from wild-type Escherichia coli MG1655. Our findings can be useful in developing highly effective disinfectant formulations by minimizing the use of toxic antimicrobial substances to improve public health and safety.

Dose-Response Behavior of Pathogens and Surrogate Microorganisms across the Ultraviolet-C Spectrum: Inactivation Efficiencies, Action Spectra, and Mechanisms

The dose-response behavior of pathogens and inactivation mechanisms by UV-LEDs and excimer lamps remains unclear. This study used low-pressure (LP) UV lamps, UV-LEDs with different peak wavelengths, and a 222 nm krypton chlorine (KrCl) excimer lamp to inactivate six microorganisms and to investigate their UV sensitivities and electrical energy efficiencies. The 265 nm UV-LED had the highest inactivation rates (0.47-0.61 cm2/mJ) for all tested bacteria. The bacterial sensitivity strongly fitted the absorption curve of nucleic acids at wavelengths of 200-300 nm; however, indirect damage induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS) was the leading cause of bacterial inactivation under 222 nm UV irradiation. In addition, the guanine and cytosine (GC) content and cell wall constituents of bacteria affect inactivation efficiency. The inactivation rate constant of Phi6 (0.13 ± 0.002 cm2/mJ) at 222 nm due to lipid envelope damage was significantly higher than other UVC (0.006-0.035 cm2/mJ). To achieve 2log reduction, the LP UV lamp had the best electrical energy efficiency (required less energy, average 0.02 kWh/m3) followed by 222 nm KrCl excimer lamp (0.14 kWh/m3) and 285 nm UV-LED (0.49 kWh/m3).

Fermentation Wastes from Chrypthecodinium cohnii Lipid Production for Energy Recovery by Anaerobic Digestion

Wastes generated during the cultivation of marine microalga Crypthecodinium cohnii and after the lipid extraction process, were energetically valorized into biogas production through anaerobic digestion (AD). The tested wastes were extracted microalgae (Ae) with hexane (AeH) using supercritical extraction methods (AeS) and the supernatant obtained after culture medium centrifugation (M). The digestion of the algae biomass in the admixture with the supernatant medium (AeH+M+I and AeS+M+I) provided a higher methane content and a higher methane yield (582 and 440 L CH4/kg VS) than the substrates Ae and M, individually digested (155 and 96 L CH4/kg VS, respectively). Flow cytometry monitoring processes during AD indicated that the yield of the accumulated biogas was influenced by the operating conditions. The mixture of AeH+M+I was the only assay with a proportion of cells with less damaged membranes after AD, providing the highest methane yield and productivity (582 L CH4/kg VS and 31 L CH4/kg VS.d, respectively) and the highest energetic potential of 5.8 KWh/kg VS of all the substrates. From the results, AD integration to lipid production by C. cohnii to recover energy from the generated wastes enhanced the sustainability of the entire process and promoted the practice of zero waste.

The efficacy and safety of high-pressure processing of food

High-pressure processing (HPP) is a non-thermal treatment in which, for microbial inactivation, foods are subjected to isostatic pressures (P) of 400-600 MPa with common holding times (t) from 1.5 to 6 min. The main factors that influence the efficacy (log10 reduction of vegetative microorganisms) of HPP when applied to foodstuffs are intrinsic (e.g. water activity and pH), extrinsic (P and t) and microorganism-related (type, taxonomic unit, strain and physiological state). It was concluded that HPP of food will not present any additional microbial or chemical food safety concerns when compared to other routinely applied treatments (e.g. pasteurisation). Pathogen reductions in milk/colostrum caused by the current HPP conditions applied by the industry are lower than those achieved by the legal requirements for thermal pasteurisation. However, HPP minimum requirements (P/t combinations) could be identified to achieve specific log10 reductions of relevant hazards based on performance criteria (PC) proposed by international standard agencies (5-8 log10 reductions). The most stringent HPP conditions used industrially (600 MPa, 6 min) would achieve the above-mentioned PC, except for Staphylococcus aureus. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), the endogenous milk enzyme that is widely used to verify adequate thermal pasteurisation of cows' milk, is relatively pressure resistant and its use would be limited to that of an overprocessing indicator. Current data are not robust enough to support the proposal of an appropriate indicator to verify the efficacy of HPP under the current HPP conditions applied by the industry. Minimum HPP requirements to reduce Listeria monocytogenes levels by specific log10 reductions could be identified when HPP is applied to ready-to-eat (RTE) cooked meat products, but not for other types of RTE foods. These identified minimum requirements would result in the inactivation of other relevant pathogens (Salmonella and Escherichia coli) in these RTE foods to a similar or higher extent.

Synergetic Inactivation Mechanism of Protocatechuic Acid and High Hydrostatic Pressure against Escherichia coli O157:H7

With the wide application of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) technology in the food industry, safety issues regarding food products, resulting in potential food safety hazards, have arisen. To address such problems, this study explored the synergetic bactericidal effects and mechanisms of protocatechuic acid (PCA) and HHP against Escherichia coli O157:H7. At greater than 200 MPa, PCA (1.25 mg/mL for 60 min) plus HHP treatments had significant synergetic bactericidal effects that positively correlated with pressure. After a combined treatment at 500 MPa for 5 min, an approximate 9.0 log CFU/mL colony decline occurred, whereas the individual HHP and PCA treatments caused 4.48 and 1.06 log CFU/mL colony decreases, respectively. Mechanistically, membrane integrity and morphology were damaged, and the permeability increased when E. coli O157: H7 was exposed to the synergetic stress of PCA plus HHP. Inside cells, the synergetic treatment additionally targeted the activities of enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and ATPase, which were inhibited significantly (p ≤ 0.05) when exposed to high pressure. Moreover, an analysis of circular dichroism spectra indicated that the synergetic treatment caused a change in DNA structure, which was expressed as the redshift of the characteristic absorption peak. Thus, the synergetic treatment of PCA plus HHP may be used as a decontamination method owing to the good bactericidal effects on multiple targets.

Validation of process technologies for enhancing the safety of low-moisture foods: A review

The outbreaks linked to foodborne illnesses in low-moisture foods are frequently reported due to the occurrence of pathogenic microorganisms such as Salmonella Spp. Bacillus cereus, Clostridium spp., Cronobacter sakazakii, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus. The ability of the pathogens to withstand the dry conditions and to develop resistance to heat is regarded as the major concern for the food industry dealing with low-moisture foods. In this regard, the present review is aimed to discuss the importance and the use of novel thermal and nonthermal technologies such as radiofrequency, steam pasteurization, plasma, and gaseous technologies for decontamination of foodborne pathogens in low-moisture foods and their microbial inactivation mechanisms. The review also summarizes the various sources of contamination and the factors influencing the survival and thermal resistance of pathogenic microorganisms in low-moisture foods. The literature survey indicated that the nonthermal techniques such as CO₂ , high-pressure processing, and so on, may not offer effective microbial inactivation in low-moisture foods due to their insufficient moisture content. On the other hand, gases can penetrate deep inside the commodities and pores due to their higher diffusion properties and are regarded to have an advantage over thermal and other nonthermal processes. Further research is required to evaluate newer intervention strategies and combination treatments to enhance the microbial inactivation in low-moisture foods without significantly altering their organoleptic and nutritional quality.

Directional Selection of Microbial Community Reduces Propionate Accumulation in Glycerol and Glucose Anaerobic Bioconversion Under Elevated pCO2

Volatile fatty acid accumulation is a sign of digester perturbation. Previous work showed the thermodynamic limitations of hydrogen and CO₂ in syntrophic propionate oxidation under elevated partial pressure of CO₂ (pCO₂). Here we study the effect of directional selection under increasing substrate load as a strategy to restructure the microbial community and induce cross-protection mechanisms to improve glucose and glycerol conversion performance under elevated pCO₂. After an adaptive laboratory evolution (ALE) process, viable cell density increased and predominant microbial groups were modified: an increase in Methanosaeta and syntrophic propionate oxidizing bacteria (SPOB) associated with the Smithella genus was found with glycerol as the substrate. A modest increase in SPOB along with a shift in the predominance of Methanobacterium toward Methanosaeta was observed with glucose as the substrate. The evolved inoculum showed affected diversity within archaeal spp. under 5 bar initial pCO₂; however, higher CH₄ yield resulted from enhanced propionate conversion linked to the community shifts and biomass adaptation during the ALE process. Moreover, the evolved inoculum attained increased cell viability with glucose and a marginal decrease with glycerol as the substrate. Results showed differences in terms of carbon flux distribution using the evolved inoculum under elevated pCO₂: glucose conversion resulted in a higher cell density and viability, whereas glycerol conversion led to higher propionate production whose enabled conversion reflected in increased CH₄ yield. Our results highlight that limited propionate conversion at elevated pCO₂ resulted from decreased cell viability and low abundance of syntrophic partners. This limitation can be mitigated by promoting alternative and more resilient SPOB and building up biomass adaptation to environmental conditions via directional selection of microbial community.

A Diffusion Model to Quantify Membrane Repair Process in Listeria monocytogenes Exposed to High Pressure Processing Based on Fluorescence Microscopy Data

The effects of environmental stresses on microorganisms have been well-studied, and cellular responses to stresses such as heat, cold, acids, and salts have been extensively discussed. Although high pressure processing (HPP) is becoming more popular as a preservation method in the food industry, the characteristics of the cellular damage caused by high pressure are unclear, and the microbial response to this stress has not yet been well-explored. We exposed the pathogen Listeria monocytogenes to HPP (400 MPa, 8 min, 8°C) and found that the high pressure created plasma membrane pores. Using a common staining technique involving propidium iodide (PI) combined with high-frequency fluorescence microscopy, we monitored the rate of diffusion of PI molecules into hundreds of bacterial cells through these pores on days 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 after pressurization. We also developed a mathematical dynamic model based on mass transfer and passive diffusion laws, calibrated using our microscopy experiments, to evaluate the response of bacteria to HPP. We found that the rate of diffusion of PI into the cells decreased over the 4 consecutive days after exposure to HPP, indicating repair of the pressure-created membrane pores. The model suggested a temporal change in the size of pores until closure. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that pressure-created membrane pores have been quantitatively described and shown to diminish with time. In addition, we found that the membrane repair rate in response to HPP was linear, and growth was temporarily arrested at the population level during the repair period. These results support the existence of a progressive repair process in some of the cells that take up PI, which can therefore be considered as being sub-lethally injured rather than dead. Hence, we showed that a subgroup of bacteria survived HPP and actively repaired their membrane pores.

Analysis of temporal gene regulation of Listeria monocytogenes revealed distinct regulatory response modes after exposure to high pressure processing

BACKGROUND

The pathogen Listeria (L.) monocytogenes is known to survive heat, cold, high pressure, and other extreme conditions. Although the response of this pathogen to pH, osmotic, temperature, and oxidative stress has been studied extensively, its reaction to the stress produced by high pressure processing HPP (which is a preservation method in the food industry), and the activated gene regulatory network (GRN) in response to this stress is still largely unknown.

RESULTS

We used RNA sequencing transcriptome data of L. monocytogenes (ScottA) treated at 400 MPa and 8∘C, for 8 min and combined it with current information in the literature to create a transcriptional regulation database, depicting the relationship between transcription factors (TFs) and their target genes (TGs) in L. monocytogenes. We then applied network component analysis (NCA), a matrix decomposition method, to reconstruct the activities of the TFs over time. According to our findings, L. monocytogenes responded to the stress applied during HPP by three statistically different gene regulation modes: survival mode during the first 10 min post-treatment, repair mode during 1 h post-treatment, and re-growth mode beyond 6 h after HPP. We identified the TFs and their TGs that were responsible for each of the modes. We developed a plausible model that could explain the regulatory mechanism that L. monocytogenes activated through the well-studied CIRCE operon via the regulator HrcA during the survival mode.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that the timely activation of TFs associated with an immediate stress response, followed by the expression of genes for repair purposes, and then re-growth and metabolism, could be a strategy of L. monocytogenes to survive and recover extreme HPP conditions. We believe that our results give a better understanding of L. monocytogenes behavior after exposure to high pressure that may lead to the design of a specific knock-out process to target the genes or mechanisms. The results can help the food industry select appropriate HPP conditions to prevent L. monocytogenes recovery during food storage.

Synergistic bactericidal effect of hot water with citric acid against Escherichia coli O157:H7 biofilm formed on stainless steel

This study investigated the antimicrobial effect of hot water with citric acid against Escherichia coli O157:H7 biofilm on stainless steel (SS). Hot water (50, 60, or 70 °C) with 2% citric acid exhibited a synergistic bactericidal effect on the pathogen biofilm. It was revealed that hot water and citric acid combination induced sub-lethally injured cells. Additionally, mechanisms of the synergistic bactericidal effects of hot water with citric acid were identified through several approaches. In terms of biofilm matrix, hot water removes exopolysaccharides, a major component of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), thereby increasing contact between surface cells and citric acid, resulting in a synergistic bactericidal effect. In terms of the cell itself, increased permeability of citric acid through cell membranes destructed by hot water promotes the inactivation of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in E. coli O157:H7, which induce synergistic generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which promote inactivation of cell by activating lipid peroxidation, resulting in destruction of the cell membrane. Therefore, it is interpreted that when hot water with citric acid is applied to E. coli O157:H7 biofilm, synergy effects on the biofilm matrix and cell itself have a complex interaction with each other, thus causing a dramatic synergistic bactericidal effect.

Amyloid hybrid membranes for bacterial & genetic material removal from water and their anti-biofouling properties

Water scarcity and contamination by biological pollutants are global challenges that significantly affect public health. Reverse osmosis, nanofiltration and ultrafiltration technologies are very effective for the elimination of pathogens and most contaminants but associated with considerable capital and operating costs, high energy consumption and the use of chlorinated chemicals to suppress membrane fouling. Additionally, the pressure needed by these techniques may disrupt the pathogenic microbial cell membranes, causing the release of genetic material (fragments of DNA, RNA and plasmids) into the water. Here, we introduce the simultaneous removal of both bacteria and associated genetic material using amyloid hybrid membranes, via a combined adsorption and size exclusion mechanism. Amyloid hybrid membranes can remove upto and beyond 99% of the genetic material by adsorption, where amyloid fibrils act as the primary adsorbing material. When the same membranes are surface-modified using chitosan, the anti-biofouling performance of the membranes improved significantly, with a bacterial removal efficiency exceeding 6 log.

Ultrafast physical bacterial inactivation and photocatalytic self-cleaning of ZnO nanoarrays for rapid and sustainable bactericidal applications

Various nanostructured surfaces have been developed recently to physically inactivate bacteria, for reducing the rapidly spreading threat of pathogenic bacteria. However, it generally takes several hours for these surfaces to inactivate most of the bacteria, which greatly limits their application in the fields favoring rapid bactericidal performance. Besides, the accumulated bacteria debris left on these surfaces is rarely discussed in the previous reports. Herein we report the nanotip-engineered ZnO nanoarrays (NAs) with ultrafast physical bactericidal rate and the ability to photocatalytically remove the bacteria debris. Neither chemical (Zn2+ or reactive oxygen species) nor photocatalytic effect leads to the ultrafast bactericidal rate, where 97.5% of E. coli and 94.9% of S. aureus are inactivated within only 1 min. The simulation analysis further supported our proposed mechanism attributing the ultrafast bactericidal activity to the great stress enabled by the uneven topography. Moreover, the re-exposure of the ZnO NAs nanotips can be achieved in only 10 min under a mild UV light source. This study not only presents an ultrafast physical bactericidal activity, but also demonstrates the potential of the recyclable and photocatalytic self-cleaning functions of theses surfaces for applications that desire rapid and sustainable bactericidal performance.

Synergistic effect of 222-nm krypton-chlorine excilamp and mild heating combined treatment on inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium in apple juice

Simultaneous treatment with 222-nm KrCl excilamp and mild heating (EX-MH) at 45, 50 and 55 °C showed synergistic bactericidal effects on non-acid and acid adapted cells of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium in apple juice. In particular, acid-adapted pathogens exhibited increased resistance to EX-MH compared to pathogenic bacteria that were not acid-adapted. Also, elucidation of the synergistic bactericidal mechanism of EX-MH was performed through several assays and this mechanism was described as follows: (i) when KrCl excilamp (EX) and mild heating (MH) are applied simultaneously, MH reversibly inactivates the antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase (SOD), thereby increasing accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by EX and thus inducing synergistic ROS generation, (ii) ROS production induces lipid peroxidation occurrence in the cell membrane, (iii) this lipid peroxidation occurrence in the cell membrane induces synergistic destruction of cell membrane, resulting in synergistic cell death. While EX-MH of 45, 50, or 55 °C reduced E. coli O157:H7 (the pathogen most resistant to EX-MH) in apple juice by 5-log, the qualities such as color (L*, a*, and b*), total phenolic compounds (TPC), and DPPH free radical scavenging activity of apple juice did not change significantly (P > 0.05). This study not only suggests the applicability of EX-MH to the apple juice industry, but also can be used as baseline data for future relevant research.

Factors Affecting Microbial Inactivation during High Pressure Processing in Juices and Beverages: A Review

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this article is to review and discuss the factors affecting high pressure processing (HPP) in juices and beverages. The inactivation of microorganisms by HPP depends on numerous factors, including the magnitude of the pressure and the holding time, process temperature, compression and decompression rates, the microbiota, and the intrinsic properties of juices and beverages. Although extensive HPP research has been performed to characterize many of these factors, a number of issues, such as the rates of compression and decompression, still remain unresolved and need further investigation. In addition, some published results are conflicting and do not provide enough evidence to develop juice HPP "safe-harbor" parameters to achieve a minimum 5-log reduction of the pertinent microorganism and produce safe fruit juices and beverages.

HIGHLIGHTS

Synergistic Inactivation Mechanism of Combined Plasma-Activated Water and Mild Heat against Saccharomyces cerevisiae

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to elucidate the mechanism of synergistic inactivation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae by the combined use of plasma-activated water (PAW) and mild heat (40 to 50°C). A reduction of 4.40 log CFU/mL in S. cerevisiae was observed after the synergistic combination of PAW and mild heat at 50°C for 6 min, whereas the individual treatments of PAW at 25°C and mild heat at 50°C for 6 min resulted in a reduction of 0.27 and 1.92 log CFU/mL, respectively. The simultaneous application of PAW and mild heat caused significant increases in membrane permeability, resulting in the leakage of intracellular components (such as nucleic acids and proteins) and increased uptake of propidium iodide. The combined treatment of PAW and mild heat also resulted in significant increases in the intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species and disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential in S. cerevisiae cells. In summary, this study illustrates the potential of PAW treatment combined with mild heat to rapidly inactivate microorganisms in food products.

HIGHLIGHTS

Evaluation of Mycobacterium smegmatis as indicator of the efficacy of high hydrostatic pressure and ultra-high pressure homogenization treatments for pasteurization-like purposes in milk

The objectives of this study were: to assess the efficiency of high hydrostatic pressure or ultra-high pressure homogenization against Mycobacterium smegmatis in milk and to discuss whether M. smegmatis can be considered a suitable surrogate for other Mycobacterium spp. in high pressure inactivation trials using milk. Three strains of this specie (CECT 3017, 3020 and 3032) were independently inoculated into both skimmed (0.2% fat) and whole milk (3.4% fat) at an approximate load of 6.5 Log CFU/ml and submitted to HHP treatments at 300, 400 or 500 MPa for 10 m at 6°C and 20°C. Evolution of the surviving cells of the inoculated strains was evaluated analysing milk immediately after the treatments and after 5 and 8 d of storage at 6°C. HHP treatments at 300 MPa were seldom efficient at inactivating M. smegmatis strains, but lethality increased with pressure applied in all cases. Generation of sub-lethal injured cells was observed only after 400 MPa treatments since inactivation at 500 MPa was shown to be complete. Significant differences were not observed due to either temperature of treatment or fat content of milk, except for strain CECT3032, which was shown to be the most sensitive to HHP treatments. Milk inoculated with strain CECT3017 was submitted to ultra-high pressure homogenization (UHPH) treatments at 200, 300 and 400 MPa. Maximum reductions were obtained after 300 and 400 MPa treatments, although less than 3.50 Log CFU/ml were inactivated. UHPH did not cause significant number of injured cells. The usefulness of this species as a marker for pressure-based processing seems limited since it showed greater sensitivity than some pathogenic species including other Mycobacteria reported in previous studies.

Antimicrobial action of octanoic acid against Escherichia coli O157:H7 during washing of baby spinach and grape tomatoes

We investigated the antimicrobial efficacy of octanoic acid (OA) against Escherichia coli O157:H7 inoculated on the surface of baby spinach and grape tomatoes during simulated washing processes. 3 mM OA at 45 °C achieved >6 log CFU/g reduction from the surface of tomatoes within 2 min. However, washing baby spinach with 6 mM OA at 5 °C resulted in <1 log CFU/g reduction, highlighting the role of surface properties in inactivation efficacy. OA significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the risk of cross-contamination during washing of spinach as well as tomatoes. Also, total mold and yeast population on surface of spinach was significantly reduced immediately after OA wash and inhibited during following 14 days. Baby spinach and grape tomatoes washed with OA did not cause significant (p > 0.05) difference in color compared to the control and no residual OA was detected in most cases following rinsing of produce in water. OA at the concentrations above 2 mM and temperature higher than 25 °C induced severe membrane damage along with release of ATP and other intracellular constituents resulting in bacterial death. OA can be an attractive natural decontamination agent for washing fresh produce.

The Copy Number of the spoVA 2mob Operon Determines Pressure Resistance of Bacillus Endospores

The spoVA ^2mob operon confers heat resistance to Bacillus spp., and the resistance correlates to the copy number of the operon. Bacillus endospores also exhibit a strong variation in resistance to pressure, but the underlying mechanisms of endospore resistance to pressure are not fully understood. We determined the effects of multiple spoVA ^2mob operons on high-pressure resistance in Bacillus endospores. The copy numbers of the spoVA ^2mob operon in 17 strains of Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus velezensis, and Bacillus pumilus were determined via droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) and genome sequencing. These strains contained between 0 and 3 copies of the spoVA ^2mob operon; the quantification of the gene copy number by ddPCR was as accurate as whole-genome sequencing. We further tested the pressure resistance of 17 Bacillus endospores at 600 MPa and 80°C. Strains with one or no spoVA ^2mob operon had significantly lower pressure resistance than strains with two or three copies of the operons (P < 0.001), indicating that redundant spoVA ^2mob operons in Bacillus contributed to higher pressure resistance of endospores. The copy number of the spoVA ^2mob operon was not related to the dipicolinic acid (DPA) content of endospores. Overall, the copy number of the spoVA ^2mob operon contributes to pressure resistance of Bacillus endospores. This improves our understanding of the pressure resistance mechanisms in Bacillus spp. and may inform the development of high-pressure sterilization in food processing.IMPORTANCE Bacillus spp. are considered pressure-resistant microorganisms, but the resistance mechanisms remain unknown. The spoVA ^2mob operon is a mobile genetic element, and it can transfer to pathogenic or spoilage organisms by horizontal gene transfer. Results in this study indicate that multiple copies of the spoVA ^2mob operon mediate high-pressure resistance of Bacillus endospores, and it might contribute to the identification of the source of pressure-resistant pathogens and spoilage organisms that may contaminate the food supply. The droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) system is well suited for analysis in some human diseases due to its high efficiency and capability to provide high precision; however, no relevant studies in food microbiology have been reported so far. This study demonstrates a novel application of ddPCR in food microbiology.

Increased Resistance of Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium and Escherichia coli O157:H7 to 222-Nanometer Krypton-Chlorine Excilamp Treatment by Acid Adaptation

In this study, we examined the change in resistance of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and Escherichia coli O157:H7 to 222-nm krypton-chlorine (KrCl) excilamp treatment as influenced by acid adaptation and identified a mechanism of resistance change. In addition, we measured changes in apple juice quality indicators, such as color, total phenols, and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity, during treatment. Non-acid-adapted and acid-adapted pathogens were induced by growing the cells in tryptic soy broth without dextrose (TSB w/o D) at pH 7.3 and in TSB w/o D at pH 5.0 (adjusted with HCl), respectively. For the KrCl excilamp treatment, acid-adapted pathogens exhibited significantly (P < 0.05) higher D5d values, which indicate dosages required to achieve a 5-log reduction, than those for non-acid-adapted pathogens in both commercially clarified apple juice and phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), and the pathogens in the juice showed significantly (P < 0.05) higher D5d values than those for pathogens in PBS because of the UV-absorbing characteristics of apple juice. Through mechanism identification, it was found that the generation of lipid peroxidation in the cell membrane, inducing cell membrane destruction, was significantly (P < 0.05) lower in acid-adapted cells than in non-acid-adapted cells for the same amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated at the same dose because the ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids (USFA/SFA) in the cell membrane was significantly (P < 0.05) decreased as a result of acid adaptation. Treated apple juice showed no significant (P > 0.05) difference in quality indicators compared to those of untreated controls during treatment at 1,773 mJ/cm2IMPORTANCE There is a need for novel, mercury-free UV lamp technology to replace germicidal lamps containing harmful mercury, which are routinely utilized for UV pasteurization of apple juice. In addition, consideration of the changes in response to antimicrobial treatments that may occur when pathogens are adapted to the acid in an apple juice matrix is critical to the practical application of this technology. Based on this, an investigation using 222-nm KrCl excilamp technology, an attractive alternative to mercury lamps, was conducted. Our study demonstrated increased resistance to 222-nm KrCl excilamp treatment as pathogens adapted to acids, and this was due to changes in reactivity to ROS with changes in the fatty acid composition of the cell membrane. Despite increased resistance, the 222-nm KrCl excilamp achieved pathogen reductions of 5 log or more at laboratory scale without affecting apple juice quality. These results provide valuable baseline data for application of 222-nm KrCl excilamps in the apple juice industry.

The Synergistic Bactericidal Mechanism of Simultaneous Treatment with a 222-Nanometer Krypton-Chlorine Excilamp and a 254-Nanometer Low-Pressure Mercury Lamp

The purpose of this study was to investigate the synergistic bactericidal effect of 222-nm KrCl excilamp and 254-nm low-pressure (LP) Hg lamp simultaneous treatment against Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes in tap water and to identify the synergistic bactericidal mechanism. Sterilized tap water inoculated with pathogens was treated individually or simultaneously with a 254-nm LP Hg lamp or 222-nm KrCl excilamp. Overall, for all pathogens, an additional reduction was found compared to the sum of the log unit reductions of the individual treatments resulting from synergy in the simultaneous treatment with both kinds of lamps. In order to identify the mechanism of this synergistic bactericidal action, the form and cause of membrane damage were analyzed. Total reactive oxygen species (ROS) and superoxide generation as well as the activity of ROS defense enzymes then were measured, and the overall mechanism was described as follows. When the 222-nm KrCl excilamp and the 254-nm LP Hg lamp were treated simultaneously, inactivation of ROS defense enzymes by the 222-nm KrCl excilamp induced additional ROS generation following exposure to 254-nm LP Hg lamp (synergistic) generation, resulting in synergistic lipid peroxidation in the cell membrane. As a result, there was a synergistic increase in cell membrane permeability leading to a synergistic bactericidal effect. This identification of the fundamental mechanism of the combined disinfection system of the 222-nm KrCl excilamp and 254-nm LP Hg lamp, which exhibited a synergistic bactericidal effect, can provide important baseline data for further related studies or industrial applications in the future.IMPORTANCE Contamination of pathogenic microorganisms in water plays an important role in inducing outbreaks of food-borne illness by causing cross-contamination in foods. Thus, proper disinfection of water before use in food production is essential to prevent outbreaks of food-borne illness. As technologies capable of selecting UV radiation wavelengths (such as UV-LEDs and excilamps) have been developed, wavelength combination treatment with UV radiation, which is widely used in water disinfection systems, is actively being studied. In this regard, we have confirmed synergistic bactericidal effects in combination with 222-nm and 254-nm wavelengths and have identified mechanisms for this. This study clearly analyzed the mechanism of synergistic bactericidal effect by wavelength combination treatment, which has not been attempted in other studies. Therefore, it is also expected that these results will play an important role as baseline data for future research on, as well as industrial applications for, the disinfection strategy of effective wavelength combinations.

Improving the lipid recovery from wet oleaginous microorganisms using different pretreatment techniques

Lipid extraction directly from the wet oleaginous microorganisms for biodiesel production is preferred as it reduces the energy input for traditional processes which require extensive drying of the biomass prior to the extraction. The high water content (≥80% on cell dry weight) in the wet biomass hinders the extraction efficiency due to the mass transfer limitation. This limitation can be overcome by pretreating wet biomass prior to the lipid extraction using pressurized gas that can be used alone or combined with other pretreatments to disrupt the cell wall. In this review, an extensive discussion on different pretreatments and the subsequent lipid extraction using these pretreatments is presented. Furthermore, a detailed account of the cell disruption using pressurized gas (e.g., CO₂) treatment for microbial cell lysing is also presented. Finally, a new technique on lipid extraction directly from wet biomass using the combination of pressurized CO₂ and microwave pretreatment is proposed.

N-dodecanoyl-homoserine lactone influences the levels of thiol and proteins related to oxidation-reduction process in Salmonella

Quorum sensing is a cell-cell communication mechanism mediated by chemical signals that leads to differential gene expression in response to high population density. Salmonella is unable to synthesize the autoinducer-1 (AI-1), N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL), but is able to recognize AHLs produced by other microorganisms through SdiA protein. This study aimed to evaluate the fatty acid and protein profiles of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis PT4 578 throughout time of cultivation in the presence of AHL. The presence of N-dodecanoyl-homoserine lactone (C12-HSL) altered the fatty acid and protein profiles of Salmonella cultivated during 4, 6, 7, 12 and 36 h in anaerobic condition. The profiles of Salmonella Enteritidis at logarithmic phase of growth (4 h of cultivation), in the presence of C12-HSL, were similar to those of cells at late stationary phase (36 h). In addition, there was less variation in both protein and fatty acid profiles along growth, suggesting that this quorum sensing signal anticipated a stationary phase response. The presence of C12-HSL increased the abundance of thiol related proteins such as Tpx, Q7CR42, Q8ZP25, YfgD, AhpC, NfsB, YdhD and TrxA, as well as the levels of free cellular thiol after 6 h of cultivation, suggesting that these cells have greater potential to resist oxidative stress. Additionally, the LuxS protein which synthesizes the AI-2 signaling molecule was differentially abundant in the presence of C12-HSL. The NfsB protein had its abundance increased in the presence of C12-HSL at all evaluated times, which is a suggestion that the cells may be susceptible to the action of nitrofurans or that AHLs present some toxicity. Overall, the presence of C12-HSL altered important pathways related to oxidative stress and stationary phase response in Salmonella.

The Influence of Microwave Sterilization on the Ultrastructure, Permeability of Cell Membrane and Expression of Proteins of Bacillus Cereus

Bacillus cereus was isolated from ready-to-serve brine goose, identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis and treated with a commercial microwave sterilization condition (a power of 1,800 W at 85°C for 5 min). The influence of microwaves on the morphology, the permeability of membrane and the expression of total bacterial proteins was observed. Microwave induced the clean of bacterial nuclear chromatin, increased the permeability and disrupted the integrity of membrane. Twenty-three proteins including 18 expressed down-regulated proteins and 5 expressed up-regulated proteins were identified by HPLC-MS/MS in the samples treated with microwave. The frequencies of proteins changed after microwaves treatment were labeled as 39.13% (synthesis and metabolism of amino acid or proteins), 21.74% (carbohydrate metabolism), 8.70% (anti-oxidant and acetyl Co-A synthesis), and 4.35% (the catalyst of catabolism of bacterial acetoin, ethanol metabolism, glyoxylate pathway, butyrate synthesis and detoxification activity), respectively. This study indicates that microwaves result in the inactivation of Bacillus cereus by cleaning nuclear chromatin, disrupting cell membrane and disordering the expression of proteins.

Mechanisms of Nα-lauroyl arginate ethyl ester against Penicillium digitatum and Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum

The purpose of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial activity and mechanisms of Nα-lauroyl arginate ethyl ester (LAE) against Penicillium digitatum and Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum. The minim inhibitory concentrations of LAE against P. digitatum and P. carotovorum were found to be 400 and 25 μg/ml, respectively. Loss of intracellular protein and nucleic acid increased significantly, and membrane permeability reached 76.28, 54.29 and 85.20%, respectively, when 400 μg/ml of LAE was applied to the hyphae and spores of P. digitatum and to P. carotovorum. Flow cytometry showed that LAE reduced the membrane potential, and the depolarization ratios of P. digitatum and P. carotovorum were 98.19 and 97.25% (P < 0.05), respectively. Transmission electron microscopy photos revealed that LAE caused a rough surface, irregular cellular organelles, protoplast shrinkage, intracytoplasmic coagulation and empty cavities in all three cell types. These results showed that LAE had notable ability to damage the structure of fungal and bacterial cells, making it a possible alternative chemical for use in the preservation of fruits and vegetables.

Application of high hydrostatic pressure on Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) pâté: Microbiological, physicochemical and consumer acceptance

The locally elaborated shrimp pâté is highly susceptible to microbial spoilage and deterioration during storage due to its content in nutrients. These conditions limit its commercialization in a larger scale. High hydrostatic pressure is an alternative to heat treatments technology used to inactivate microorganisms. The aim of this project was to evaluate the effect of high hydrostatic pressure on quality parameters and microbiological stability of Pacific white shrimp ( Litopenaeus vannamei) pâté during storage. Shrimp pâté was pressurized to 400, 500 and 600 MPa for 90 and 180 s. Samples were analysed for physicochemical, microbiological and flavour profile up to 21 days of storage at 4 ℃. A hedonic test was made to evaluate the acceptance of pâté. No microorganisms were detected at 600 MPa for 180 s and a shelf life of 14 days was reached. No relevant changes in pH or colour of pressurized samples were detected; flavour profile did not show any changes after being pressurized or during storage. Shrimp pâté treated with 600 MPa for 180 s presented good sensory acceptance. High hydrostatic pressure treatments could improve microbiological quality of shrimp pâté without a sensible modification of the physicochemical and sensorial qualities of this product.

Interrelation between Tween and the membrane properties and high pressure tolerance of Lactobacillus plantarum

Tween® 80 is a frequently used supplement of media for the cultivation of lactic acid bacteria. We investigated its effect on the cell physiology and stress tolerance of Lactobacillus (L.) plantarum. Data on the transcriptomic response to Tween 80 supplementation and its effects on cellular fatty acid profiles and growth characteristics are compared with data characterizing the effect of Tween 80, other Tween types and free fatty acids on the high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) tolerance of L. plantarum strain TMW 1.708. These include effects on cell viability, sub-lethal injury, metabolic activity, protein release and propidium iodide uptake. Tween 80 caused the downregulation of fatty acid biosynthesis and an increase in oleic acid and cyclopropane fatty acid levels in the cell membrane. Tween 20, Tween 80 and free oleic acid, but not Tween 40, Tween 60 and other free fatty acids, conferred resistance against HHP. Tween 80 diminished pressure-induced loss of metabolic activity, protein release and uptake of propidium iodide. However, loss of cell viability exceeded by far membrane permeabilization, suggesting that membrane permeabilization, which has frequently been postulated as a major factor in HHP inactivation of microbes, is not necessarily required for HHP-induced cell death of Lactobacillus plantarum.

Metabolome analysis of Escherichia coli ATCC25922 cells treated with high hydrostatic pressure at 400 and 600 MPa

Escherichia coli cells were treated with high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) at 400 and 600 MPa. Metabolites (70-1027 m/z) extracted from HHP-treated cells were analyzed using capillary electrophoresis-time-of-flight mass spectrometry and were compared with those extracted from control cells (not treated with HHP). A total of 133 metabolites were identified and mapped to metabolic pathways, and many of these (42.1%) decreased due to the HHP treatment, including NAD⁺, NADP⁺, ATP, and substrates for DNA synthesis. Principal component analysis suggested that the central sugar and nucleic acid metabolic pathways were strongly influenced by HHP. A bottleneck in the central sugar metabolic pathway was observed in HHP-treated cells, which created a metabolic imbalance; metabolites mapped upstream (glucose 6-phosphate, fructose 6-phosphate, and fructose 1,6-diphosphate) were accumulated and those downstream (3-phosphoglycerate, 2-phosphoglycerate, and phosphoenolpyruvate) were depleted. Ribonucleotides were decreased, but the reduction was moderate compared with that of substrates for DNA synthesis; the exception was ATP, which also substantially decreased. The bottleneck in the glycolytic pathway partly explained the exhaustion of ATP. NAD⁺/NADH ratio of HHP treated cells was comparable with that of untreated control cells.

Inactivation dynamics of 222 nm krypton-chlorine excilamp irradiation on Gram-positive and Gram-negative foodborne pathogenic bacteria

The object of this study was to elucidate the bactericidal mechanism of a 222 nm Krypton Chlorine (KrCl) excilamp compared with that of a 254 nm Low Pressure mercury (LP Hg) lamp. The KrCl excilamp had higher bactericidal capacity against Gram-positive pathogenic bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and L. monocytogenes) and Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria (S. Typhimurium and E. coli O157:H7) than did the LP Hg lamp when cell suspensions in PBS were irradiated with each type of UV lamp. It was found out that the KrCl excilamp induced cell membrane damage as a form of depolarization. From the study of respiratory chain dehydrogenase activity and the lipid peroxidation assay, it was revealed that cell membrane damage was attributed to inactivation of enzymes related to generation of membrane potential and occurrence of lipid peroxidation. Direct absorption of UV radiation which led to photoreaction through formation of an excited state was one of the causes inducing cell damage. Additionally, generation of ROS and thus occurrence of secondary damage can be another cause. The LP Hg lamp only induced damage to DNA but not to other components such as lipids or proteins. This difference was derived from differences of UV radiation absorption by cellular materials.

The Influence of Microwave Sterilization on the Ultrastructure, Permeability of Cell Membrane and Expression of Proteins of Bacillus Cereus

Bacillus cereus was isolated from ready-to-serve brine goose, identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis and treated with a commercial microwave sterilization condition (a power of 1,800 W at 85°C for 5 min). The influence of microwaves on the morphology, the permeability of membrane and the expression of total bacterial proteins was observed. Microwave induced the clean of bacterial nuclear chromatin, increased the permeability and disrupted the integrity of membrane. Twenty-three proteins including 18 expressed down-regulated proteins and 5 expressed up-regulated proteins were identified by HPLC-MS/MS in the samples treated with microwave. The frequencies of proteins changed after microwaves treatment were labeled as 39.13% (synthesis and metabolism of amino acid or proteins), 21.74% (carbohydrate metabolism), 8.70% (anti-oxidant and acetyl Co-A synthesis), and 4.35% (the catalyst of catabolism of bacterial acetoin, ethanol metabolism, glyoxylate pathway, butyrate synthesis and detoxification activity), respectively. This study indicates that microwaves result in the inactivation of Bacillus cereus by cleaning nuclear chromatin, disrupting cell membrane and disordering the expression of proteins.

Targeting Inhibition of SmpB by Peptide Aptamer Attenuates the Virulence to Protect Zebrafish against Aeromonas veronii Infection

Aeromonas veronii is an important pathogen of aquatic animals, wherein Small protein B (SmpB) is required for pathogenesis by functioning as both a component in stalled-ribosome rescue and a transcription factor in upregulation of virulence gene bvgS expression. Here a specific peptide aptamer PA-1 was selected from peptide aptamer library by bacterial two-hybrid system employing pBT-SmpB as bait. The binding affinity between SmpB and PA-1 was evaluated using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The key amino acids of SmpB that interact with PA-1 were identified. After PA-1 was introduced into A. veronii, the engineered strain designated as A. veronii (pN-PA-1) was more sensitive and grew slower under salt stress in comparison with wild type, as the disruption of SmpB by PA-1 resulted in significant transcription reductions of virulence-related genes. Consistent with these observations, A. veronii (pN-PA-1) was severely attenuated in model organism zebrafish, and vaccination of zebrafish with A. veronii (pN-PA-1) induced a strong antibody response. The vaccinated zebrafish were well protected against subsequent lethal challenges with virulent parental strain. Collectively, we propose that targeting inhibition of SmpB by peptide aptamer PA-1 possesses the desired qualities for a live attenuated vaccine against pathogenic A. veronii.