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Yoshimi A, Miyazawa K, Kawauchi M, Abe K. Cell Wall Integrity and Its Industrial Applications in Filamentous Fungi. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:435. [PMID: 35628691 PMCID: PMC9148135 DOI: 10.3390/jof8050435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Signal transduction pathways regulating cell wall integrity (CWI) in filamentous fungi have been studied taking into account findings in budding yeast, and much knowledge has been accumulated in recent years. Given that the cell wall is essential for viability in fungi, its architecture has been analyzed in relation to virulence, especially in filamentous fungal pathogens of plants and humans. Although research on CWI signaling in individual fungal species has progressed, an integrated understanding of CWI signaling in diverse fungi has not yet been achieved. For example, the variety of sensor proteins and their functional differences among different fungal species have been described, but the understanding of their general and species-specific biological functions is limited. Our long-term research interest is CWI signaling in filamentous fungi. Here, we outline CWI signaling in these fungi, from sensor proteins required for the recognition of environmental changes to the regulation of cell wall polysaccharide synthesis genes. We discuss the similarities and differences between the functions of CWI signaling factors in filamentous fungi and in budding yeast. We also describe the latest findings on industrial applications, including those derived from studies on CWI signaling: the development of antifungal agents and the development of highly productive strains of filamentous fungi with modified cell surface characteristics by controlling cell wall biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akira Yoshimi
- Laboratory of Environmental Interface Technology of Filamentous Fungi, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan; (A.Y.); (M.K.)
- ABE-Project, New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Ken Miyazawa
- ABE-Project, New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
- Laboratory of Filamentous Mycoses, Department of Fungal Infection, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan;
| | - Moriyuki Kawauchi
- Laboratory of Environmental Interface Technology of Filamentous Fungi, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan; (A.Y.); (M.K.)
| | - Keietsu Abe
- ABE-Project, New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8572, Japan
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2
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Le THT, Le TN, Yoshimi A, Abe K, Imanishi-Shimizu Y, Shimizu K. Hyperosmotic medium partially restores the growth defect and the impaired production of sterigmatocystin of an Aspergillus nidulans ΔpmtC mutant in a HogA-independent manner. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2021; 368:6373441. [PMID: 34549285 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnab127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The protein O-mannosyltransferase catalyzes O-mannosylation in the endoplasmic reticulum by transferring mannose to the seryl or threonyl residues of substrate proteins. We previously reported a deletion mutant of O-mannosyltransferase C (ΔpmtC) in Aspergillus nidulans with impaired vegetative growth and sterigmatocystin (ST) production. In this study, we investigated whether osmotic conditions contribute to the developmental processes and ST biosynthesis of the ΔpmtC deletion mutant. We found that hyphal growth and ST production partially improved in the presence of NaCl, KCl or sorbitol as osmotic stabilizers. Conidiation of the ΔpmtC deletion mutant was not restored under osmotic stress conditions when the hogA gene was deleted. The hogA gene encodes a protein required for the cellular response to osmotic pressure. However, the yield of ST and the vegetative growth of the ΔhogA ΔpmtC double deletant was restored by high osmolarity in a HogA-independent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thi Huynh Tram Le
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo, Japan.,Division of Microbial Biotechnology, Biotechnology Center of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Thy Nhan Le
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Nong Lam University of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Akira Yoshimi
- New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Miyagi, Japan.,Laboratory of Environmental Interface Technology of Filamentous Fungi, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Keietsu Abe
- New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Miyagi, Japan.,Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tohoku University, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Yumi Imanishi-Shimizu
- Department of Bioscience, College of Science and Engineering, Kanto Gakuin University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Kiminori Shimizu
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo, Japan.,Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
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3
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Ma H, Yang J, Chen X, Jiang X, Su Y, Qiao S, Zhong G. Deep convolutional neural network: a novel approach for the detection of Aspergillus fungi via stereomicroscopy. J Microbiol 2021; 59:563-572. [PMID: 33779956 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-021-1013-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Fungi of the genus Aspergillus are ubiquitously distributed in nature, and some cause invasive aspergillosis (IA) infections in immunosuppressed individuals and contamination in agricultural products. Because microscopic observation and molecular detection of Aspergillus species represent the most operator-dependent and time-intensive activities, automated and cost-effective approaches are needed. To address this challenge, a deep convolutional neural network (CNN) was used to investigate the ability to classify various Aspergillus species. Using a dissecting microscopy (DM)/stereomicroscopy platform, colonies on plates were scanned with a 35× objective, generating images of sufficient resolution for classification. A total of 8,995 original colony images from seven Aspergillus species cultured in enrichment medium were gathered and autocut to generate 17,142 image crops as training and test datasets containing the typical representative morphology of conidiophores or colonies of each strain. Encouragingly, the Xception model exhibited a classification accuracy of 99.8% on the training image set. After training, our CNN model achieved a classification accuracy of 99.7% on the test image set. Based on the Xception performance during training and testing, this classification algorithm was further applied to recognize and validate a new set of raw images of these strains, showing a detection accuracy of 98.2%. Thus, our study demonstrated a novel concept for an artificial-intelligence-based and cost-effective detection methodology for Aspergillus organisms, which also has the potential to improve the public's understanding of the fungal kingdom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haozhong Ma
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166, China
| | - Jinshan Yang
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166, China
| | - Xiaolu Chen
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166, China
| | - Xinyu Jiang
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166, China
| | - Yimin Su
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166, China
| | - Shanlei Qiao
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166, China.
| | - Guowei Zhong
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166, China.
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4
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Rocha MC, Minari K, Fabri JHTM, Kerkaert JD, Gava LM, da Cunha AF, Cramer RA, Borges JC, Malavazi I. Aspergillus fumigatus Hsp90 interacts with the main components of the cell wall integrity pathway and cooperates in heat shock and cell wall stress adaptation. Cell Microbiol 2021; 23:e13273. [PMID: 33010083 PMCID: PMC7855945 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The initiation of Aspergillus fumigatus infection occurs via dormant conidia deposition into the airways. Therefore, conidial germination and subsequent hyphal extension and growth occur in a sustained heat shock (HS) environment promoted by the host. The cell wall integrity pathway (CWIP) and the essential eukaryotic chaperone Hsp90 are critical for fungi to survive HS. Although A. fumigatus is a thermophilic fungus, the mechanisms underpinning the HS response are not thoroughly described and important to define its role in pathogenesis, virulence and antifungal drug responses. Here, we investigate the contribution of the CWIP in A. fumigatus thermotolerance. We observed that the CWIP components PkcA, MpkA and RlmA are Hsp90 clients and that a PkcAG579R mutation abolishes this interaction. PkcAG579R also abolishes MpkA activation in the short-term response to HS. Biochemical and biophysical analyses indicated that Hsp90 is a dimeric functional ATPase, which has a higher affinity for ADP than ATP and prevents MpkA aggregation in vitro. Our data suggest that the CWIP is constitutively required for A. fumigatus to cope with the temperature increase found in the mammalian lung environment, emphasising the importance of this pathway in supporting thermotolerance and cell wall integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Campos Rocha
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Karine Minari
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | | | - Joshua D Kerkaert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Lisandra Marques Gava
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Anderson Ferreira da Cunha
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Robert A Cramer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Júlio César Borges
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Iran Malavazi
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
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Wang BT, Yu XY, Zhu YJ, Zhuang M, Zhang ZM, Jin L, Jin FJ. Research progress on the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors of Aspergillus species. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2019; 109:31-59. [PMID: 31677646 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aambs.2019.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) proteins belong to a superfamily of transcription factors, and they are widely distributed in eukaryotic organisms. Members of the bHLH protein family can form homodimers or heterodimers with themselves or other family members, and they often play bifunctional roles as activators and repressors to uniquely regulate the transcription of downstream target genes. The bHLH transcription factors are usually involved in developmental processes, including cellular proliferation and differentiation. Therefore, these transcription factors often play crucial roles in regulating growth, development, and differentiation in eukaryotes. Aspergillus species fungi are widely distributed in the environment, and they play important roles not only in the decomposition of organic matter as an important environmental microorganism but also in the fermentation and the food processing industry. Furthermore, some pathogenic fungi, such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus fumigatus, affect the environment and human health in important ways. Recent research has shown that some Aspergillus bHLH proteins are significantly involved in the regulation of asexual and sexual reproduction, secondary metabolite production, carbohydrate metabolism, conidial and sclerotial production, among other processes. Here, we review the regulatory mechanisms and biological functions of the bHLH transcription factors of the Aspergillus genus to provide a theoretical reference for further study on the growth and development of Aspergillus and the functions of bHLHs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bao-Teng Wang
- College of Biology and the Environment, Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xing-Ye Yu
- College of Biology and the Environment, Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yun-Jia Zhu
- College of Biology and the Environment, Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Miao Zhuang
- College of Biology and the Environment, Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhi-Min Zhang
- College of Biology and the Environment, Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Long Jin
- College of Biology and the Environment, Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Feng-Jie Jin
- College of Biology and the Environment, Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China.
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Fabri JHTM, Godoy NL, Rocha MC, Munshi M, Cocio TA, von Zeska Kress MR, Fill TP, da Cunha AF, Del Poeta M, Malavazi I. The AGC Kinase YpkA Regulates Sphingolipids Biosynthesis and Physically Interacts With SakA MAP Kinase in Aspergillus fumigatus. Front Microbiol 2019; 9:3347. [PMID: 30692984 PMCID: PMC6339957 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sphingolipids (SL) are complex lipids and components of the plasma membrane which are involved in numerous cellular processes, as well as important for virulence of different fungal pathogens. In yeast, SL biosynthesis is regulated by the "AGC kinases" Ypk1 and Ypk2, which also seem to connect the SL biosynthesis with the cell wall integrity (CWI) and the High Osmolarity Glycerol (HOG) pathways. Here, we investigate the role of ypkA Y PK1 in SL biosynthesis and its relationship with the CWI and the HOG pathways in the opportunistic human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus. We found that ypkA is important for fungal viability, since the ΔypkA strain presented a drastically sick phenotype and complete absence of conidiation. We observed that under repressive condition, the conditional mutant niiA::ypkA exhibited vegetative growth defects, impaired germination and thermosensitivity. In addition, the ypkA loss of function caused a decrease in glycosphingolipid (GSL) levels, especially the metabolic intermediates belonging to the neutral GSL branch including dihydroceramide (DHC), ceramide (Cer), and glucosylceramide (GlcCer), but interestingly a small increase in ergosterol content. Genetic analyzes showed that ypkA genetically interacts with the MAP kinases of CWI and HOG pathways, mpkA and sakA, respectively, while only SakA physically interacts with YpkA. Our results suggest that YpkA is important for fungal survival through the regulation of GSL biosynthesis and cross talks with A. fumigatus MAP kinase pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Naiane Lima Godoy
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Marina Campos Rocha
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Mansa Munshi
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
| | - Tiago Alexandre Cocio
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Marcia Regina von Zeska Kress
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | | | - Anderson Ferreira da Cunha
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Maurizio Del Poeta
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States.,Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States.,Institute of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States.,Veterans Administration Medical Center, Northport, NY, United States
| | - Iran Malavazi
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
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Rocha MC, Santos CA, Malavazi I. The Regulatory Function of the Molecular Chaperone Hsp90 in the Cell Wall Integrity of Pathogenic Fungi. CURR PROTEOMICS 2018. [DOI: 10.2174/1570164615666180820155807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Different signaling cascades including the Cell Wall Integrity (CWI), the High Osmolarity Glycerol (HOG) and the Ca2+/calcineurin pathways control the cell wall biosynthesis and remodeling in fungi. Pathogenic fungi, such as Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans, greatly rely on these signaling circuits to cope with different sources of stress, including the cell wall stress evoked by antifungal drugs and the host’s response during infection. Hsp90 has been proposed as an important regulatory protein and an attractive target for antifungal therapy since it stabilizes major effector proteins that act in the CWI, HOG and Ca2+/calcineurin pathways. Data from the human pathogen C. albicans have provided solid evidence that loss-of-function of Hsp90 impairs the evolution of resistance to azoles and echinocandin drugs. In A. fumigatus, Hsp90 is also required for cell wall integrity maintenance, reinforcing a coordinated function of the CWI pathway and this essential molecular chaperone. In this review, we focus on the current information about how Hsp90 impacts the aforementioned signaling pathways and consequently the homeostasis and maintenance of the cell wall, highlighting this cellular event as a key mechanism underlying antifungal therapy based on Hsp90 inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Campos Rocha
- Departmento de Genetica e Evolucao, Centro de Ciencias Biologicas e da Saude, Universidade Federal de Sao Carlos, Sao Carlos, Brazil
| | - Camilla Alves Santos
- Departmento de Genetica e Evolucao, Centro de Ciencias Biologicas e da Saude, Universidade Federal de Sao Carlos, Sao Carlos, Brazil
| | - Iran Malavazi
- Departmento de Genetica e Evolucao, Centro de Ciencias Biologicas e da Saude, Universidade Federal de Sao Carlos, Sao Carlos, Brazil
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Jackson-Hayes L, Atiq Z, Betton B, Freyaldenhoven WT, Myers L, Olsen E, Hill TW. Aspergillus nidulans protein kinase C forms a complex with the formin SepA that is involved in apical growth and septation. Fungal Genet Biol 2018; 122:21-30. [PMID: 30391723 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2018.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Revised: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The Aspergillus nidulans orthologue of Protein kinase C (PkcA) and the A. nidulans formin SepA participate in polarized growth. PkcA localizes to growing hyphal apices and septation sites, and amino acid sequences within PkcA that are required for PkcA to localize to these sites of cell wall synthesis have been identified. SepA is associated with the contractile actomyosin ring (CAR), and it localizes at hyphal tips in association with the Spitzenkörper (SPK) and as an apical dome. A mutation in the sepA gene (sepA1) renders A. nidulans aseptate at elevated temperature. Progress towards understanding the spatiotemporal relationship between PkcA and SepA during polarized growth is presented here. Fluorescent chimeras of PkcA and SepA strongly overlapped in some hyphal tips in a dome pattern, while other tips displayed SepA SPK and PkcA dome localization within the same tip. At septation sites PkcA and SepA consistently colocalized through late stages of CAR constriction. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation experimental results provide evidence that SepA and PkcA are both present in complexes at both hyphal tip domes and at cortical rings. A Gal4-based yeast two-hybrid analysis confirmed the physical interaction between SepA and PkcA, and indicted that the FH2 domain of SepA is involved in its physical interaction with PkcA. A functional interaction between PkcA and SepA was shown through complementation of the pkcA calC2 mutant's hypersensitivity to cell wall perturbing agents by overexpressed sepA and by the ability of the sepA1 mutation to block PkcA's ability to form cortical rings. Taken together these results suggest that a PkcA/SepA complex is involved in polarized growth. Through experiments using the actin disrupter latrunculin B, evidence is presented suggesting that actin plays a role in the PkcA/SepA complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loretta Jackson-Hayes
- Department of Chemistry, Rhodes College, 2000 N. Parkway, Memphis, TN 38112, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Program, Rhodes College, 2000 N. Parkway, Memphis, TN 38112, USA.
| | - Zainab Atiq
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Program, Rhodes College, 2000 N. Parkway, Memphis, TN 38112, USA
| | - Brianna Betton
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Program, Rhodes College, 2000 N. Parkway, Memphis, TN 38112, USA
| | - W Toler Freyaldenhoven
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Program, Rhodes College, 2000 N. Parkway, Memphis, TN 38112, USA
| | - Lance Myers
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Program, Rhodes College, 2000 N. Parkway, Memphis, TN 38112, USA
| | - Elisabet Olsen
- Department of Chemistry, Rhodes College, 2000 N. Parkway, Memphis, TN 38112, USA
| | - Terry W Hill
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Program, Rhodes College, 2000 N. Parkway, Memphis, TN 38112, USA; Department of Biology, Rhodes College, 2000 N. Parkway, Memphis, TN 38112, USA
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Valiante V. The Cell Wall Integrity Signaling Pathway and Its Involvement in Secondary Metabolite Production. J Fungi (Basel) 2017; 3:jof3040068. [PMID: 29371582 PMCID: PMC5753170 DOI: 10.3390/jof3040068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Revised: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The fungal cell wall is the external and first layer that fungi use to interact with the environment. Every stress signal, before being translated into an appropriate stress response, needs to overtake this layer. Many signaling pathways are involved in translating stress signals, but the cell wall integrity (CWI) signaling pathway is the one responsible for the maintenance and biosynthesis of the fungal cell wall. In fungi, the CWI signal is composed of a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) module. After the start of the phosphorylation cascade, the CWI signal induces the expression of cell-wall-related genes. However, the function of the CWI signal is not merely the activation of cell wall biosynthesis, but also the regulation of expression and production of specific molecules that are used by fungi to better compete in the environment. These molecules are normally defined as secondary metabolites or natural products. This review is focused on secondary metabolites affected by the CWI signal pathway with a special focus on relevant natural products such as melanins, mycotoxins, and antibacterial compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vito Valiante
- Leibniz Research Group Biobricks of Microbial Natural Product Syntheses, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knöll Institute (HKI), Beutenberg Strasse 11a, 07745 Jena, Germany.
- Department of General Microbiology and Microbial Genetics, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 24, 07743 Jena, Germany.
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10
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Heinisch JJ, Rodicio R. Protein kinase C in fungi—more than just cell wall integrity. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2017; 42:4562651. [DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fux051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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11
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Macheleidt J, Mattern DJ, Fischer J, Netzker T, Weber J, Schroeckh V, Valiante V, Brakhage AA. Regulation and Role of Fungal Secondary Metabolites. Annu Rev Genet 2016; 50:371-392. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-genet-120215-035203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Macheleidt
- Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute (HKI), 07745 Jena, Germany; , , , , , ,
| | - Derek J. Mattern
- Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute (HKI), 07745 Jena, Germany; , , , , , ,
- Institute for Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07737 Jena, Germany
| | - Juliane Fischer
- Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute (HKI), 07745 Jena, Germany; , , , , , ,
- Institute for Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07737 Jena, Germany
| | - Tina Netzker
- Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute (HKI), 07745 Jena, Germany; , , , , , ,
- Institute for Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07737 Jena, Germany
| | - Jakob Weber
- Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute (HKI), 07745 Jena, Germany; , , , , , ,
- Institute for Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07737 Jena, Germany
| | - Volker Schroeckh
- Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute (HKI), 07745 Jena, Germany; , , , , , ,
| | - Vito Valiante
- Research Group Biobricks of Microbial Natural Product Syntheses, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology (HKI), 07745 Jena, Germany;
| | - Axel A. Brakhage
- Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute (HKI), 07745 Jena, Germany; , , , , , ,
- Institute for Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07737 Jena, Germany
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12
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Yoshimi A, Miyazawa K, Abe K. Cell wall structure and biogenesis in Aspergillus species. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2016; 80:1700-11. [DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2016.1177446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Aspergillus species are among the most important filamentous fungi from the viewpoints of industry, pathogenesis, and mycotoxin production. Fungal cells are exposed to a variety of environmental stimuli, including changes in osmolality, temperature, and pH, which create stresses that primarily act on fungal cell walls. In addition, fungal cell walls are the first interactions with host cells in either human or plants. Thus, understanding cell wall structure and the mechanism of their biogenesis is important for the industrial, medical, and agricultural fields. Here, we provide a systematic review of fungal cell wall structure and recent findings regarding the cell wall integrity signaling pathways in aspergilli. This accumulated knowledge will be useful for understanding and improving the use of industrial aspergilli fermentation processes as well as treatments for some fungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akira Yoshimi
- ABE-project, New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Ken Miyazawa
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Keietsu Abe
- ABE-project, New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
- Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
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13
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Assessing the relevance of light for fungi: Implications and insights into the network of signal transmission. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2016; 76:27-78. [PMID: 21924971 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-387048-3.00002-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Light represents an important environmental cue, which provides information enabling fungi to prepare and react to the different ambient conditions between day and night. This adaptation requires both anticipation of the changing conditions, which is accomplished by daily rhythmicity of gene expression brought about by the circadian clock, and reaction to sudden illumination. Besides perception of the light signal, also integration of this signal with other environmental cues, most importantly nutrient availability, necessitates light-dependent regulation of signal transduction pathways and metabolic pathways. An influence of light and/or the circadian clock is known for the cAMP pathway, heterotrimeric G-protein signaling, mitogen-activated protein kinases, two-component phosphorelays, and Ca(2+) signaling. Moreover, also the target of rapamycin signaling pathway and reactive oxygen species as signal transducing elements are assumed to be connected to the light-response pathway. The interplay of the light-response pathway with signaling cascades results in light-dependent regulation of primary and secondary metabolism, morphology, development, biocontrol activity, and virulence. The frequent use of fungi in biotechnology as well as analysis of fungi in the artificial environment of a laboratory therefore requires careful consideration of still operative evolutionary heritage of these organisms. This review summarizes the diverse effects of light on fungi and the mechanisms they apply to deal both with the information content and with the harmful properties of light. Additionally, the implications of the reaction of fungi to light in a laboratory environment for experimental work and industrial applications are discussed.
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Schmoll M, Dattenböck C, Carreras-Villaseñor N, Mendoza-Mendoza A, Tisch D, Alemán MI, Baker SE, Brown C, Cervantes-Badillo MG, Cetz-Chel J, Cristobal-Mondragon GR, Delaye L, Esquivel-Naranjo EU, Frischmann A, Gallardo-Negrete JDJ, García-Esquivel M, Gomez-Rodriguez EY, Greenwood DR, Hernández-Oñate M, Kruszewska JS, Lawry R, Mora-Montes HM, Muñoz-Centeno T, Nieto-Jacobo MF, Nogueira Lopez G, Olmedo-Monfil V, Osorio-Concepcion M, Piłsyk S, Pomraning KR, Rodriguez-Iglesias A, Rosales-Saavedra MT, Sánchez-Arreguín JA, Seidl-Seiboth V, Stewart A, Uresti-Rivera EE, Wang CL, Wang TF, Zeilinger S, Casas-Flores S, Herrera-Estrella A. The Genomes of Three Uneven Siblings: Footprints of the Lifestyles of Three Trichoderma Species. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2016; 80:205-327. [PMID: 26864432 PMCID: PMC4771370 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00040-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The genus Trichoderma contains fungi with high relevance for humans, with applications in enzyme production for plant cell wall degradation and use in biocontrol. Here, we provide a broad, comprehensive overview of the genomic content of these species for "hot topic" research aspects, including CAZymes, transport, transcription factors, and development, along with a detailed analysis and annotation of less-studied topics, such as signal transduction, genome integrity, chromatin, photobiology, or lipid, sulfur, and nitrogen metabolism in T. reesei, T. atroviride, and T. virens, and we open up new perspectives to those topics discussed previously. In total, we covered more than 2,000 of the predicted 9,000 to 11,000 genes of each Trichoderma species discussed, which is >20% of the respective gene content. Additionally, we considered available transcriptome data for the annotated genes. Highlights of our analyses include overall carbohydrate cleavage preferences due to the different genomic contents and regulation of the respective genes. We found light regulation of many sulfur metabolic genes. Additionally, a new Golgi 1,2-mannosidase likely involved in N-linked glycosylation was detected, as were indications for the ability of Trichoderma spp. to generate hybrid galactose-containing N-linked glycans. The genomic inventory of effector proteins revealed numerous compounds unique to Trichoderma, and these warrant further investigation. We found interesting expansions in the Trichoderma genus in several signaling pathways, such as G-protein-coupled receptors, RAS GTPases, and casein kinases. A particularly interesting feature absolutely unique to T. atroviride is the duplication of the alternative sulfur amino acid synthesis pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Schmoll
- Austrian Institute of Technology, Department Health and Environment, Bioresources Unit, Tulln, Austria
| | - Christoph Dattenböck
- Austrian Institute of Technology, Department Health and Environment, Bioresources Unit, Tulln, Austria
| | | | | | - Doris Tisch
- Research Division Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | - Mario Ivan Alemán
- Cinvestav, Department of Genetic Engineering, Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Scott E Baker
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, USA
| | - Christopher Brown
- University of Otago, Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | | | - José Cetz-Chel
- LANGEBIO, National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity, Cinvestav-Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | | | - Luis Delaye
- Cinvestav, Department of Genetic Engineering, Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | | | - Alexa Frischmann
- Research Division Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Monica García-Esquivel
- LANGEBIO, National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity, Cinvestav-Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | | | - David R Greenwood
- The University of Auckland, School of Biological Sciences, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Miguel Hernández-Oñate
- LANGEBIO, National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity, Cinvestav-Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Joanna S Kruszewska
- Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Laboratory of Fungal Glycobiology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Robert Lawry
- Lincoln University, Bio-Protection Research Centre, Lincoln, Canterbury, New Zealand
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Sebastian Piłsyk
- Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Laboratory of Fungal Glycobiology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Kyle R Pomraning
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, USA
| | - Aroa Rodriguez-Iglesias
- Austrian Institute of Technology, Department Health and Environment, Bioresources Unit, Tulln, Austria
| | | | | | - Verena Seidl-Seiboth
- Research Division Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - Chih-Li Wang
- National Chung-Hsing University, Department of Plant Pathology, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Fang Wang
- Academia Sinica, Institute of Molecular Biology, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Susanne Zeilinger
- Research Division Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria University of Innsbruck, Institute of Microbiology, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Alfredo Herrera-Estrella
- LANGEBIO, National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity, Cinvestav-Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
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Rocha MC, de Godoy KF, de Castro PA, Hori JI, Bom VLP, Brown NA, da Cunha AF, Goldman GH, Malavazi I. The Aspergillus fumigatus pkcA G579R Mutant Is Defective in the Activation of the Cell Wall Integrity Pathway but Is Dispensable for Virulence in a Neutropenic Mouse Infection Model. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0135195. [PMID: 26295576 PMCID: PMC4546635 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0135195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus is an opportunistic human pathogen, which causes the life-threatening disease, invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. In fungi, cell wall homeostasis is controlled by the conserved Cell Wall Integrity (CWI) pathway. In A. fumigatus this signaling cascade is partially characterized, but the mechanisms by which it is activated are not fully elucidated. In this study we investigated the role of protein kinase C (PkcA) in this signaling cascade. Our results suggest that pkcA is an essential gene and is activated in response to cell wall stress. Subsequently, we constructed and analyzed a non-essential A. fumigatus pkcAG579R mutant, carrying a Gly579Arg substitution in the PkcA C1B regulatory domain. The pkcAG579R mutation has a reduced activation of the downstream Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase, MpkA, resulting in the altered expression of genes encoding cell wall-related proteins, markers of endoplasmic reticulum stress and the unfolded protein response. Furthermore, PkcAG579R is involved in the formation of proper conidial architecture and protection to oxidative damage. The pkcAG579R mutant elicits increased production of TNF-α and phagocytosis but it has no impact on virulence in a murine model of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. These results highlight the importance of PkcA to the CWI pathway but also indicated that additional regulatory circuits may be involved in the biosynthesis and/or reinforcement of the A. fumigatus cell wall during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Campos Rocha
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Krissia Franco de Godoy
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Alves de Castro
- Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana Issa Hori
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Vinícius Leite Pedro Bom
- Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Neil Andrew Brown
- Department of Plant Biology and Crop Science, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Herts, United Kingdom
| | - Anderson Ferreira da Cunha
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Henrique Goldman
- Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Laboratório Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia do Bioetanol, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Iran Malavazi
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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16
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Penn TJ, Wood ME, Soanes DM, Csukai M, Corran AJ, Talbot NJ. Protein kinase C is essential for viability of the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. Mol Microbiol 2015; 98:403-19. [PMID: 26192090 PMCID: PMC4791171 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Protein kinase C constitutes a family of serine–threonine kinases found in all eukaryotes and implicated in a wide range of cellular functions, including regulation of cell growth, cellular differentiation and immunity. Here, we present three independent lines of evidence which indicate that protein kinase C is essential for viability of Magnaporthe oryzae. First, all attempts to generate a target deletion of PKC1, the single copy protein kinase C‐encoding gene, proved unsuccessful. Secondly, conditional gene silencing of PKC1 by RNA interference led to severely reduced growth of the fungus, which was reversed by targeted deletion of the Dicer2‐encoding gene, MDL2. Finally, selective kinase inhibition of protein kinase C by targeted allelic replacement with an analogue‐sensitive PKC1AS allele led to specific loss of fungal viability in the presence of the PP1 inhibitor. Global transcriptional profiling following selective PKC inhibition identified significant changes in gene expression associated with cell wall re‐modelling, autophagy, signal transduction and secondary metabolism. When considered together, these results suggest protein kinase C is essential for growth and development of M. oryzae with extensive downstream targets in addition to the cell integrity pathway. Targeting protein kinase C signalling may therefore prove an effective means of controlling rice blast disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina J Penn
- School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Geoffrey Pope Building, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Mark E Wood
- School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Geoffrey Pope Building, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Darren M Soanes
- School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Geoffrey Pope Building, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Michael Csukai
- Biological Sciences, Syngenta, Jeallott's Hill International Research Centre, Bracknell, RG42 6EY, UK
| | - Andrew John Corran
- Biological Sciences, Syngenta, Jeallott's Hill International Research Centre, Bracknell, RG42 6EY, UK
| | - Nicholas J Talbot
- School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Geoffrey Pope Building, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
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17
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Valiante V, Macheleidt J, Föge M, Brakhage AA. The Aspergillus fumigatus cell wall integrity signaling pathway: drug target, compensatory pathways, and virulence. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:325. [PMID: 25932027 PMCID: PMC4399325 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus is the most important airborne fungal pathogen, causing severe infections with invasive growth in immunocompromised patients. The fungal cell wall (CW) prevents the cell from lysing and protects the fungus against environmental stress conditions. Because it is absent in humans and because of its essentiality, the fungal CW is a promising target for antifungal drugs. Nowadays, compounds acting on the CW, i.e., echinocandin derivatives, are used to treat A. fumigatus infections. However, studies demonstrating the clinical effectiveness of echinocandins in comparison with antifungals currently recommended for first-line treatment of invasive aspergillosis are still lacking. Therefore, it is important to elucidate CW biosynthesis pathways and their signal transduction cascades, which potentially compensate the inhibition caused by CW- perturbing compounds. Like in other fungi, the central core of the cell wall integrity (CWI) signaling pathway in A. fumigatus is composed of three mitogen activated protein kinases. Deletion of these genes resulted in severely enhanced sensitivity of the mutants against CW-disturbing compounds and in drastic alterations of the fungal morphology. Additionally, several cross-talk interactions between the CWI pathways and other signaling pathways are emerging, raising the question about their role in the CW compensatory mechanisms. In this review we focused on recent advances in understanding the CWI signaling pathway in A. fumigatus and its role during drug stress response and virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vito Valiante
- Molecular Biotechnology of Natural Products, Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute Jena, Germany
| | - Juliane Macheleidt
- Molecular Biotechnology of Natural Products, Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute Jena, Germany
| | - Martin Föge
- Molecular Biotechnology of Natural Products, Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute Jena, Germany ; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany
| | - Axel A Brakhage
- Molecular Biotechnology of Natural Products, Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute Jena, Germany ; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany
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18
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Jackson-Hayes L, Hill TW, Loprete DM, DelBove CE, Shapiro JA, Henley JL, Dawodu OO. Two amino acid sequences direct Aspergillus nidulans protein kinase C (PkcA) localization to hyphal apices and septation sites. Mycologia 2015; 107:452-9. [PMID: 25724996 DOI: 10.3852/14-217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 01/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The Aspergillus nidulans ortholog of protein kinase C (pkcA) is involved in the organism's putative cell wall integrity (CWI) pathway, and PkcA also is highly localized at growing tips and forming septa. In the present work we identify the regions within PkcA that are responsible for its localization to hyphal tips and septation sites. To this end, we used serially truncated pkcA constructs and expressed them as green fluorescent protein (GFP) chimeras and identified two regions that direct PkcA localization. The first region is a 10 amino-acid sequence near the carboxyl end of the C2 domain that is required for localization to hyphal tips. Proteins containing this sequence also localize to septation sites. A second region between C2 and C1B (encompassing C1A) is sufficient for localization to septation sites but not to hyphal tips. We also report that localization to hyphal tips and septation sites alone is not sufficient for truncated constructs to complement hypersensitivity to the cell wall compromising agent calcofluor white in a strain bearing a mutation in the pkcA gene. Taken together, these results suggest that localization and stress response might be independent.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Terry W Hill
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Rhodes College, Memphis, Tennessee 38112
| | - Darlene M Loprete
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Rhodes College, Memphis, Tennessee 38112
| | - Claire E DelBove
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Rhodes College, Memphis, Tennessee 38112
| | - Justin A Shapiro
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology, Rhodes College, Memphis, Tennessee 38112
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Katayama T, Ohta A, Horiuchi H. Protein kinase C regulates the expression of cell wall-related genes in RlmA-dependent and independent manners in Aspergillus nidulans. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2015; 79:321-30. [DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2014.973365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
A protein kinase C of Aspergillus nidulans, PkcA, is required for cell wall integrity (CWI) and is considered a major component of the regulating pathway. To investigate whether PkcA regulates the transcription of cell wall-related genes, we constructed strains expressing pkcA(R429A) that encodes an activated form of PkcA. The mRNA levels of most chitin synthase genes and an α-glucan synthase gene, agsB, were increased when pkcA(R429A) expression was induced. These mRNA increases were not observed or were only partially observed, in a deletion mutant of rlmA, an ortholog of RLM1 that encodes a transcription factor in the CWI pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In addition, in a pkcA temperature-sensitive mutant under heat stress, the mRNA levels of some chitin synthase genes and agsB did not increase. These results suggest that PkcA is involved in CWI maintenance through the transcriptional regulation of cell wall-related genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Katayama
- Department of Biotechnology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Akinori Ohta
- Department of Biotechnology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Colabardini AC, Ries LNA, Brown NA, Savoldi M, Dinamarco TM, von Zeska MR, Goldman MHS, Goldman GH. Protein kinase C overexpression suppresses calcineurin-associated defects in Aspergillus nidulans and is involved in mitochondrial function. PLoS One 2014; 9:e104792. [PMID: 25153325 PMCID: PMC4143261 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0104792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2014] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In filamentous fungi, intracellular signaling pathways which are mediated by changing calcium levels and/or by activated protein kinase C (Pkc), control fungal adaptation to external stimuli. A rise in intracellular Ca2+ levels activates calcineurin subunit A (CnaA), which regulates cellular calcium homeostasis among other processes. Pkc is primarily involved in maintaining cell wall integrity (CWI) in response to different environmental stresses. Cross-talk between the Ca2+ and Pkc-mediated pathways has mainly been described in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and in a few other filamentous fungi. The presented study describes a genetic interaction between CnaA and PkcA in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans. Overexpression of pkcA partially rescues the phenotypes caused by a cnaA deletion. Furthermore, CnaA appears to affect the regulation of a mitogen-activated kinase, MpkA, involved in the CWI pathway. Reversely, PkcA is involved in controlling intracellular calcium homeostasis, as was confirmed by microarray analysis. Furthermore, overexpression of pkcA in a cnaA deletion background restores mitochondrial number and function. In conclusion, PkcA and CnaA-mediated signaling appear to share common targets, one of which appears to be MpkA of the CWI pathway. Both pathways also regulate components involved in mitochondrial biogenesis and function. This study describes targets for PkcA and CnaA-signaling pathways in an A. nidulans and identifies a novel interaction of both pathways in the regulation of cellular respiration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Cristina Colabardini
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Neil Andrew Brown
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcela Savoldi
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Taísa Magnani Dinamarco
- Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcia Regina von Zeska
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Helena S. Goldman
- Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Henrique Goldman
- Laboratório Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia do Bioetanol – CTBE, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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Malavazi I, Goldman GH, Brown NA. The importance of connections between the cell wall integrity pathway and the unfolded protein response in filamentous fungi. Brief Funct Genomics 2014; 13:456-70. [PMID: 25060881 DOI: 10.1093/bfgp/elu027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In the external environment, or within a host organism, filamentous fungi experience sudden changes in nutrient availability, osmolality, pH, temperature and the exposure to toxic compounds. The fungal cell wall represents the first line of defense, while also performing essential roles in morphology, development and virulence. A polarized secretion system is paramount for cell wall biosynthesis, filamentous growth, nutrient acquisition and interactions with the environment. The unique ability of filamentous fungi to secrete has resulted in their industrial adoption as fungal cell factories. Protein maturation and secretion commences in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The unfolded protein response (UPR) maintains ER functionality during exposure to secretion and cell wall stress. UPR, therefore, influences secretion and cell wall homeostasis, which in turn impacts upon numerous fungal traits important to pathogenesis and biotechnology. Subsequently, this review describes the relevance of the cell wall and UPR systems to filamentous fungal pathogens or industrial microbes and then highlights interconnections between the two systems. Ultimately, the possible biotechnological applications of an enhanced understanding of such regulatory systems in combating fungal disease, or the removal of natural bottlenecks in protein secretion in an industrial setting, are discussed.
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Katayama T, Uchida H, Ohta A, Horiuchi H. Involvement of protein kinase C in the suppression of apoptosis and in polarity establishment in Aspergillus nidulans under conditions of heat stress. PLoS One 2012; 7:e50503. [PMID: 23209763 PMCID: PMC3509046 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Accepted: 10/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The pkcA gene, which encodes a protein kinase C (PKC) in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans, is essential for its viability. However, little is known about its functions. To address this issue, we constructed and characterized temperature-sensitive mutants of pkcA. The conidia of these mutants swelled slightly and exhibited apoptotic phenotypes at 42°C. The apoptotic phenotypes were suppressed by an osmotic stabilizer. Under these conditions, the conidia swelled extensively and did not form germ tubes. Moreover, polarized distribution of F-actin was not observed. We then utilized deletion mutants of bckA, an ortholog of Saccharomyces cerevisiae bck1 that encodes a mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase kinase kinase and functions downstream of PKC in the cell wall integrity pathway. These mutants exhibited apoptotic phenotypes at 42°C, but they did not show defects in polarity establishment under osmotically stabilized conditions. These results suggest that PkcA plays multiple roles during germination under conditions of heat stress. The first of these roles is the suppression of apoptosis induction, while the other involves polarity establishment. The former depends on the MAP kinase cascade, whereas the latter does not. In addition, repolarization, which was observed after depolarization in the wild-type strain and the bckA deletion mutant under conditions of heat stress, was not observed in the pkcA-ts mutant. This suggests that PkcA also plays role in polarity establishment during hyphal growth independent of the MAP kinase cascade under these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Katayama
- Department of Biotechnology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Uchida
- Department of Biotechnology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Akinori Ohta
- Department of Biotechnology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Chen XZ, Shen W, Fan Y, Wang ZX. [Genomics and metabolic engineering of filamentous fungi in the post-genomics era]. YI CHUAN = HEREDITAS 2011; 33:1067-78. [PMID: 21993281 DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1005.2011.01067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Filamentous fungi are used in a variety of industrial processes including the production of primary metabolites (e.g., organic acid, vitamins, and extracellular enzymes) and secondary metabolites (e.g., antibiotics, alkaloids, and gibberellins). Moreover, filamentous fungi have become preferred cell factories for production of foreign (heterologous) proteins in biotechnology in recent years. Compared to bacterial and yeast hosts, filamentous fungi showed predominant features such as the ability of growing on rather simple and inexpensive substrates, producing and secreting exceptionally large amounts of proteins, post-translational modifications, and GRAS (generally regarded as safe) approval. Therefore, the exploration of filamentous fungi has been attractive recently. This review summarizes the recent development in genomics, comparative genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics of filamentous fungi, and describes their applications and functions in reconstruction of metabolic network, discovery of novel proteins and genes, investigation of cell physiological and biochemical reactions, and strain breeding. This review also analyzes the bottlenecks of heterologous protein expression in filamentous fungi. Furthermore, special emphasis is given on the strategies for improving the protein production, including fusion expression of heterologous proteins, RNAi technology, manipulations of secretion pathways, codon optimization of foreign genes, and screening of protease mutants. Lastly, this review proposes the future direction of metabolic engineering of filamentous fungi.
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Bayram O, Braus GH. Coordination of secondary metabolism and development in fungi: the velvet family of regulatory proteins. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2011; 36:1-24. [PMID: 21658084 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00285.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 376] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Filamentous fungi produce a number of small bioactive molecules as part of their secondary metabolism ranging from benign antibiotics such as penicillin to threatening mycotoxins such as aflatoxin. Secondary metabolism can be linked to fungal developmental programs in response to various abiotic or biotic external triggers. The velvet family of regulatory proteins plays a key role in coordinating secondary metabolism and differentiation processes such as asexual or sexual sporulation and sclerotia or fruiting body formation. The velvet family shares a protein domain that is present in most parts of the fungal kingdom from chytrids to basidiomycetes. Most of the current knowledge derives from the model Aspergillus nidulans where VeA, the founding member of the protein family, was discovered almost half a century ago. Different members of the velvet protein family interact with each other and the nonvelvet protein LaeA, primarily in the nucleus. LaeA is a methyltransferase-domain protein that functions as a regulator of secondary metabolism and development. A comprehensive picture of the molecular interplay between the velvet domain protein family, LaeA and other nuclear regulatory proteins in response to various signal transduction pathway starts to emerge from a jigsaw puzzle of several recent studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozgür Bayram
- Institut für Mikrobiologie und Genetik, Abteilung Molekulare Mikrobiologie und Genetik, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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Khatun R, Lakin-Thomas P. Activation and localization of protein kinase C in Neurospora crassa. Fungal Genet Biol 2011; 48:465-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2010.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2010] [Revised: 11/01/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Colabardini AC, De Castro PA, De Gouvêa PF, Savoldi M, Malavazi I, Goldman MHS, Goldman GH. Involvement of the Aspergillus nidulans protein kinase C with farnesol tolerance is related to the unfolded protein response. Mol Microbiol 2010; 78:1259-79. [PMID: 21091509 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07403.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Previously, we demonstrated that the Aspergillus nidulans calC2 mutation in protein kinase C pkcA was able to confer tolerance to farnesol (FOH), an isoprenoid that has been shown to inhibit proliferation and induce apoptosis. Here, we investigate in more detail the role played by A. nidulans pkcA in FOH tolerance. We demonstrate that pkcA overexpression during FOH exposure causes increased cell death. FOH is also able to activate several markers of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and the unfolded protein response (UPR). Our results suggest an intense cross-talk between PkcA and the UPR during FOH-induced cell death. Furthermore, the overexpression of pkcA increases both mRNA accumulation and metacaspases activity, and there is a genetic interaction between PkcA and the caspase-like protein CasA. Mutant analyses imply that MAP kinases are involved in the signal transduction in response to the effects caused by FOH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Cristina Colabardini
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Role of phospholipase C and protein kinase C in Aspergillus nidulans during growth on pectin or glucose: Effects on germination and duplication cycle. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2010; 55:228-32. [PMID: 20526834 DOI: 10.1007/s12223-010-0033-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2009] [Revised: 01/07/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The effects of PLC and Pkc inhibitors on Aspergillus nidulans depend on the carbon source. PLC inhibitors Spm and C48/80 delayed the first nuclear division in cultures growing on glucose, but stimulated it in media supplemented with pectin. Less intense were these effects on the mutant transformed with PLC-A gene rupture (AP27). Neomycin also delayed the germination in cultures growing on glucose or pectin; however, on glucose, the nuclear division was inhibited whereas in pectin it was stimulated. These effects were minor in AP27. The effects of Ro-31-8425 and BIM (both Pkc inhibitors) were also opposite for cultures growing on glucose or pectin. On glucose cultures of both strains BIM delayed germination and the first nuclear division, whereas on pectin both parameters were stimulated. Opposite effects were also detected when the cultures were growing on glucose or pectin in the presence of Ro-31-8425.
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Galgóczy L, Ördögh L, Virágh M, Papp T, Vágvölgyi C. In vitro susceptibility of clinically important zygomycetes to combinations of amphotericin B and suramin. J Mycol Med 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2009.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Tisch D, Schmoll M. Light regulation of metabolic pathways in fungi. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2009; 85:1259-77. [PMID: 19915832 PMCID: PMC2807966 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-009-2320-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2009] [Revised: 10/14/2009] [Accepted: 10/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Light represents a major carrier of information in nature. The molecular machineries translating its electromagnetic energy (photons) into the chemical language of cells transmit vital signals for adjustment of virtually every living organism to its habitat. Fungi react to illumination in various ways, and we found that they initiate considerable adaptations in their metabolic pathways upon growth in light or after perception of a light pulse. Alterations in response to light have predominantly been observed in carotenoid metabolism, polysaccharide and carbohydrate metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, nucleotide and nucleoside metabolism, and in regulation of production of secondary metabolites. Transcription of genes is initiated within minutes, abundance and activity of metabolic enzymes are adjusted, and subsequently, levels of metabolites are altered to cope with the harmful effects of light or to prepare for reproduction, which is dependent on light in many cases. This review aims to give an overview on metabolic pathways impacted by light and to illustrate the physiological significance of light for fungi. We provide a basis for assessment whether a given metabolic pathway might be subject to regulation by light and how these properties can be exploited for improvement of biotechnological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doris Tisch
- Research Area Gene Technology and Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, 1060 Vienna, Austria.
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Brakhage AA, Thön M, Spröte P, Scharf DH, Al-Abdallah Q, Wolke SM, Hortschansky P. Aspects on evolution of fungal beta-lactam biosynthesis gene clusters and recruitment of trans-acting factors. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2009; 70:1801-1811. [PMID: 19863978 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2009] [Revised: 09/10/2009] [Accepted: 09/11/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Penicillins and cephalosporins are beta-lactam antibiotics. The formation of hydrophobic penicillins has been reported in fungi only, notably Penicillium chrysogenum and Aspergillus (Emericella) nidulans, whereas the hydrophilic cephalosporins are produced by both fungi, e.g., Acremonium chrysogenum (cephalosporin C), and bacteria. The producing bacteria include Gram-negatives and Gram-positives, e.g., Streptomyces clavuligerus (cephamycin C) and Lysobacter lactamgenus (cephabacins), respectively. The evolutionary origin of beta-lactam biosynthesis genes has been the subject of discussion for many years, and two main hypotheses have been proposed: (i) horizontal gene transfer (HGT) from bacteria to fungi or (ii) vertical decent. There are strong arguments in favour of HGT, e.g., unlike most other fungal genes, beta-lactam biosynthesis genes are clustered and some of these genes lack introns. In contrast to S. clavuligerus, all regulators of fungal beta-lactam biosynthesis genes represent wide-domain regulators that are not part of the gene cluster. If bacterial regulators were co-transferred with the gene cluster from bacteria to fungi, most likely they would have been non-functional in eukaryotes and lost during evolution. Recently, the penicillin biosynthesis gene aatB was discovered, which is not part of the penicillin biosynthesis gene cluster and is even located on a different chromosome. The aatB gene is regulated by the same regulators AnCF and AnBH1 as the penicillin biosynthesis gene aatA (penDE). Data suggest that aatA and aatB are paralogues derived by duplication of a common ancestor gene. This data supports a model in which part of the beta-lactam biosynthesis gene cluster was transferred to some fungi, i.e., the acvA and ipnA gene without a regulatory gene. We propose that during the assembly of aatA and acvA-ipnA into a single gene cluster, recruitment of transcriptional regulators occurred along with acquisition of the duplicated aatA ancestor gene and its cis-acting sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel A Brakhage
- Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, University of Jena, Jena, Germany.
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31
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Spröte P, Hynes MJ, Hortschansky P, Shelest E, Scharf DH, Wolke SM, Brakhage AA. Identification of the novel penicillin biosynthesis gene aatB of Aspergillus nidulans and its putative evolutionary relationship to this fungal secondary metabolism gene cluster. Mol Microbiol 2008; 70:445-61. [PMID: 18942174 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2008.06422.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The final step of penicillin biosynthesis in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans is catalysed by isopenicillin N acyltransferase encoded by the aatA gene. Because there is no bacterial homologue, its evolutionary origin remained obscure. As shown here,disruption of aatA still enabled penicillin production. Genome mining led to the discovery of the aatB gene(AN6775.3) which has a similar structure and expression pattern as aatA. Disruption of aatB resulted in a reduced penicillin titre. Surface plasmon resonance analysis and Northern blot analysis indicated that the promoters of both aatA and aatB are bound and regulated by the same transcription factors AnCF and AnBH1f. In contrast to aatA, aatB does not encode a peroxisomal targeting signal (PTS1). Overexpression of a mutated aatB(PTS1) gene in an aatA-disruption strain(leading to peroxisomal localization of AatB)increased the penicillin titre more than overexpression of the wild-type aatB. Homologues of aatA are exclusively part of the penicillin biosynthesis gene cluster,whereas aatB homologues also exist in non-producing fungi. Our findings suggest that aatB is a paralogue of aatA. They extend the model of evolution of the penicillin biosynthesis gene cluster by recruitment of a biosynthesis gene and its cis-regulatory sites upon gene duplication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Spröte
- Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, 07745 Jena, Germany
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Galgóczy L, Papp T, Vágvölgyi C. In vitro interaction between suramin and fluvastatin against clinically important Zygomycetes. Mycoses 2008; 52:447-53. [PMID: 18983427 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2008.01634.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The in vitro antifungal activity of suramin and its combinations with fluvastatin was investigated in this study. Several species belonging to the class Zygomycetes are considered agents of opportunistic human or animal infections. In the present work, 15 fungal isolates representing eight clinically important genera (Absidia, Micromucor, Mortierella, Mucor, Rhizomucor, Rhizopus, Saksenaea and Syncephalastrum) were investigated. The efficiency with which fluvastatin inhibited growth in the presence of suramin (100 microg ml(-1)) was studied. The investigated compounds acted synergistically and additively on the growth when a strain was resistant to suramin and sensitive to fluvastatin; at the same time, antagonistic interactions were detected when strains were sensitive to both agents. In these cases, the growth inhibition effect of suramin was dominant.
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Savoldi M, Malavazi I, Soriani FM, Capellaro JL, Kitamoto K, da Silva Ferreira ME, Goldman MHS, Goldman GH. Farnesol induces the transcriptional accumulation of the Aspergillus nidulans Apoptosis-Inducing Factor (AIF)-like mitochondrial oxidoreductase. Mol Microbiol 2008; 70:44-59. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2008.06385.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Malavazi I, Savoldi M, da Silva Ferreira ME, Soriani FM, Bonato PS, de Souza Goldman MH, Goldman GH. Transcriptome analysis of the Aspergillus nidulans AtmA (ATM, Ataxia-Telangiectasia mutated) null mutant. Mol Microbiol 2007; 66:74-99. [PMID: 17880424 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.05885.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
ATM is a phosphatidyl-3-kinase-related protein kinase that functions as a central regulator of DNA damage response in eukaryotes. In humans, mutations in ATM cause the devastating neurodegenerative disease Ataxia-Telangiectasia. Previously, we characterized the homologue of ATM (AtmA) in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans. In addition to its expected role in the DNA damage response, we found that AtmA is also required for polarized hyphal growth. Our results suggested that AtmA probably regulates the function and/or localization of landmark proteins required for the formation of a polarity axis. Here, we extended these studies by investigating which pathways are influenced by AtmA during proliferation and polar growth by comparatively determining the transcriptional profile of A. nidulans wild-type and DeltaatmA mutant strains in different growth conditions. Our results indicate an important role of the pentose phosphate pathway in the fungal proliferation during endogenous DNA damage and polar growth monitored by the AtmA kinase. Furthermore, we identified several genes that have decreased mRNA expression in the DeltaatmA mutant that are involved in the formation of a polarized hyphae and control of polar growth; in the synthesis of phosphatidic acid (e.g. phospholipase D); in the ergosterol biosynthesis (plasma membrane microdomains, lipid rafts); and in intracellular trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iran Malavazi
- Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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The mitogen-activated protein kinase MpkA of Aspergillus fumigatus regulates cell wall signaling and oxidative stress response. Fungal Genet Biol 2007; 45:618-27. [PMID: 17981060 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2007.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2007] [Revised: 09/14/2007] [Accepted: 09/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways are involved in the regulation of various cellular responses in eukaryotes. In fungal pathogens they are of special interest because of their possible contribution to pathogenicity. Bioinformatic analysis of the genome of the most prevalent airborne human pathogenic fungus Aspergillus fumigatus, revealed the presence of four distinct MAPK-encoding genes. Here, we present the detailed functional analysis of one of these MAPKs, MpkA. Comparative analysis revealed similarities of MpkA with MAPKs involved in cell wall integrity signaling of other fungi. Accordingly, the analysis of mpkA deletion mutants revealed severe sensitivity of the mutants against cell wall active compounds, drastical alterations of the fungal morphology and increased resistance against oxidative stress. The expression of mpkA was induced by cell wall damaging conditions. Despite its involvement in cell wall signaling no influence on virulence of the deletion of mpkA was observed in a murine infection model.
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36
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Ochiai N, Tokai T, Nishiuchi T, Takahashi-Ando N, Fujimura M, Kimura M. Involvement of the osmosensor histidine kinase and osmotic stress-activated protein kinases in the regulation of secondary metabolism in Fusarium graminearum. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2007; 363:639-44. [PMID: 17897620 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2007] [Accepted: 09/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Fusarium graminearum produces trichothecenes in aerial hyphae, a process which is markedly suppressed by NaCl without a significant effect on fungal growth. Here we report on the involvement of kinases of the two-component osmotic signal transduction pathway in the regulation of secondary metabolism in F. graminearum. While a deletion null mutant of FgOs1 (encoding the osmosensor histidine kinase) (deltaFgOs1) produced a reduced amount of the red pigment aurofusarin and was unaltered in its ability to produce trichothecenes, deletion null mutants of FgOs4 (encoding mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase; MAPKKK), FgOs5 (MAPKK), and FgOs2 (MAPK) showed markedly enhanced pigmentation and failed to produce trichothecenes in aerial hyphae. Also, the transcript levels of PKS12 and GIP2 (aurofusarin biosynthetic pathway and regulatory genes, respectively) were significantly enhanced in the deltaFgOs4, deltaFgOs5, and deltaFgOs2 mutants and were reduced in the deltaFgOs1 mutant. In addition, expression of Tri4 and Tri6 (trichothecene biosynthetic pathway and regulatory genes) and production of trichothecenes in rice medium were markedly reduced in the former three protein kinase mutants. This is the first report demonstrating the involvement of a MAPK in the regulation of secondary metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriyuki Ochiai
- Plant & Microbial Metabolic Engineering Research Unit, Discovery Research Institute, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
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Ronen R, Sharon H, Levdansky E, Romano J, Shadkchan Y, Osherov N. The Aspergillus nidulans pkcA gene is involved in polarized growth, morphogenesis and maintenance of cell wall integrity. Curr Genet 2007; 51:321-9. [PMID: 17406869 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-007-0129-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2007] [Accepted: 03/10/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The protein kinase C (PKC) family participates in maintaining integrity and growth of fungal cell walls. However, the precise molecular role of these proteins in the filamentous fungi remains unknown. In this work, pkcA, the gene encoding the PKC homolog in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans, was cloned and its function analyzed using a conditional alcA-PKC mutant strain. Repression of pkcA expression resulted in increased conidial swelling, decreased rates of hyphal growth, changes in the ultrastructure of the cell wall and increased sensitivity to antifungal agents. These results suggest that the protein encoded by pkcA is involved in key aspects of cell morphogenesis and cell wall integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Revital Ronen
- Department of Human Microbiology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat-Aviv 69978, Tel-Aviv, Israel
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Bergmann S, Schümann J, Scherlach K, Lange C, Brakhage AA, Hertweck C. Genomics-driven discovery of PKS-NRPS hybrid metabolites from Aspergillus nidulans. Nat Chem Biol 2007; 3:213-7. [PMID: 17369821 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 429] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2006] [Accepted: 02/15/2007] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In the postgenomic era it has become increasingly apparent that the vast number of predicted biosynthesis genes of microorganisms is not reflected by the metabolic profile observed under standard fermentation conditions. In the absence of a particular (in most cases unknown) trigger these gene loci remain silent. Because these cryptic gene clusters may code for the biosynthesis of important virulence factors, toxins, or even drug candidates, new strategies for their activation are urgently needed to make use of this largely untapped reservoir of potentially bioactive compounds. The discovery of new microbial metabolites through genome mining has proven to be a very promising approach. Even so, the investigation of silent gene clusters is still a substantial challenge, particularly in fungi. Here we report a new strategy for the successful induction of a silent metabolic pathway in the important model organism Aspergillus nidulans, which led to the discovery of novel PKS-NRPS hybrid metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Bergmann
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology (Hans-Knöll-Institute), Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745 Jena, Germany
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Rui O, Hahn M. The Slt2-type MAP kinase Bmp3 of Botrytis cinerea is required for normal saprotrophic growth, conidiation, plant surface sensing and host tissue colonization. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2007; 8:173-84. [PMID: 20507489 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2007.00383.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARY Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) play important roles in signal transduction and regulation of various aspects of saprotrophic and pathogenic growth in plant pathogenic fungi. We have generated a Botrytis cinerea knock-out mutant in the bmp3 gene encoding a homologue of the yeast Slt2 cell wall integrity MAPK. The Deltabmp3 mutant showed reduced vegetative growth on various media, strongly impaired conidiation and loss of sclerotia formation. Growth retardation of the mutant was enhanced in media with low osmolarity, whereas nearly wild-type growth rates were observed under high osmolarity conditions. The Deltabmp3 mutant did not show increased susceptibility to cell wall damage induced by glucanase, Calcofluor White or Nikkomycin Z, but was more susceptible to the oxidizing agent paraquat and the phenylpyrrole fungicide fludioxonil. Deltabmp3 conidia showed normal germination and germ tube growth on agar, but excessive germ tube elongation on hard surfaces and reduced penetration efficiency, indicating a defect in surface sensing. After penetration, development of necrotic lesions induced by the Deltabmp3 mutant was retarded. All these defects were restored by genetic complementation of the mutant with the wild-type bmp3 gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Rui
- University of Kaiserslautern, Department of Biology, PO Box 3049, 67653 Kaiserslautern, Germany
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