Epidemiologic background of hand hygiene and evaluation of the most important agents for scrubs and rubs

Video-based automatic hand hygiene detection for operating rooms using 3D convolutional neural networks

Hand hygiene among anesthesia personnel is important to prevent hospital-acquired infections in operating rooms; however, an efficient monitoring system remains elusive. In this study, we leverage a deep learning approach based on operating room videos to detect alcohol-based hand hygiene actions of anesthesia providers. Videos were collected over a period of four months from November, 2018 to February, 2019, at a single operating room. Additional data was simulated and added to it. The proposed algorithm utilized a two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) convolutional neural networks (CNNs), sequentially. First, multi-person of the anesthesia personnel appearing in the target OR video were detected per image frame using the pre-trained 2D CNNs. Following this, each image frame detection of multi-person was linked and transmitted to a 3D CNNs to classify hand hygiene action. Optical flow was calculated and utilized as an additional input modality. Accuracy, sensitivity and specificity were evaluated hand hygiene detection. Evaluations of the binary classification of hand-hygiene actions revealed an accuracy of 0.88, a sensitivity of 0.78, a specificity of 0.93, and an area under the operating curve (AUC) of 0.91. A 3D CNN-based algorithm was developed for the detection of hand hygiene action. The deep learning approach has the potential to be applied in practical clinical scenarios providing continuous surveillance in a cost-effective way.

Removal, Kill, and Transfer of Bacteria from Hands by Antibacterial or Nonantibacterial Soaps After Handling Raw Poultry

Hand hygiene is broadly recognized as a critical intervention in reducing the spread of disease-causing pathogens in both professional and personal uses. In this study, the impact of antibacterial (AB) or nonantibacterial soaps on the removal and postwash transfer of E. coli following the handling of raw poultry was assessed. Baseline bacterial contamination ranged between 107 and 109 CFU per hand. Hands were washed for 30 s in 40°C ± 2°C tap water using 2 mL of AB soap (0.5% and 1.0% Chloroxylenol, 0.5% Benzalkonium Chloride, or 4.0% Chlorhexidine Gluconate), non-AB soap (cosmetic/plain soap), or water. Postwash, water, and non-AB soap had a mean 3.63 and 3.65 Log10 reduction of E. coli on hands. AB treatments had a mean 4.19-4.35 Log10 reduction. Rinse water had mean bacterial counts of 8.62 and 8.88 Log10 CFU/mL for non-AB soap and water and 5.37-6.90 Log10 CFU/mL for AB treatments. Bacterial transfer was assessed by following the test subject's handling of a sterile polymer knife handle for 30 s postwash. E. coli transfer ranged from 263 to 903 CFU/handle for AB soaps and 1572 or 1709 CFU/handle for water and non-AB soap. Differences between AB and non-AB treatments were statistically significant (p < 0.0001) for hands and rinse water. Differences in transfer from hands to knife handle were not statistically significant (p = 0.139). Combined, these data highlight significant differences in the performance of AB soaps relative to non-AB soaps in a food handling environment-specific usage example and provide an unexplored assessment of the bactericidal vs. removal effects of AB vs. non-AB soaps on bacteria removed from the hands. These data reinforce the importance of hand hygiene, provide new details on the differences between AB vs. non-AB soaps, and highlight potential differences to inform food handling environment operators and public health personnel on how these products may impact food safety.

The role of decontamination in reducing healthcare-associated infections

Effective decontamination is a vital aspect of infection prevention and control, and has a crucial role in reducing healthcare-associated infections (HCAIs). Various decontamination methods can be used in healthcare settings to ensure that medical devices, equipment and the clinical environment are safe. It is essential for nurses and other healthcare staff to have adequate knowledge of the decontamination methods and infection prevention and control practices required to prevent HCAIs. This article discusses the most common HCAIs, decontamination methods that can be used, and relevant UK legislation, policies and guidance. It also outlines nurses' responsibilities in relation to infection prevention and control and the importance of education and training in this area, with a particular focus on integrating human factors.

Examining factors influencing public knowledge and practice of proper face mask usage during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic had an enormous impact on people's quality of life worldwide. Appropriate use of facemasks is an important checkpoint in containing the spread of infection, which was believed to provide the desired level of protection and preserve the community. Given the relative novelty of facemask use in the general population, it is imperative to prioritize the promotion of appropriate facemask utilization and identify factors that may contribute to poor adherence.

Aim

This study assessed the factors that determined facemask use among the public.

Methods

A cross-sectional questionnaire-based study was conducted among the residents of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia between November 2020 and January 2021. The current study explored the factors such as demographic characteristics influencing the knowledge and practice of proper use of facemasks. The study included a total of 198 participants. The results were derived through binomial logistic regression analysis to determine the relationship between the demographic characteristics and responses.

Results

The key findings of the study which are crucial in developing targeted intervention strategies to enhance the responsible use and disposal of facemasks are gender, income and employment. A significant difference was found between male and female participants regarding a positive approach to using facemasks, such as washing their hands (P = 0.042). In addition, homemakers differed significantly from students, regarding the correct usage of facemasks (P = 0.026). The study participants were aware that hand hygiene is essential when putting on and removing facemasks. Despite wearing facemasks properly, adult participants possessed less knowledge about the hazards of reusing facemasks and appropriate disposal (OR = 0.202, 95% CI [0.032-1.298]).

Conclusion

The present research identified gender, income, and employment as the primary attributes that play a pivotal role in the formulation of focused intervention tactics aimed at improving the cautious use and appropriate disposal of facemasks. It is essential to implement nationwide awareness activities, such as information campaigns, to enhance knowledge. Health authorities should establish a functional infrastructure for the collection and disposal of used facemasks by the general public, starting with the dissemination of knowledge. Moreover, the results of the present study have significant implications for health preventive programs aimed at preparing for future pandemics, since they highlight the specific demographic groups that should be prioritized in the development of such policies. Furthermore, it is advisable to integrate these interventional initiatives with national health polices to promote preparedness for handling future pandemics.

Toxicity of chemical-based hand sanitizers on children and the development of natural alternatives: a computational approach

The unintended exposure of children to hand sanitizers poses a high risk of potentially fatal complications. Skin irritation, dryness, cracking, peeling, hypoglycemia, apnea, and acidosis are examples of unintended consequences of hand sanitizer. The sanitizer reportedly kills normal microbial flora on hands, which usually promotes innate immunity among children under 12. Children are more susceptible to the toxicity associated with the chemical constituents of marketed chemical-based hand sanitizers; however, the studies to develop sanitizer formulations for children are rudimentary. The adverse events limit the use of hand sanitizers specifically in children because of their sensitive and delicate skin. Additionally, it is reported that many chemical-based hand sanitizer formulations, especially alcohol-based ones may also contain contaminants like methanol, acetaldehyde, benzene, isopropanol, and ethyl-acetate. These contaminants are found to be hazardous to human health exhibiting toxicity on ingestion, inhalation, or dermal exposure, especially in children. Therefore, it is important to design novel, innovative, safer sanitizer formulations for children. The study aims to discuss the toxic contaminants in chemical-based sanitizer formulations and propose a design for novel herbal formulations with minimal toxicity and adverse effects, especially for children. The review focuses on ADMET analysis of the common contaminants in hand sanitizers, molecular docking, Lipinski's rule of five analysis, and molecular simulation studies to analyze the efficacy of interaction with the receptor leading to anti-microbial activity and drug-likeness of the compound. The in silico methods can effectively validate the potential efficacy of novel formulations of hand sanitizers designed for children as an efficient alternative to chemical-based sanitizers with greater efficacy and the absence of toxic contaminants.

Evaluating infection risks and importance of hand hygiene during the household laundry process using a quantitative microbial risk assessment approach

BACKGROUND

Contaminated laundry contributes to infectious disease spread in residential and home health care settings. The objectives were to (1) evaluate pathogen transmission risks for individuals doing laundry, and (2) compare hand hygiene timing to reduce risks.

METHODS

A quantitative microbial risk assessment using experimental data from a laundry washing effectiveness study was applied to estimate infection risks from SARS-CoV-2, rotavirus, norovirus, nontyphoidal Salmonella, and Escherichia coli in 4 laundry scenarios: 1 baseline scenario (no hand hygiene event) and 3 hand hygiene scenarios (scenario 1: after moving dirty clothes to the washing machine, scenario 2: after moving washed clothes to the dryer, and scenario 3: hand hygiene events following scenario 1 and 2).

RESULTS

The average infection risks for the baseline scenario were all greater than 2 common risk thresholds (1.0×10-6and 1.0×10-4). For all organisms, scenario 1 yielded greater risk reductions (39.95%-99.86%) than scenario 2 (1.35%-55.25%). Scenario 3 further reduced risk, achieving 1.0×10-6(SARS-CoV-2) and 1.0×10-4risk thresholds (norovirus and E. coli).

CONCLUSIONS

The modeled results suggest individuals should reduce hand-to-facial orifice (eyes, nose, and mouth) contacts and conduct proper hand hygiene when handling contaminated garments. More empirical data are needed to confirm the estimated risks.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data and code that support the findings of this study can be retrieved via a Creative Commons Zero v1.0 Universal license in GitHub at https://github.com/yhjung1231/Laundry-QMRAproject-2022.git DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7122065.

Using patients' observations to evaluate healthcare workers' alcohol-based hand rub with Pulpe'friction audits: a promising approach?

Background

Hand hygiene plays an important role in the transmission of nosocomial infections from healthcare workers (HCW) to patients. Patients could play a key role in improving hand hygiene by sharing their experience of the HCW's practices. Already in 2019, the French national mission of transversal support for actions to prevent healthcare-associated infections proposed the national "Pulpe'friction" audit, to assess HCW's reported practices, social representations, and barriers to using alcohol-based hand rubs (ABHR). This audit consisted of a positive discussion between an auditor and the HCW as well as patients, which led the HCW to declare their real practices and the barriers they faced in the field and the patients to report about the HCW's ABHR practices and the information they received about when they should perform hand hygiene.

Objective

To assess whether an association existed between HCW's reported ABHR compliance and patients' declarations about HCW's compliance in the Pulpe'friction audit data.

Methods

Data from Pulpe'friction were collected from 1st January to 31st December 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic. Mixed linear models were performed to analyze the association between self-reporting by HCW and patients, regarding hand rubs performed by HCW prior to patient care.

Results

There was a positive association between patients' observations and HCW's declared practices regarding the frequency of with which professionals performed hand rubs before patient contact. This indicates that professional and patient statements show the same tendency. The positive association was found in hospitals for patients under 45 and over 64 years old and for paramedics, but not for physicians and not in nursing homes or long-term care facilities. Patients felt more motivated to observe and evaluate HCWs' practices if they had received information about how to correctly wash their hands.

Conclusion

Patients agreed to be involved in the evaluation or professional practices. The patients' observations were positively associated with HCWs reports. New indicators taking patients' observations into account could be interesting.

Efficiency of octenidine dihydrochloride alcohol combination compared to ethanol based skin antiseptics for preoperative skin preparation in dogs

OBJECTIVE

To quantify the bacterial burden after skin disinfection using an alcohol octenidine dihydrochloride combination (Octenisept®) compared to an 74.1% ethanol 10% 2-propanol combination (Softasept N®).

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective randomized clinical trial.

MATERIAL & METHODS

61 dogs undergoing clean or clean-contaminated surgeries (excluding surgeries on the gastrointestinal tract) were randomly assigned to group O (skin disinfection with alcohol and octenidine dihydrochloride after washing with octenidine containing soap) or to control group C (skin disinfection using the ethanol-2-propanol combination after washing with a neutral soap without antiseptic ingredients). Samples were then taken from 8 different locations within the surgical field at four different stages: after clipping, after washing, after disinfection and one hour later. At each stage, two different sampling techniques (wet-dry swab technique (WDS) and contact plates (CP)) were used for quantitative analysis of bacterial counts.

RESULTS

WDS detected about 100-fold more bacteria compared to CP sampling in cases with high bacterial burden, but was not accurate enough to detect small numbers. CP sampling was therefore used for comparison of treatment protocols. 30 dogs were assigned to group O and 31 to group C. A relative reduction of 69% in group O and 77 percent in group C was observed after the soap wash. No significant differences were detected between both groups. Washing and disinfection resulted in a reduction of bacterial counts of 99.99% in group O versus 99.7% in group C (p = 0.018). Bacterial reduction one hour after washing and disinfection was significantly higher in group O (99.9%) than in group C (98.5%, p = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Additional octenidine dihydrochloride provided a slightly better decontamination effect after disinfection, particularly one hour after, which means it may only be indicated in longer surgeries. WDS is more sensitive but less specific to detect bacteria on the skin than the CP sampling.

Highly Effective Salt-Activated Alcohol-Based Disinfectants with Enhanced Antimicrobial Activity

Surfaces contaminated with pathogens raise concerns about the increased risk of disease transmission and infection. To clean biocontaminated surfaces, alcohol-based disinfectants have been predominantly used for disinfecting high-touch areas in diverse settings. However, due to its limited antimicrobial activities and concern over the emergence of alcohol-tolerant strains, much effort has been made to develop highly efficient disinfectant formulations. In this study, we hypothesize that the addition of a physical pathogen inactivation mechanism by salt recrystallization (besides the existing chemical inactivation mechanism by alcohol in such formulations) can improve inactivation efficiency by preventing the emergence of alcohol tolerance. To this end, we employed the drying-induced salt recrystallization process to implement the concept of highly efficient alcohol-based disinfectant formulations. To identify the individual and combined effects of isopropyl alcohol (IPA) and NaCl, time-dependent morphological/structural changes of various IPA solutions containing NaCl have been characterized by optical microscopy/X-ray diffraction analysis. Their antimicrobial activities have been tested on surfaces (glass slide, polystyrene Petri dish, and stainless steel) contaminated with Gram-positive/negative bacteria (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica Typhimurium) and viruses (A/PR8/34 H1N1 influenza virus and HCoV-OC43 human coronavirus). We found that additional salt crystallization during the drying of the alcohol solution facilitated stronger biocidal effects than IPA-only formulations, regardless of the types of solid surfaces and pathogens, including alcohol-tolerant strains adapted from wild-type Escherichia coli MG1655. Our findings can be useful in developing highly effective disinfectant formulations by minimizing the use of toxic antimicrobial substances to improve public health and safety.

The Status of School Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Services in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Progress Towards Achieving the SDG 6

Background

The provision of safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities and services for schools is vital to students' health, development, and educational performance. However, school WASH coverage in developing countries remains low. This study aimed to assess the adequacy of WASH services in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Methods

A school-based quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted from January to March 2020 in 98 schools. A multistage sampling technique was used to select schools included in the study. Data were collected using observational checklists and pretested interviewer-administered questionnaires. We entered the data into EPI Info version 7.2.2.6 and analyzed using SPSS 22.0. Logistic regression was used to examine the associated factors with school WASH services.

Results

The basic school water, sanitation, and hygiene services were found to be 65.3%, 31.6%, and 36.7%, respectively. The facility-to-student ratio was 1:48 for drinking water point, 1:59 for toilet stance, and 1:147 for handwashing point. The analysis of facilities access by sex revealed that the toilet to student ratio was 1:68 for females and 1:49 for males, whereas the handwashing point-to-student ratio was 1:179 for females and 1:114 for males, indicating disparities in facilities access by sex. The non-functionality rates for drinking water, toilets, and handwashing facilities were 22.5%, 8%, and 19.5%, respectively. School ownership was significantly associated with the availability of basic water services [COR = 4.6, 95% CI: 1.466-14.426] and basic sanitation services [COR = 15, 95% CI: 3.27-68.28]. Moreover, the results demonstrate training on WASH [COR = 5, 95% CI: 1.087-23.018] and teaching programs on WASH [COR = 0.21, 95% CI: 0.056-0.810] were significantly associated with basic hygiene services.

Conclusions

The provision of WASH facilities and services in schools was inadequate and not on track to meet the targets of SDG 6. Training, WASH education program, and stakeholder commitment and cooperation at all levels are required to achieve the goal.

A Novel Protocol for Nasal Decolonization Using Prolonged Application of an Alcohol-Based Nasal Antiseptic Reduces Surgical Site Infections in Total Joint Arthroplasty Patients: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Background: Current nasal decolonization strategies utilize pre-operative agents without consideration for short-term re-colonization or de novo colonization. Many strategies utilize an antibiotic-based agent, raising concerns of limited gram-negative antimicrobial coverage and the emergence of resistant bacterial strains. This study evaluated the clinical utility of a non-antibiotic, alcohol-based nasal decolonization agent in decreasing surgical site infection (SSI) rates after total joint arthroplasty. Patients and Methods: We retrospectively compared an 18-month cohort of elective primary total joint arthroplasty patients treated peri-operatively with an alcohol-based sanitizer to historical controls. The alcohol-based agent was administered pre-operatively the day of surgery and for two weeks after surgery. Patients were followed for 90 days and assessed for signs or symptoms of SSI. Patient and caregiver compliance was recorded. There were 779 patients included in the experimental group and 647 included in the historical control group. Results: Patients receiving alcohol-based nasal decolonization had a lower rate of SSI compared with controls not receiving nasal decolonization (0.64% [5/779] vs. 1.55% [10/647]; p = 0.048; odds ratio, 2.43). Utilization of an alcohol-based nasal sanitizer in the pre-operative and prolonged post-operative setting decreased infection rates by 41.3% in our elective total joint arthroplasty setting. Conclusions: When used pre- and post-operatively, alcohol-based nasal decolonization of bacteria in patients undergoing total joint arthroplasty led to a substantial decrease in SSIs.

Factors associated with hand washing effectiveness: an institution-based observational study

BACKGROUND

Few studies have investigated how the effectiveness of hand washing in removing hand contaminants is influenced by the performance and duration of each step involved. We conducted an observational study by recruiting participants from a university campus, with the aim to comprehensively evaluate how performance, duration and demographic factors influence hand washing effectiveness.

METHODS

A total of 744 videos were collected from 664 participants in July-October 2022 and independently evaluated by two infection control experts through labelling videos for correct and incorrect performance of each step. The individual hand washing effectiveness was determined by quantifying the percentage of residual fluorescent gel on the dorsum and palm areas of each participant's hands. A logistic regression analysis was conducted to identify factors that were significantly associated with better hand washing effectiveness. An exposure-response relationship was constructed to identify optimal durations for each step. Approximately 2300 hand images were processed using advanced normalization algorithms and overlaid to visualize the areas with more fluorescence residuals after hand washing.

RESULTS

Step 3 (rub between fingers) was the most frequently omitted step and step 4 (rub the dorsum of fingers) was the most frequently incorrectly performed step. After adjustment for covariates, sex, performance of step 4 and step 7 (rub wrists), rubbing hands during rinsing, and rinsing time were significantly associated with hand washing effectiveness. The optimal overall hand washing time was 31 s from step 1 to step 7, and 28 s from step 1 to step 6, with each step ideally lasting 4-5 s, except step 3. The palms of both hands had less fluorescence residuals than the dorsums. The areas where residuals most likely appeared were wrists, followed by finger tips, finger webs and thumbs.

CONCLUSIONS

Performance and duration of some hand washing steps, sex and rinsing time were associated with hand washing effectiveness. The optimal duration might be applied to all seven steps to achieve the best decontamination results. Further studies are needed to refine hand hygiene standards and enhance compliance.

Impact of human wound exudate on the bactericidal efficacy of commercial antiseptic products

OBJECTIVE

By default, the antimicrobial efficacy of antiseptics used in wound management is tested in vitro under standardised conditions according to European standard DIN EN 13727, with albumin and sheep erythrocytes used as organic challenge. However, it is not clear whether these testing conditions adequately reflect the wound bed environment and its interaction with antiseptic products intended to be used in wounds in humans.

METHOD

This study compared the efficacy of different commercial antiseptic products based on octenidine dihydrochloride (OCT), polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB) and povidone-iodine under challenge with human wound exudate collected from the hard-to-heal wounds of patients, compared to the standardised organic load, in an in vitro setting according to DIN EN 13727.

RESULTS

The bactericidal efficacy of the tested products was reduced to a different extent when challenged with human wound exudate, compared to the standardised conditions. Overall, OCT-based products showed the necessary germ count reductions at the shortest exposure times (e.g., 15 seconds for Octenisept (Schülke & Mayr GmbH, Germany)). PHMB-based products were the least efficient. In addition to the protein content, other components of wound exudate, such as the microbiota, seem to influence the efficacy of antiseptics.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that the standardised in vitro test conditions may only partially reflect actual wound bed conditions in humans.

Mechanisms of Antibiotic and Biocide Resistance That Contribute to Pseudomonas aeruginosa Persistence in the Hospital Environment

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic bacterial pathogen responsible for multiple hospital- and community-acquired infections, both in human and veterinary medicine. P. aeruginosa persistence in clinical settings is worrisome and is a result of its remarkable flexibility and adaptability. This species exhibits several characteristics that allow it to thrive under different environmental conditions, including the ability to colonize inert materials such as medical equipment and hospital surfaces. P. aeruginosa presents several intrinsic mechanisms of defense that allow it to survive external aggressions, but it is also able to develop strategies and evolve into multiple phenotypes to persevere, which include antimicrobial-tolerant strains, persister cells, and biofilms. Currently, these emergent pathogenic strains are a worldwide problem and a major concern. Biocides are frequently used as a complementary/combination strategy to control the dissemination of P. aeruginosa-resistant strains; however, tolerance to commonly used biocides has also already been reported, representing an impediment to the effective elimination of this important pathogen from clinical settings. This review focuses on the characteristics of P. aeruginosa responsible for its persistence in hospital environments, including those associated with its antibiotic and biocide resistance ability.

Is simply washing hands before dialysis procedures sufficient for reducing peritoneal dialysis peritonitis?-A single center study from 2015 to 2020 in Yiwu, China

INTRODUCTION

The study aimed to improve the qualified rate of hand hygiene and reduce the incidence of peritonitis in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients.

METHODS

A hand hygiene questionnaire was distributed to patients during home visits and outpatient visits in 2015 and 2020. Hand-washing practices were evaluated by collecting cultures from the hands of patients after hand washing, evaluating their household environment, and recording the antimicrobial resistance of pathogenic bacteria.

RESULTS

Compared to patients in 2015, patients in 2020 had fewer errors in hand washing (p < 0.05), but the rate of qualification after hand washing was lower (p < 0.01). Furthermore, patients who used hand disinfectants after washing had a higher qualified rate. Coagulase-negative staphylococcus (CNS) was the most common isolated bacteria. From 2015 to 2020, the annual incidence of CNS PD peritonitis did not decrease, while the proportion of methicillin-resistant CNS decreased.

CONCLUSION

The use of hand disinfectants after standard hand washing may help reduce the incidence of peritonitis in PD patients.

Genomic Insights Into Molecular Characteristics and Phylogenetic Linkage Between the Cases of Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae From a Non-tertiary Hospital in China: A Cohort Study

Background: Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) strains have been listed as one of the major clinical concerns. Objectives: We investigated CPKP isolates from non-tertiary hospitals to find disseminated clones and analyze extensive phenotypic and genetic diversity in this study. Methods: In this cohort study, a total of 49 CRKP isolates from 3 hospitals in the same region were collected in 2021. The prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns were analyzed. Clinical data were retrieved from electronic medical record systems. The molecular types, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profiles, plasmid replicons, and virulence factors were analyzed. The maximum-likelihood phylogenetic tree and transmission networks were constructed using single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Results: The median age of patients (N = 49) was 66.0 years, and 85.7% were male. The most common CRKP infection was nosocomial pneumonia (75.5%), followed by bacteremia (10.2%). More than 53% of isolates were resistant to ceftazidime-avibactam (CAZ/AVI). Forty-five isolates were successfully sequenced; the predominant carbapenem-resistant gene was blaKPC-2 (93.3%). The 30-day mortality in our cohort was 24.5%. The most dominant sequence type (ST) was ST11 (60.0%), followed by ST15 (13.3%). Whole genome sequencing (WGS) analysis exhibited dissemination of ST11 strain clones, ST420, and ST15 clones, both within and outside the given hospital. Conclusions: In this surveillance study, several dissemination chains of CRKP were discovered in the hospital and the region, as ST11 was the main epidemic clone. Our findings suggest that effective infection control practices and antimicrobial stewardship are needed in non-tertiary hospitals in China.

Effect of Long-Term Use of Alcohol-Containing Handwashing Gels on the Biofilm-Forming Capacity of Staphylococcus epidermidis

The spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has promoted the use of hand sanitizers among the general population as recommended by health authorities. Alcohols, which are used in many hand sanitizers, have been shown to promotes the formation of biofilms by certain bacteria and to increase bacterial resistance to disinfection. We investigated the effect of continued use of alcohol-based gel hand sanitizer on biofilm formation by the Staphylococcus epidermidis resident strain isolated from the hands of health science students. Hand microbes were counted before and after handwashing, and the ability to produce biofilms was investigated. We found that 179 (84.8%) strains of S. epidermidis isolated from hands had the ability to form biofilm (biofilm-positive strains) in an alcohol-free culture medium. Furthermore, the presence of alcohol in the culture medium induced biofilm formation in 13 (40.6%) of the biofilm-negative strains and increased biofilm production in 111 (76.6%) strains, which were classified as low-grade biofilm-producing. Based on our findings, there is no clear evidence that the continued use of alcohol-based gels results in the selection of strains with the capacity to form biofilms. However, other disinfectant formulations that are more commonly used in clinical settings, such as alcohol-based hand-rub solutions, should be tested for their long-term effects.

SHEA/IDSA/APIC Practice Recommendation: Strategies to prevent healthcare-associated infections through hand hygiene: 2022 Update

The purpose of this document is to highlight practical recommendations to assist acute-care hospitals in prioritization and implementation of strategies to prevent healthcare-associated infections through hand hygiene. This document updates the Strategies to Prevent Healthcare-Associated Infections in Acute Care Hospitals through Hand Hygiene, published in 2014. This expert guidance document is sponsored by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology (SHEA). It is the product of a collaborative effort led by SHEA, the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, the American Hospital Association, and The Joint Commission, with major contributions from representatives of a number of organizations and societies with content expertise.

An interactive feedback system for increasing hand antisepsis adherence in stationary intensive care

BACKGROUND

Pathogens causing infections are in many cases transmitted via the hands of personnel. Thus, hand antisepsis has strong epidemiological evidence of infection prevention. Depending on various factors, hand antisepsis adherence ranges between 9.1% and 85.2%.

AIM

To evaluate a new transponder system that reminded medical staff to use an alcohol-based hand rub based on indication by giving real-time feedback, to detect hand antisepsis adherence.

METHODS

The monitoring system consisted of three components: a portable transponder detecting alcohol-based hand rub and able to give feedback; a beacon recognizing entries to and exits from the patient's surroundings; and a sensor placed at the hand-rub dispensers to count the number of hand rubs. With these components, the system provided feedback when hand antisepsis was not conducted although it was necessary according to moments 1, 4, and 5 of hand antisepsis. Adherence was measured in two use-cases with five phases, starting with the baseline measurement followed by intervention periods and phases without intervention to test the sustainability of the feedback.

FINDINGS

Using the monitoring system, hand antisepsis adherence was increased by up to 104.5% in comparison to the baseline measurement. When the intervention ceased, however, hand antisepsis adherence decreased to less than or equal to the baseline measurement.

CONCLUSION

A short-term intervention alone is not sufficient to lead to a long-term change in hand antisepsis adherence. Rather, permanent feedback and/or the integration in a multi-modal intervention strategy are necessary.

Effect of Optimal Alcohol-Based Hand Rub among Nurse Students Compared with Everyday Practice among Random Adults; Can Water-Based Hand Rub Combined with a Hand Dryer Machine Be an Alternative to Remove E. coli Contamination from Hands?

Efficient hand hygiene is essential for preventing the transmission of microorganisms. Alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR) is a recommended method. We compared health personnel (skilled nurse students) with random adults to study the effect of an ABHR procedure. A water-based hand rub (WBHR) procedure, using running tap water and a hand-drying machine, was also investigated. The study included 27 nurse students and 26 random adults. Hands were contaminated with Escherichia coli, and concentrations of colony forming units (CFU/mL) were determined before and after ABHR or WBHR. Concentrations after ABHR were 1537 CFU/mL (nurse students) and 13,508 CFU/mL (random adults) (p < 0.001). One-third of participants reported skin irritation from daily ABHR. Concentrations after WBHR were 41 CFU/mL (nurse students) and 115 CFU/mL (random adults) (p < 0.011). The majority of participants (88.5%) preferred the WBHR method. Results from 50 air samples from filtered air from the hand dryer outlet showed no CFU in 47 samples. A significant difference between the two groups was shown for the ABHR method, indicating that training skills are important for efficient hand hygiene. Surprisingly, the WBHR method seemed to have a significant effect in largely removing transient bacteria from hands.

Carbapenem-Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii: Biofilm-Associated Genes, Biofilm-Eradication Potential of Disinfectants, and Biofilm-Inhibitory Effects of Selenium Nanoparticles

This study aimed to investigate the biofilm-production ability of carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB), the biofilm-eradication potential of 70% ethanol and 0.5% sodium hypochlorite, the effects of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) against planktonic and biofilm-embedded CRAB, and the relationship between biofilm production and bacterial genotypes. A total of 111 CRAB isolates were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility, biofilm formation, presence of the genes encoding carbapenemases, and biofilm-associated virulence factors. The antibiofilm effects of disinfectants and SeNPs against CRAB isolates were also tested. The vast majority of the tested isolates were biofilm producers (91.9%). The bap, ompA, and csuE genes were found in 57%, 70%, and 76% of the CRAB isolates, with the csuE being significantly more common among biofilm producers (78.6%) compared to non-biofilm-producing CRAB (25%). The tested disinfectants showed a better antibiofilm effect on moderate and strong biofilm producers than on weak producers (p < 0.01). The SeNPs showed an inhibitory effect against all tested planktonic (MIC range: 0.00015 to >1.25 mg/mL) and biofilm-embedded CRAB, with a minimum biofilm inhibitory concentration of less than 0.15 mg/mL for 90% of biofilm producers. In conclusion, SeNPs might be used as promising therapeutic and medical device coating agents, thus serving as an alternative approach for the prevention of biofilm-related infections.

Hygiene Behavior and COVID-19 Pandemic: Opportunities of COVID-19-Imposed Changes in Hygiene Behavior

In Ethiopia, the WHO strategies to stop coronavirus transmission were implemented rapidly. As a result, there was a rapid change in hygiene behavior, which are basic for preventing COVID-19 and other contagious diseases. This research was designed to examine the sustainability of the COVID-19 imposed hygiene behaviors for future challenges. The study was conducted in 2 major nexus areas in Addis Ababa. The data were collected using a questionnaire and spot-check from 622 respondents selected by systematic random sampling. The questionnaire was given at every 15th interval in several spots of the site. Observational hygiene-check was done through observing key personal hygiene conditions. Proportion, χ2 test, and Poisson's regression were applied for the analysis. The χ2-test analyses showed that the hand washing frequency before, during, and post-COVID-19 was statistically significant (P < .005). Findings from the spot-check also show that the hands of 76.8%, the nails of 68.7%, and the hairs of 70.7% of the respondents were clean. The major driving factors for the rapid changes in hygiene behavior were the awareness developed (95%), the fear and panic (90%), and increased access to water and soap (63%). Nevertheless, the major reasons for failing to continue the COVID-19-imposed good hygiene practice in the post-COVID-19 times include the decline in infection and death rates (26%) and the decline in facility access (20%). Hand washing frequency significantly changed during the COVID-19 pandemic indicating that the practice as part of the preventive strategy was successful. However, as this was mainly due to the fear and panic in the community, the COVID-19 imposed hand washing practice did not bring real and sustainable behavioral changes. This indicates that for long-lasting changes in hygiene behavior, continuous and better approach need to be introduced.

The Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Polyphenols from Mexican Firecracker (Hamelia patens Jacq.): Evaluation of Bioactivities and Identification of Phytochemicals by HPLC-ESI-MS

The objective of the present work was to optimize the extraction of phytochemicals from Hamelia patens Jacq. by ultrasound-assisted extraction. Taguchi L9 orthogonal array was used to evaluate the factors solid/liquid ratio (1:8, 1:12, and 1:16), extraction time (10, 20, and 30 min), and ethanol concentration (0, 35, and 70%). Total polyphenols were the response variable. Chromatographic fractionation using Amberlite XAD-16 was carried out and the total polyphenols, flavonoids, and condensed tannins were quantified. The redox potential, the reduction of the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and the lipid oxidation inhibition were determined. Anti-bacterial activity was evaluated. The phytochemicals were identified by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Optimal extraction conditions were a solid/liquid ratio of 1:16, ethanol of 35%, and 10 min of ultrasound-assisted extraction. Maximum polyphenol content in the crude extract was 1689.976 ± 86.430 mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g of dried plant material. The purified fraction showed a total polyphenols content of 3552.84 ± 7.25 mg of GAE, flavonoids 1316.17 ± 0.27 mg of catechin equivalents, and condensed tannins 1694.87 ± 22.21 mg of procyanidin B1 equivalents, all per 100 g of purified fraction. Its redox potential was 553.93 ± 1.22 mV, reducing 63.08 ± 0.42% of DPPH radical and inhibiting 77.78 ± 2.78% of lipid oxidation. The polyphenols demonstrated antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Enterococcus faecalis. The HPLC-ESI-MS analysis revealed the presence of coumarins, hydroxycinnamic acids, and flavonoids.

Hand sanitizer-related calls at the National Poisons Information Centre, India during the lockdown period of the Covid-19 pandemic

Background

Hand sanitizer (HS) has been increasingly used during the Covid-19 pandemic. We compared the telephonic calls received by the National Poisons Information Centre (NPIC), New Delhi, India, related to its unsafe exposure and inappropriate use during the lockdown and prelockdown periods.

Methods

We analysed and compared telephonic call records of 3 months of pre-lockdown and 3 months of the lockdown and HS-related calls in different age groups and zones during these periods.

Results

The centre received 4000 calls; of these 1583 (40%) were related to household products of which only 63 (4%) were related to HS. There was an 8-fold increase in the number of calls received at the NPIC during the lockdown compared to the pre-lockdown period seeking medical attention following unsafe exposure or inappropriate use of HS. More calls were received from the south and north zones and, in the majority of these cases, HS was ingested accidentally. In some cases, HS was ingested intentionally for suicide during the lockdown.

Conclusions

Our study shows that unsafe exposure of HS is common under conditions of stress as seen during the lockdown period of the Covid-19 pandemic. It should be kept out of reach of small children. Further, providing psychological help and counselling to older age groups under conditions of stress are important issues of concern.

Evaluation of compressed sodium chloride on the inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 and surrogates

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes the global COVID-19 pandemic. Limited studies have been performed on various types of disinfectants utilized to control the spread of this highly contagious virus. This study aimed to investigate the inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 using compressed sodium chloride (CSC) surface. A real-time reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) assay was used to evaluate the effectiveness of CSC on the disintegration of viral RNA in a time dependent manner. The effects of CSC on viral infectivity were determined using a TCID50 assay of a surrogate virus, hCoV-229E, in MRC-5 cell culture. The results demonstrated that CSC achieved a 2 to 3- log10 reduction of viral genomic RNA for a laboratory strain of hCoV-229E, and clinical samples of hCoV-229E and hCoV-OC43. A 3 to 4-log10 reduction was observed for SARS-CoV-2 (RdRp and E gene) suggesting that a CSC surface could effectively disintegrate the SARS-CoV-2 RNA genome. CSC was observed to have a 6 log10 inactivation of infectious hCoV-229E using cell culture after 5 minutes of exposure compared to the control, indicating good disinfection efficacy of a CSC surface against virus.

Hygiene of Medical Devices and Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations for Alcohol-Based and QAC Disinfectants among Isolates from Physical Therapy Departments

Disinfectants are used intensively to control and prevent healthcare-associated infections. With continuous use and exposure to disinfectants, bacteria may develop reduced susceptibility. The study aimed to check the hygiene of devices in the physiotherapy department. For isolated bacterial strains, we aimed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration of five different disinfectant wipe products currently in use. Microbiological environmental sampling in four various institutions in four different cities from two counties was performed, followed by CFU calculation and identification using matrix-assisted laser desorption and ionization with time-of-flight analyzer mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF). The sampling was performed on three different occasions: before patient use, after patient use, and after disinfection. The susceptibility of isolates to three different alcohol-based and three different quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) disinfectant wipes was examined by determining the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC). We identified 27 different bacterial species from 11 different genera. Gram-positive bacteria predominated. The most abundant genera were Staphylococcus, Micrococcus, and Bacillus. The average MIC values of alcohol-based disinfectants range between 66.61 and 148.82 g/L, and those of QAC-based disinfectants range between 2.4 and 3.5 mg/L. Distinctive strains with four-fold increases in MIC values, compared to average values, were identified. The widespread use of disinfectants can induce a reduction in the susceptibility of bacteria against disinfectants and affect the increase in the proportion of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Therefore, it is urgent to define clear criteria for defining a microorganism as resistant to disinfectants by setting epidemiological cut-off (ECOFF) values and standardizing protocols for testing the resistance of microorganisms against disinfectants.

Particle fraction is a bioactive cue in granular scaffolds

Microporous annealed particle (MAP) hydrogels are porous 3D scaffolds generated by interlinking randomly packed microgels (µgels). Particle fraction, hydrogel stiffness, microparticle shape, and crosslinking chemistry are paramount to the microstructure that microgels make within MAP scaffolds. Of these parameters, control over the particle fraction in MAP scaffolds varies greatly by user and drying technique, leading to inconsistent microarchitectures. These inconsistencies have biological ramifications, as the particle fraction of MAP scaffolds determines the void space within the material which strongly impacts cell growth. Here, we describe a method of freeze-drying microgels that leads to consistent and user-defined particle fractions by weighing the dried microgel powder and reconstituting at known volumes. Though freeze-drying hydrogels typically leads to ice crystal and cryogel formation, we report on mediums that result in freeze-dried microgels that retain their original properties when rehydrated. By rehydrating lyophilized microgels to form MAP scaffolds, we demonstrate that particle fraction controls the bulk scaffold stiffness, but not local microgel stiffness. Further, the particle fraction in MAP scaffolds directly affects cell growth and macromolecular diffusion. Using controlled particle fractions in MAP scaffolds, we can now reproducibly assess mechanical properties, diffusion of macromolecules, and cell responses within user-defined microarchitectures. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The porosity of biomaterials is one key characteristic that influences cell infiltration and growth. Granular hydrogels are a class of biomaterials that are comprised of small, building block components that boast a porous architecture in the void space between the particles. Controlling the composition of these granular materials is key to guiding cell responses. In this work, we demonstrate methods for controlling the fraction of the material containing hydrogel versus void space. As a result, we can now reproducibly study the effect of particle fraction on cell responses, mechanical properties, and mass transport in granular hydrogels.

Impact of Skin Disinfection on Cutaneous Microbiota, before and after Peripheral Venous Catheter Insertion

Introduction. Patients with invasive medical devices are at high risk for infection. Skin colonization is the initial stage of these infections, leading to the recommendation of practices requiring disinfection using antiseptics. Microbial communities playing a major role in skin health could be impacted by antiseptic procedures. Aim. To characterize and compare the bacterial communities of skin samples from patients before an antisepsis procedure, and after removal of the medical device itself, according to the nature of the antiseptic molecule (povidone iodine or chlorhexidine). Methods. The study focused on alterations in bacterial communities depending on the nature of the antiseptic procedure and type of intravascular device. After amplification of 16S rDNA, libraries (n = 498 samples) were sequenced using MiSeq platform. Results. Using an in-house pipeline (QIIME2 modules), while no alteration in skin microbiota diversity was associated with antiseptic procedure or PVC type, according to culture results (p < 0.05), alterations were at times associated with restricted diversity and higher dissimilarity (p < 0.05). Antiseptic procedures and PVC types were associated with the modification of specific bacterial representations with modulation of the Bacillota/Bacteroidota (Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes) ratio (modulation of C. acnes, Prevotella, Lagierella, and Actinomyces spp.) (p < 0.05). At baseline, the microbiota shows certain bacteria that are significantly associated with future PVC colonization and/or bacteremia (p < 0.05). All of these modulations were associated with altered expression of metabolic pathways (p < 0.05). Discussion. Finally, this work highlights the need to optimize the management of patients requiring intravascular devices, possibly by modulating the skin microbiota.

Combined Biocidal Effect of Gaseous Ozone and Citric Acid on Acinetobacter baumannii Biofilm Formed on Ceramic Tiles and Polystyrene as a Novel Approach for Infection Prevention and Control

Acinetobacter baumannii is a prominent emerging pathogen responsible for a variety of hospital-acquired infections. It can contaminate inanimate surfaces and survive in harsh environmental conditions for prolonged periods of time in the form of biofilm. Biofilm is difficult to remove with only one method of disinfection, so combined disinfection methods and biocidal active substances are needed for biofilm eradication. Additionally, having in mind ecological demands, legislators are more prone using fewer toxic substances for disinfection that produce less solid waste and hazardous disinfection byproducts. Gaseous ozone and citric acid are natural biocidal compounds, and the purpose of this study was to determine their combined biocidal effects on A. baumannii biofilm formed on ceramics and polystyrene. Twenty-four-hour A. baumannii biofilm formed on ceramic tiles and polystyrene was exposed to different combinations of disinfection protocols with 25 ppm of gaseous ozone for 1 h exposure time and 15% citric acid for 10 min exposure. The total number of bacteria was counted afterwards and expressed as CFU/cm2. The determined disinfection protocols of A. baumannii biofilm with combined citric acid and gaseous ozone caused reduction of 2.8 to 5.89 log10 CFU (99.99% inhibition rate) of total viable bacteria for each method, with the citric acid–ozone–citric acid disinfection protocol being most successful in eradication of viable bacteria on both ceramics and polystyrene. In conclusion, gaseous ozone and citric acid showed good combined biocidal effects on A. baumannii biofilm and successfully reduced early A. baumannii biofilm from ceramic and polystyrene surfaces. The given combination of active substances can be a good option for eco-friendly disinfection of hospital inanimate surfaces from A. baumannii biofilm contamination with prior mechanical cleaning.

Evaluation of the Efficiency of Hand Hygiene Technique with Hydroalcoholic Solution by Image Color Summarize

Background and Objectives: The HH (hand hygiene) technique is relatively simple. Even so, in practice there are still non-conformities regarding this aspect. Lack of knowledge or lack of compliance can be reasons for non-adherence with HH techniques. In this context, the purpose of this study was to follow the realization of the hand-washing technique with hydroalcoholic solution, applied before and after receiving the HH recommendations. Materials and Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted from May 2022 to June 2022. Students from a second year dental medicine class teaching in French 2021/22 “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Iasi were included in the study. The approval of the ethics commission was received: No. 184/05.05.2022. The study was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, HH was performed without any recommendation. In the second stage, the antiseptic hand rubbing technique was presented following the WHO recommendations. The fluorescent Fluo-Add solution, Wood lamp for dermatology (4 × 5.5 W ultraviolet tubes with a wavelength of 360 nm), and photo camera were used. Subjects performed their HH movement before and after receiving instructions according to WHO. Images were initially taken from the backhand and palm and were finally analyzed with Image Color Summarizer. The data were analyzed by the Mann–Whitney U Test, t-test paired samples using IBM-SPSS version 26 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA), and p ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: After analyzing the images, there were 70 subjects, 45.7% (32) female and 54.33% (38) male. Final average covered area of backhand was 60.89% (±17.17), 28.84:86.11, compared to 52.07% (±17.04), 9:85.23. Final average covered area for palm was 69.91% (±13.5), 31.61:93.41 compared to 59.74% (±16.64), 26.13:92.72. No statistical significance was obtained by gender. Conclusions: The study showed an improvement in hand hygiene technique without highlighting gender differences.

Ethanol is indispensable for virucidal hand antisepsis: memorandum from the alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR) Task Force, WHO Collaborating Centre on Patient Safety, and the Commission for Hospital Hygiene and Infection Prevention (KRINKO), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany

BACKGROUND

The approval of ethanol by the Biocidal Products Regulation has been under evaluation since 2007. This follows concern over alcohol uptake from ethanol-based hand rubs (EBHR). If ethanol is classified as carcinogenic, mutagenic, or reprotoxic by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), then this would affect infection prevention and control practices.

AIM

A review was performed to prove that ethanol is toxicological uncritical and indispensable for hand antisepsis because of its unique activity against non-enveloped viruses and thus the resulting lack of alternatives. Therefore, the following main points are analyzed: The effectiveness of ethanol in hand hygiene, the evidence of ethanol at blood/tissue levels through hand hygiene in healthcare, and the evidence of toxicity of different blood/tissue ethanol levels and the non-comparability with alcoholic consumption and industrial exposure.

RESULTS

EBHR are essential for preventing infections caused by non-enveloped viruses, especially in healthcare, nursing homes, food industry and other areas. Propanols are effective against enveloped viruses as opposed to non-enveloped viruses but there are no other alternatives for virucidal hand antisepsis. Long-term ingestion of ethanol in the form of alcoholic beverages can cause tumours. However, lifetime exposure to ethanol from occupational exposure < 500 ppm does not significantly contribute to the cancer risk. Mutagenic effects were observed only at doses within the toxic range in animal studies. While reprotoxicity is linked with abuse of alcoholic beverages, there is no epidemiological evidence for this from EBHR use in healthcare facilities or from products containing ethanol in non-healthcare settings.

CONCLUSION

The body of evidence shows EBHRs have strong efficacy in killing non-enveloped viruses, whereas 1-propanol and 2-propanol do not kill non-enveloped viruses, that pose significant risk of infection. Ethanol absorbed through the skin during hand hygiene is similar to consumption of beverages with hidden ethanol content (< 0.5% v/v), such as apple juice or kefir. There is no risk of carcinogenicity, mutagenicity or reprotoxicity from repeated use of EBHR. Hence, the WHO Task Force strongly recommend retaining ethanol as an essential constituent in hand rubs for healthcare.

Cartography and Topographic Mapping: The Historical Basis for the Standardization of Anatomical Analysis and Surgical Mark-Making to Improve Outcomes in Body Contouring

SUMMARY

Maps have been used for thousands of years to guide and advance mankind's interests. Recently, cartography has grown exponentially into standardized, densely layered systems, facilitating countless functions that use complex algorithms and multifactorial data. Surgeons have successfully addressed bodily concerns for centuries, aided by consistency of human anatomy, physiologic responses to disease, and patterns of disease. However, body contouring techniques alter the much more inconsistent surface anatomy of stretched or aged skin and highly variable subcutaneous fullness. To date, no consistent strategy has been proposed to analyze, map, and alter human shape in a standardized fashion; however, well-established cartographic methods for topographic mapping can be logically adapted to meet surgical needs. Quantification of results, valid and meaningful comparison of techniques, and anatomical discovery could all be achieved by adopting cartographic methods. As anatomists and scientists, surgeons constantly seek logical and reproducible methods to improve patient outcomes. In this article, the authors present a technique derived from topographic mapping, applied directly to the surface of the human body, reflecting the actual underlying anatomy, to guide both elective and reconstructive procedures. The method provides logical and quantifiable methods for (1) the analysis of anatomy, (2) data-driven planning of surgical care, and (3) a consistent operative implementation-so that each patient can receive individualized, anatomically based procedures. Use of well-established mapping strategies would also promote interdisciplinary collaboration, permit adaptation of software to analyze volume and shape, and improve patient outcomes through quantification of change and meaningful comparisons of procedural options.

Changes in the pattern and disease burden of acute viral respiratory infections before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

Objectives

We conducted a comparative analysis of the differences in the incidence of 8 acute respiratory viruses and the changes in their patterns before and during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic.

Methods

Three sentinel surveillance systems of the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency and data from the Health Insurance Review and Assessment Service were analyzed. The average numbers of reported cases and the related hospital admissions and outpatient data were compared between April 2018–2019 and 2020–2021. Changes in the disease burden and medical expenditures between these 2 time periods were evaluated.

Results

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of reported cases of all acute respiratory viral infections, except for human bocavirus, decreased significantly. Data from the Health Insurance Review and Assessment Service also showed decreases in the actual amount of medical service usage and a marked reduction in medical expenditures.

Conclusion

Non-pharmacological interventions in response to COVID-19 showed preventive effects on the transmission of other respiratory viruses, as well as COVID-19. Although COVID-19 had a tremendous impact on society as a whole, with high social costs, there were also positive effects, such as a reduction in the incidence of acute respiratory viral infections.

Epidemiological Characteristics of OXA-232-Producing Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Strains Isolated during Nosocomial Clonal Spread Associated with Environmental Colonization

Here, a program was designed to surveil the colonization and associated infection of OXA-232-producing carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) (OXA-232-CRKP) in an intensive care unit (ICU) and to describe the epidemiological characteristics during surveillance. Samples were sourced from patient and environment colonization sites in the ICU from August to December 2019. During the surveillance, 106 OXA-232-CRKP strains were isolated from 8,656 samples of colonization sites, with an average positive rate of 1.22%. The rate from patient colonization sites was 3.59% (60/1,672 samples), over 5 times higher than that of the environment (0.66% [46/6,984 samples]). Rectal swabs and ventilator-related sites had the highest positive rates among patient and environment colonization sites, respectively. Six of the 15 patients who had OXA-232-CRKP at colonization sites suffered from OXA-232-CRKP-related infections. Patients could obtain OXA-232-CRKP from the environment, while long-term patient colonization was mostly accompanied by environmental colonization with subsequent infection. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing presented similar resistance profiles, in which all isolates were resistant to ertapenem but showed different levels of resistance to meropenem and imipenem. Whole-genome sequencing and single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis suggested that all OXA-232-CRKP isolates belonged to the sequence type 15 (ST15) clone and were divided into two clades with 0 to 45 SNPs, sharing similar resistance genes, virulence genes, and plasmid types, indicating that the wide dissemination of OXA-232-CRKP between the environment and patients was due to clonal spread. The strains all contained β-lactam resistance genes, including bla_OXA-232, bla_CTX-M-15, and bla_SHV-106, and 75.21% additionally carried bla_TEM-1. In brief, wide ST15 clonal spread and long-term colonization of OXA-232-CRKP between patients and the environment were observed, with microevolution and subsequent infection.

IMPORTANCE OXA-232 is a variant of OXA-48 carbapenemase, which has been increasingly reported in nosocomial outbreaks in ICUs. However, the OXA-232-CRKP transmission relationship between the environment and patients in ICUs was still not clear. Our study demonstrated the long-term colonization of OXA-232-CRKP in the ICU environment, declared that the colonization was a potential risk to ICU patients, and revealed the possible threat that this OXA-232-CRKP clone would bring to public health. The wide dissemination of OXA-232-CRKP between the environment and patients was due to ST15 clonal spread, which presented a multidrug-resistant profile and carried disinfectant resistance genes and virulence clusters, posing a challenge to infection control. The study provided a basis for environmental disinfection, including revealing common environmental colonization sites of OXA-232-CRKP and suggesting appropriate usage of disinfectants to prevent the development of disinfectant resistance.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Hospital Antiseptics on Multidrug-Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii: Understanding the Relationship between Microbicide and Antibiotic Resistance

Acinetobacter baumannii hospital infections are difficult to treat due to the rapid emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains. In addition, A. baumannii can survive in numerous adverse environments, including in the presence of common hospital antiseptics. We hypothesized that in addition to accumulating drug resistance determinants, MDR A. baumannii strains also accumulate mutations that allow for greater microbicide tolerance when compared to pan-susceptible (PS) strains. To test this hypothesis, we compared the survival of five MDR and five PS patient isolates when exposed to bleach, ethanol, quaternary ammonium compounds, chlorhexidine gluconate, and povidone. We evaluated bacteria in a free-living planktonic state and under biofilm conditions. Each disinfectant eliminated 99.9% of planktonic bacteria, but this was not the case for bacterial biofilms. Next, we characterized strains for the presence of the known microbicide-resistance genes cepA, qacEΔ1, qacE, and qacA. MDR strains did not survive more than PS strains in the presence of microbicides, but microbicide-resistant strains had higher survival rates under some conditions. Interestingly, the PS strains were more likely to possess microbicide-resistance genes. Microbicide resistance remains an important topic in healthcare and may be independent of antimicrobial resistance. Hospitals should consider stricter isolation precautions that take pan-susceptible strains into account.

Antimicrobial Biocides Susceptibility and Tolerance-Associated Genes in Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium Isolates Collected from Human and Environmental Sources

Enterococci are among the most common causes of nosocomial infections worldwide. Antimicrobial biocides are extensively used to control the growth of microorganisms on different surfaces. The purpose of this study was to determine the susceptibility of Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium isolates collected in Iran to biocide agents, formaldehyde (FOR), benzalkonium chloride (BZC), triclosan (TRE), and chlorhexidine digluconate (CHDG). Additionally, the frequency of biocide tolerance-associated (BTA) genes, qacA/B, qacED1, emeA, sigV and gasp65 were investigated. In this study, 222 isolates of E. faecalis and 425 isolates of E. faecium from clinical and non-clinical sources were investigated. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of biocide agents was determined using agar dilution method. Biocides epidemiological cutoff values (ECOFFs) were determined using 95% rule. BTA genes were identified using PCR testing. ECOFFs for CHDG, BZC, TRE and FOR were 8 µg/mL, 16 µg/mL, 32 µg/mL and 512 µg/mL for both species, respectively. MIC values showed that the distribution of isolates with high level of tolerance to antimicrobial biocides was clearly different, depending on ecological niches. The BTA genes, qacA/B, qacED1, emeA, sigV and gasp65 were detected in 19.4% (43), 19.8% (44), 42.8% (95), 89.6% (199) and 70.2% (156) of E. faecalis and 10.3% (44), 17.2% (73), 27.8% (118), 42.2% (188) and 82.8% (352) of E. faecium isolates, respectively. Based on the distribution pattern of BTA genes 14 and 18 different profiles were identified for E. faecalis and E. faecium isolates respectively. Generally, the isolates carrying at least a single BTA gene showed higher MIC₉₀ against all biocides compared to isolates with no BTA genes. However, there were no clear association between MIC₉₀ values and carrying particular BTA genes profile. The results of this study showed that CHDG was the most effective biocide against E. faecalis and E. faecium isolates. The data presented in current study can be used to define the biocides resistance breakpoints.

Environmental and Behavioral Factors Associated With Handwashing With Soap After Defecation in a Rural Setting of 2 Districts of the Jimma Zone, Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Handwashing with soap can prevent the spread of fecal oral microbes in the home environment. Despite the lack of water and for a variety of reasons, soap-based handwashing is not practiced in developing countries after defecation.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to determine the environmental and behavioral factors associated with hand washing with soap after defecation of respondents with children under the age of 5 years in a rural setting.

METHODS

Data used were taken from 756 households with children under the age of 5 that participated in a cross-sectional study conducted from July 22 to August 9, 2018, in 2 selected districts in the Jimma Zone, Southwest Ethiopia. It included post-defecation hand washing with soap and other variables such as sociodemographic information, environmental and behavioral factors. Stata version 16 was used to analyze the data. We use binary logistic regression models. To declare statistical significance, a P-value of less than .05 with an adjusted odds ratio and a confidence interval of 95% was used.

RESULTS

The prevalence of soap-based post defecation hand washing practices among respondents was 64.4%. Hand washing practice after defecation with soap has a significant association with having more than 1 child under 5 years of age (AOR = 1.60; 95% CI: 1.05-2.45), households living with cattle (AOR = 2.00; 95% CI: 1.30-3.07), use of unimproved latrine (AOR = 0.55; 95%CI: 0.31-0.98), with the presence of feces in the compound of the households interviewed (AOR = 7.08; 95% CI: 4.07-12.35) and regular cleaning water containers before filling drinking water (AOR = 2.16; 95% CI: 1.13-4.15).

CONCLUSIONS

Most of the study participants washed their hands with soap after defecation. The presence of feces in the compound, having more than 1 child, living with cattle, and cleaning water containers routinely before filling drinking water all enhanced post-defecation handwashing with soap. However, when using unimproved latrines, respondents' post-defecation handwashing behavior with soap may be significantly reduced.

Assessment of quality of alcohol-based hand sanitizers used in Johannesburg area during the CoViD-19 pandemic

Since the outbreak of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (CoViD-19), the World Health Organization has recommended that, in absence of soap and water, alcohol-based hand sanitizer can be used to prevent the transmission of coronaviruses. Unfortunately, many media and anecdotal reports indicate that many alcohol-based hand sanitizers sold in South Africa are substandard and some contain potentially toxic ingredients. The study aimed to identify hand sanitizers used in the Johannesburg area during the CoViD-19 pandemic that do not contain the recommended alcohol concentration of at least 70% propanol or 60% ethanol, and contain traces of toxic ingredients. Hand sanitizers randomly collected from various traders around Johannesburg were analyzed using Agilent auto sampler coupled to a gas chromatograph utilizing flame ionisation detection. Of the 94 hand sanitizer samples collected, three preparations contained no alcohol, whereas the rest contained either ethanol, 2-propanol or 1-propanol or a combination of two alcohols. Of the alcohol-containing hand sanitizers, 37 (41%) contained less than 60% alcohol. Ethyl acetate, isobutanol and other non-recommended alcohols (methanol and 3-methyl-butanol) were also identified. Consumers are therefore warned that among the many brands of hand sanitizers found around Johannesburg, there are some substandard preparations and some that contain traces of toxic ingredients.

Risk Analysis of Viral Diseases in Infected Pig Farms during the Lockdown Period in China, January to May 2020

Biosecurity plays a critical role in preventing and controlling the introduction and spread of infectious diseases. The COVID-19 pandemic in China triggered a nationwide lockdown policy which reduced most of the daily activities of people, but the pig industry was encouraged to ensure the pork supply. An investigation of biosecurity practices in intensive pig farms across several provinces in China was conducted in June 2020 via questionnaire to evaluate the factors that may pose viral diseases risk to the farms during the lockdown period from January to May 2020. A total of 50 farms in 12 provinces of China were engaged. Fourteen of them were classified as positive farms since at least one viral disease was presented during this period, including porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (seven farms), porcine epidemic diarrhea (three farms), and pseudorabies (one farm). The other three farms only reported their disease positive status but refused to release disease names. The overall farm level prevalence of viral disease was 28.0% (95%CI: 16.3-42.5%). A logistic regression model was built to identify risk/protective factors for farm positivity. In the multivariable logistic regression model, the risk factor of dead pig 'removal by the others' (OR = 8.0, 95%CI: 1.5, 43.5) was found to be significantly associated with viral disease positivity. On-farm incineration pits are highly recommended to be the administered for the harmless treatment of dead pigs. This is not only crucial for controlling the transmission of viral diseases but also plays a key role in reducing activity in the illegal dead meat business. According to previous studies, factors such as adapting an all-in-all-out system, on-farm incineration pits, and requiring workers to wash their hands regularly would reduce the risk of virus transmission, even though these factors did not show significance in our study. The results of our study could help to design better surveillance strategies in China and other countries.

Chlorhexidine and other alternatives for povidone-iodine in ophthalmic surgery: review of comparative studies

Povidone-iodine (PVI) is a universally accepted antiseptic agent used in ophthalmic surgery. Insufficient antisepsis in patients with self-reported allergies to iodine has led to devastating complications. The aim of this study was to review the current evidence for alternatives to PVI in ocular surgery. Aqueous chlorhexidine has been used as a primary antiseptic agent in Sweden for several years and has proven efficiency and safety; in a study of a large series of intravitreal injections in Australia, the endophthalmitis rates were similar to those after the use of PVI. The evidence related to using other disinfectants such as picloxydine, hypochlorous acid solution, and polyhexanide is scarce. Single studies have shown lower patient discomfort after conjunctival lavage with chlorhexidine or hypochlorous acid than with PVI. No evidence was found to suggest changing from PVI to other antiseptic agents. Disinfectant solutions other than PVI or chlorhexidine will require further investigations to show their utility in ocular surgery.

Cross-Sectional Study to Evaluate Knowledge on Hand Hygiene in a Pandemic Context with SARS-CoV-2

Background and Objectives: The basis of any infection control program is hand hygiene (HH). The aim of this study was to investigate knowledge of HH among medical students. Materials and Methods: Students were randomly selected from two Romanian universities and a cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study was conducted between January and May 2021. The answers regarding demographic data and knowledge concerning the methods, the time and the antiseptics used for HH were collected. The selection of the study group was made according to selection criteria in accordance with ethical issues. A descriptive statistical analysis was performed, and a chi-square test was used for data comparison, with a cut-off point of 0.05 for statistical significance. Results: The results indicated that the attitude of the students towards the practice of HH improved significantly. Most students believe that simple HH can control infections. Significant differences were found by the year of study in terms of the hand surfaces included and recommended duration (p < 0.05). Conclusions: In conclusion, the study shows that most respondents have sufficient knowledge on HH, meaning that a higher compliance is required to control infections. The indicated reasons of non-compliance with HH are emergencies and other priorities.

Antimicrobial Properties of the Triclosan-Loaded Polymeric Composite Based on Unsaturated Polyester Resin: Synthesis, Characterization and Activity

The manufacturing of sanitary and household furniture on a large scale with inherently antimicrobial properties is an essential field of research. This work focuses on the synthesis of polymer composites based on the unsaturated polyester of resin loaded with 5 wt.%-Triclosan produced by a co-mixing approach on automated technological complex with a potential for broad applications. According to findings, the polymer composite has a non-porous structure (surface area < 1.97 m²/g) suitable for sanitary applications to reduce the growth of bacteria. The chemical composition confirmed the presence of major elements, and the inclusion of Triclosan was quantitatively confirmed by the appearance of chlorine on XRF (1.67 wt.%) and EDS (1.62 wt.%) analysis. Thermal analysis showed the difference of 5 wt.% in weight loss, which confirms the loading of Triclosan into the polymer matrix. The polymer composite completely inhibited the strains of S. aureus 6538-P, S. aureus 39, S. epidermidis 12228, and Kl. Pneumoniae 10031 after 5-min contact time. The antimicrobial effects against Kl. pneumoniae 700603, Ps. aeruginosa 9027 and Ps. aeruginosa TA2 strains were 92.7%, 85.8% and 18.4%, respectively. The inhibition activity against C. albicans 10231 and C. albicans 2091 was 1.6% and 82.4%, respectively; while the clinical strain of C. albicans was inhibited by 92.2%. The polymer composite loaded with 5 wt.%-Triclosan displayed a stability over the period that illustrates the possibility of washing the composite surface.

Hand Hygiene Compliance in Pediatric Emergency of a Lower-Middle Income Country: A Quality Improvement Study

BACKGROUND

Prospective data on hand hygiene compliance in pediatric emergency department (PED) settings is limited. We studied the impact of quality improvement measures on the overall and health care personnel wise hand hygiene compliance rates in a busy PED.

METHODS

The baseline hand hygiene compliance rates were audited from May-July 2018. The quality improvement interventions included various structural changes to the environment, administrative changes, education and training. During the interventions, auditing was continued for 2 months (August - September 2018). Statistical Process control charts were created.

RESULTS

We observed a significant increase in overall compliance rates from 31.8 to 53.9% (p < 0.001). These improvements were observed in the children (29.6 to 46.4%, p < 0.001) as well as neonatal area (35.7% to 59.7, p < 0.001) of PED as well as amongst various health care personnel and in four out of the five moments of hand hygiene.

CONCLUSION

Hand hygiene compliance improved significantly in a busy PED of a lower middle-income country following quality improvement interventions. Such improvement was observed amongst all categories of health care personnel and different types of hand hygiene opportunities. This study demonstrates the feasibility and efficacy of simple quality improvement interventions in a challenging hospital environment.

The New Face of Berries: A Review of Their Antiviral Proprieties

Due to rising consumer preference for natural remedies, the search for natural antiviral agents has accelerated considerably in recent years. Among the natural sources of compounds with potential antiviral proprieties, berries are interesting candidates, due to their association with health-promoting properties, including antioxidant, antimutagenic, anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. The past two decades have witnessed a flurry of new findings. Studies suggest promising antiviral proprieties against enveloped and non-enveloped viruses, particularly of cranberries, blueberries, blackcurrants, black raspberries, and pomegranates. The aim of this review is to assemble these findings, to list the implied mechanisms of action, and thereby point out promising subjects for research in this field, in the hope that compounds obtainable from natural sources such as berries may be used someday to treat, or even prevent, viral infections.

Adaptation and validation of a method for evaluating the bactericidal activity of ethyl alcohol in gel format 70% (w/w)

Ethyl alcohol 70% (w/w) is a broad-spectrum bactericidal agent that is mandatorily marketed as a gel in Brazil since 2002. However, there is no method described for the microbiological quality control of surface disinfectants in the form of gel, which makes it impossible to monitor the effectiveness of these products by the Health Surveillance. Thus, the present study aimed to adapt an analytical method and validate it so that it is possible to evaluate the bactericidal activity of ethyl alcohol-based disinfectants at 70% (w/w) in gel form. The proposed analytical method is an adaptation of a method developed by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), which is currently used to evaluate the bacterial activity of disinfectants in the form of spray and aerosol. The method consisted of challenging the disinfectant by putting it in contact with 60 carriers - previously contaminated with the test microorganism - during the contact time established by the manufacturer. The bacteria used in this work were Staphylococcus aureus CBRVS 00039 ATCC 6538, Salmonella enterica CBRVS 00028 ATCC 10708, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa CBRVS 00025 ATCC 15442. The parameters chosen for the validation of the method were: matrix effect, robustness, and repeatability. The experiments performed with a disinfectant matrix showed that there is no interference of the gel on the effectiveness of alcohol. Satisfactory results regarding the evaluation of bactericidal activity were obtained for the three microorganisms tested when the volume of 100 μL of disinfectant was applied. The method also showed good repeatability, as it proved to be robust with modification of incubation times, equipment and analysts. The development and validation of this method were extremely important for the quality monitoring of these products, besides being the first method described for the evaluation of gel disinfectants.