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Nayeri T, Sarvi S, Daryani A. Effective factors in the pathogenesis of Toxoplasmagondii. Heliyon 2024; 10:e31558. [PMID: 38818168 PMCID: PMC11137575 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a cosmopolitan protozoan parasite in humans and animals. It infects about 30 % of the human population worldwide and causes potentially fatal diseases in immunocompromised hosts and neonates. For this study, five English-language databases (ScienceDirect, ProQuest, Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus) and the internet search engine Google Scholar were searched. This review was accomplished to draw a global perspective of what is known about the pathogenesis of T. gondii and various factors affecting it. Virulence and immune responses can influence the mechanisms of parasite pathogenesis and these factors are in turn influenced by other factors. In addition to the host's genetic background, the type of Toxoplasma strain, the routes of transmission of infection, the number of passages, and different phases of parasite life affect virulence. The identification of virulence factors of the parasite could provide promising insights into the pathogenesis of this parasite. The results of this study can be an incentive to conduct more intensive research to design and develop new anti-Toxoplasma agents (drugs and vaccines) to treat or prevent this infection. In addition, further studies are needed to better understand the key agents in the pathogenesis of T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tooran Nayeri
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Dezful University of Medical Sciences, Dezful, Iran
- Student Research Committee, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Shahabeddin Sarvi
- Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Ahmad Daryani
- Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
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2
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Bitew MA, Gaete PS, Swale C, Maru P, Contreras JE, Saeij JPJ. Two Toxoplasma gondii putative pore-forming proteins, GRA47 and GRA72, influence small molecule permeability of the parasitophorous vacuole. mBio 2024; 15:e0308123. [PMID: 38380952 PMCID: PMC10936148 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03081-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii, a medically important intracellular parasite, uses GRA proteins secreted from dense granule organelles to mediate nutrient flux across the parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM). GRA17 and GRA23 are known pore-forming proteins on the PVM involved in this process, but the roles of additional proteins have remained largely uncharacterized. We recently identified GRA72 as synthetically lethal with GRA17. Deleting GRA72 produced similar phenotypes to Δgra17 parasites, and computational predictions suggested it forms a pore. To understand how GRA72 functions, we performed immunoprecipitation experiments and identified GRA47 as an interactor of GRA72. Deletion of GRA47 resulted in an aberrant "bubble vacuole" morphology with reduced small molecule permeability, mirroring the phenotype observed in GRA17 and GRA72 knockouts. Structural predictions indicated that GRA47 and GRA72 form heptameric and hexameric pores, respectively, with conserved histidine residues lining the pore. Mutational analysis highlighted the critical role of these histidines for protein functionality. Validation through electrophysiology confirmed alterations in membrane conductance, corroborating their pore-forming capabilities. Furthermore, Δgra47 parasites and parasites expressing GRA47 with a histidine mutation had reduced in vitro proliferation and attenuated virulence in mice. Our findings show the important roles of GRA47 and GRA72 in regulating PVM permeability, thereby expanding the repertoire of potential therapeutic targets against Toxoplasma infections. IMPORTANCE Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that poses significant health risks to those with impaired immunity. It replicates inside host cells shielded by the PVM, which controls nutrient and waste exchange with the host. GRA72, previously identified as essential in the absence of the GRA17 nutrient channel, is implicated in forming an alternative nutrient channel. Here we found that GRA47 associates with GRA72 and is also important for the PVM's permeability to small molecules. Removal of GRA47 leads to distorted vacuoles and impairs small molecule transport across the PVM, resembling the effects of GRA17 and GRA72 deletions. Structural models suggest GRA47 and GRA72 form distinct pore structures, with a pore-lining histidine critical to their function. Toxoplasma strains lacking GRA47 or those with a histidine mutation have impaired growth and reduced virulence in mice, highlighting these proteins as potential targets for new treatments against toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mebratu A. Bitew
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Pablo S. Gaete
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Christopher Swale
- Team Host-Pathogen Interactions and Immunity to Infection, Institute for Advanced Biosciences (IAB), INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR5309, University Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
| | - Parag Maru
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Jorge E. Contreras
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Jeroen P. J. Saeij
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
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3
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Ghareeb AFA, Foutz JC, Schneiders GH, Richter JN, Milfort MC, Fuller AL, Rekaya R, Aggrey SE. Host transcriptome response to heat stress and Eimeria maxima infection in meat-type chickens. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0296350. [PMID: 38394169 PMCID: PMC10889870 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0296350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Eimeria (E.) maxima parasite infects chickens' midgut disrupting the jejunal and ileal mucosa causing high morbidity and mortality. Heat stress (HS) is a seasonal stressor that impacts biological functions leading to poor performance. This study elucidates how HS, E. maxima infection, and their combination affect the ileum transcriptome. Two-hundred and forty 2-week-old males Ross708 chickens were randomly allocated into four treatment groups: thermoneutral-control (TNc), thermoneutral-infected (TNi), heat-stress control (HSc), and heat stress-infected (HSi), with 6 replicates each of 10 birds. Infected groups received 200x103 sporulated E. maxima oocysts/bird, and heat-treated groups were raised at 35°C. At 6-day post-treatment, ileums of five randomly selected chickens per group were sampled, RNA was extracted and sequenced. A total of 413, 3377, 1908, and 2304 DEGs were identified when applying the comparisons: TNc vs HSc, TNc vs TNi, HSi vs HSc, and TNi vs HSi, respectively, at cutoff ≥1.2-fold change (FDR: q<0.05). HSc vs TNc showed upregulation of lipid metabolic pathways and degradation/metabolism of multiple amino acids; and downregulation of most immune-related and protein synthesis pathways. TNc vs TNi displayed upregulation of most of immune-associated pathways and eukaryotic mRNA maturation pathways; and downregulation of fatty acid metabolism and multiple amino acid metabolism pathways including tryptophan. Comparing HSi versus HSc and TNi revealed that combining the two stressors restored the expression of some cellular functions, e.g., oxidative phosphorylation and protein synthesis; and downregulate immune response pathways associated with E. maxima infection. During E. maxima infection under HS the calcium signaling pathway was downregulated, including genes responsible for increasing the cytoplasmic calcium concentration; and tryptophan metabolism was upregulated, including genes that contribute to catabolizing tryptophan through serotonin and indole pathways; which might result in reducing the cytoplasmic pool of nutrients and calcium available for the parasite to scavenge and consequently might affect the parasite's reproductive ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed F. A. Ghareeb
- NutriGenomics Laboratory, Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - James C. Foutz
- NutriGenomics Laboratory, Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Gustavo H. Schneiders
- NutriGenomics Laboratory, Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Jennifer N. Richter
- NutriGenomics Laboratory, Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Marie C. Milfort
- NutriGenomics Laboratory, Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Alberta L. Fuller
- NutriGenomics Laboratory, Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Romdhane Rekaya
- Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Samuel E. Aggrey
- NutriGenomics Laboratory, Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
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Bitew MA, Gaete PS, Swale C, Maru P, Contreras JE, Saeij JPJ. GRA47 and GRA72 are Toxoplasma gondii pore-forming proteins that influence small molecule permeability of the parasitophorous vacuole. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.11.15.567216. [PMID: 38014337 PMCID: PMC10680723 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.15.567216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii, a medically important intracellular parasite, uses GRA proteins, secreted from dense granule organelles, to mediate nutrient flux across the parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM). GRA17 and GRA23 are known pore-forming proteins on the PVM involved in this process, but the roles of additional proteins have remained largely uncharacterized. We recently identified GRA72 as synthetically lethal with GRA17. Deleting GRA72 produced similar phenotypes to Δgra17 parasites, and computational predictions suggested it forms a pore. To understand how GRA72 functions we performed immunoprecipitation experiments and identified GRA47 as an interactor of GRA72. Deletion of GRA47 resulted in an aberrant 'bubble vacuole' morphology with reduced small molecule permeability, mirroring the phenotype observed in GRA17 and GRA72 knockouts. Structural predictions indicated that GRA47 and GRA72 form heptameric and hexameric pores, respectively, with conserved histidine residues lining the pore. Mutational analysis highlighted the critical role of these histidines for protein functionality. Validation through electrophysiology confirmed alterations in membrane conductance, corroborating their pore-forming capabilities. Furthermore, Δgra47 parasites and parasites expressing GRA47 with a histidine mutation had reduced in vitro proliferation and attenuated virulence in mice. Our findings show the important roles of GRA47 and GRA72 in regulating PVM permeability, thereby expanding the repertoire of potential therapeutic targets against Toxoplasma infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mebratu A. Bitew
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis. Davis, California, USA
| | - Pablo S. Gaete
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California, Davis. Davis, California, USA
| | - Christopher Swale
- Team Host-Pathogen Interactions and Immunity to Infection, Institute for Advanced Biosciences (IAB), INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR5309, University Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
| | - Parag Maru
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis. Davis, California, USA
| | - Jorge E. Contreras
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California, Davis. Davis, California, USA
| | - Jeroen P. J. Saeij
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis. Davis, California, USA
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Paredes-Santos TC, Bitew MA, Swale C, Rodriguez F, Krishnamurthy S, Wang Y, Maru P, Sangaré LO, Saeij JPJ. Genome-wide CRISPR screen identifies genes synthetically lethal with GRA17, a nutrient channel encoding gene in Toxoplasma. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011543. [PMID: 37498952 PMCID: PMC10409377 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that replicates within a specialized compartment called the parasitophorous vacuole (PV), which is surrounded by the PV membrane (PVM). To obtain essential nutrients, Toxoplasma must transport molecules across the PVM, a process mediated by the secreted parasite proteins GRA17 and GRA23. These proteins form pores in the PVM through which small molecules can diffuse in and out of the PV. GRA17 and GRA23 are synthetically lethal, suggesting that at least one pore type is essential for parasite survival. In the 'nutrient sensitized' Δgra17 strain it is likely that other Toxoplasma genes become essential, because they mediate nutrient acquisition from the host or are involved in the trafficking of GRA23 to the PVM. To identify these genes, a genome-wide loss-of-function screen was performed in wild-type and Δgra17 parasites, which identified multiple genes that were synthetically sick/lethal with GRA17. Several of these genes were involved in the correct localization of GRAs, including GRA17/GRA23, to the PVM. One of the top hits, GRA72, was predicted to form a pore on the PVM, and its deletion led to the formation of enlarged "bubble vacuoles" with reduced PVM small molecule permeability, similar to what was previously observed for Δgra17 parasites. Furthermore, Δgra72 parasites had reduced in vitro growth and virulence in mice. These findings suggest that in the absence of GRA17, other genes become essential, likely because they play a role in the proper localization of GRA23 (and other GRAs) or because they determine host-derived nutrient acquisition at the PVM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana C. Paredes-Santos
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Mebratu A. Bitew
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Christopher Swale
- Team Host-Pathogen Interactions and Immunity to Infection, Institute for Advanced Biosciences (IAB), INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR5309, University Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
| | - Felipe Rodriguez
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Shruthi Krishnamurthy
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Yifan Wang
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Parag Maru
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Lamba Omar Sangaré
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Jeroen P. J. Saeij
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
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Hsieh Y, Tsai T, Huang S, Heng J, Huang Y, Tsai P, Tu C, Chao T, Tsai Y, Chang P, Lee C, Yu G, Chang S, Dzhagalov IL, Hsu C. IFN-stimulated metabolite transporter ENT3 facilitates viral genome release. EMBO Rep 2023; 24:e55286. [PMID: 36652307 PMCID: PMC9986816 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202255286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
An increasing amount of evidence emphasizes the role of metabolic reprogramming in immune cells to fight infections. However, little is known about the regulation of metabolite transporters that facilitate and support metabolic demands. In this study, we found that the expression of equilibrative nucleoside transporter 3 (ENT3, encoded by solute carrier family 29 member 3, Slc29a3) is part of the innate immune response, which is rapidly upregulated upon pathogen invasion. The transcription of Slc29a3 is directly regulated by type I interferon-induced signaling, demonstrating that this metabolite transporter is an interferon-stimulated gene (ISG). Suprisingly, we unveil that several viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, require ENT3 to facilitate their entry into the cytoplasm. The removal or suppression of Slc29a3 expression is sufficient to significantly decrease viral replication in vitro and in vivo. Our study reveals that ENT3 is a pro-viral ISG co-opted by some viruses to gain a survival advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu‐Ting Hsieh
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Tsung‐Lin Tsai
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
- Taiwan International Graduate Program in Molecular MedicineNational Yang Ming Chiao Tung University and Academia SinicaTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Shen‐Yan Huang
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Jian‐Wen Heng
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Yu‐Chia Huang
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Pei‐Yuan Tsai
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Chia‐Chun Tu
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | | | - Ya‐Min Tsai
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences and Medical BiotechnologyNational Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Pei‐Ching Chang
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Chien‐Kuo Lee
- Graduate Institute of Immunology, College of MedicineNational Taiwan UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Guann‐Yi Yu
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, National Health Research InstitutesMiaoliTaiwan
| | - Sui‐Yuan Chang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences and Medical BiotechnologyNational Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
- Department of Laboratory MedicineNational Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of MedicineTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Ivan L. Dzhagalov
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Chia‐Lin Hsu
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
- Taiwan International Graduate Program in Molecular MedicineNational Yang Ming Chiao Tung University and Academia SinicaTaipeiTaiwan
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Reyes-López M, Ramírez-Rico G, Serrano-Luna J, de la Garza M. Activity of Apo-Lactoferrin on Pathogenic Protozoa. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14081702. [PMID: 36015327 PMCID: PMC9414845 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14081702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasites and other eventually pathogenic organisms require the ability to adapt to different environmental conditions inside the host to assure survival. Some host proteins have evolved as defense constituents, such as lactoferrin (Lf), which is part of the innate immune system. Lf in its iron-free form (apo-Lf) and its peptides obtained by cleavage with pepsin are microbicides. Parasites confront Lf in mucosae and blood. In this work, the activity of Lf against pathogenic and opportunistic parasites such as Cryptosporidium spp., Eimeria spp., Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia duodenalis, Leishmania spp., Trypanosoma spp., Plasmodium spp., Babesia spp., Toxoplasma gondii, Trichomonas spp., and the free-living but opportunistic pathogens Naegleria fowleri and Acanthamoeba castellani were reviewed. The major effects of Lf could be the inhibition produced by sequestering the iron needed for their survival and the production of oxygen-free radicals to more complicated mechanisms, such as the activation of macrophages to phagocytes with the posterior death of those parasites. Due to the great interest in Lf in the fight against pathogens, it is necessary to understand the exact mechanisms used by this protein to affect their virulence factors and to kill them.
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Ansari I, Basak R, Mukhopadhyay A. Hemoglobin Endocytosis and Intracellular Trafficking: A Novel Way of Heme Acquisition by Leishmania. Pathogens 2022; 11:585. [PMID: 35631106 PMCID: PMC9143042 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11050585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmania species are causative agents of human leishmaniasis, affecting 12 million people annually. Drugs available for leishmaniasis are toxic, and no vaccine is available. Thus, the major thrust is to identify new therapeutic targets. Leishmania is an auxotroph for heme and must acquire heme from the host for its survival. Thus, the major focus has been to understand the heme acquisition process by the parasites in the last few decades. It is conceivable that the parasite is possibly obtaining heme from host hemoprotein, as free heme is not available in the host. Current understanding indicates that Leishmania internalizes hemoglobin (Hb) through a specific receptor by a clathrin-mediated endocytic process and targets it to the parasite lysosomes via the Rab5 and Rab7 regulated endocytic pathway, where it is degraded to generate intracellular heme that is used by the parasite. Subsequently, intra-lysosomal heme is initially transported to the cytosol and is finally delivered to the mitochondria via different heme transporters. Studies using different null mutant parasites showed that these receptors and transporters are essential for the survival of the parasite. Thus, the heme acquisition process in Leishmania may be exploited for the development of novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Amitabha Mukhopadhyay
- Kusuma School of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India; (I.A.); (R.B.)
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9
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Inosine triphosphate pyrophosphatase from Trypanosoma brucei cleanses cytosolic pools from deaminated nucleotides. Sci Rep 2022; 12:6408. [PMID: 35436992 PMCID: PMC9016069 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-10149-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractInosine triphosphate pyrophosphatases (ITPases) are ubiquitous house-cleaning enzymes that specifically recognize deaminated purine nucleotides and catalyze their hydrolytic cleavage. In this work, we have characterized the Trypanosoma brucei ITPase ortholog (TbITPA). Recombinant TbITPA efficiently hydrolyzes (deoxy)ITP and XTP nucleotides into their respective monophosphate form. Immunolocalization analysis performed in bloodstream forms suggests that the primary role of TbITPA is the exclusion of deaminated purines from the cytosolic nucleoside triphosphate pools. Even though ITPA-knockout bloodstream parasites are viable, they are more sensitive to inhibition of IMP dehydrogenase with mycophenolic acid, likely due to an expansion of IMP, the ITP precursor. On the other hand, TbITPA can also hydrolyze the activated form of the antiviral ribavirin although in this case, the absence of ITPase activity in the cell confers protection against this nucleoside analog. This unexpected phenotype is dependant on purine availability and can be explained by the fact that ribavirin monophosphate, the reaction product generated by TbITPA, is a potent inhibitor of trypanosomal IMP dehydrogenase and GMP reductase. In summary, the present study constitutes the first report on a protozoan inosine triphosphate pyrophosphatase involved in the removal of harmful deaminated nucleotides from the cytosolic pool.
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10
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Glockzin K, Meek TD, Katzfuss A. Characterization of adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) activity in Trypanosoma brucei brucei: Only one of the two isoforms is kinetically active. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0009926. [PMID: 35104286 PMCID: PMC8836349 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), also known as sleeping sickness, is a Neglected Tropical Disease endemic to 36 African countries, with approximately 70 million people currently at risk for infection. Current therapeutics are suboptimal due to toxicity, adverse side effects, and emerging resistance. Thus, both effective and affordable treatments are urgently needed. The causative agent of HAT is the protozoan Trypanosoma brucei ssp. Annotation of its genome confirms previous observations that T. brucei is a purine auxotroph. Incapable of de novo purine synthesis, these protozoan parasites rely on purine phosphoribosyltransferases to salvage purines from their hosts for the synthesis of purine monophosphates. Complete and accurate genome annotations in combination with the identification and characterization of the catalytic activity of purine salvage enzymes enables the development of target-specific therapies in addition to providing a deeper understanding of purine metabolism in T. brucei. In trypanosomes, purine phosphoribosyltransferases represent promising drug targets due to their essential and central role in purine salvage. Enzymes involved in adenine and adenosine salvage, such as adenine phosphoribosyltransferases (APRTs, EC 2.4.2.7), are of particular interest for their potential role in the activation of adenine and adenosine-based pro-drugs. Analysis of the T. brucei genome shows two putative aprt genes: APRT1 (Tb927.7.1780) and APRT2 (Tb927.7.1790). Here we report studies of the catalytic activity of each putative APRT, revealing that of the two T. brucei putative APRTs, only APRT1 is kinetically active, thereby signifying a genomic misannotation of Tb927.7.1790 (putative APRT2). Reliable genome annotation is necessary to establish potential drug targets and identify enzymes involved in adenine and adenosine-based pro-drug activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla Glockzin
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Thomas D. Meek
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TDM); (AK)
| | - Ardala Katzfuss
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail: (TDM); (AK)
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11
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Rashno Z, Sharifi I, Oliaee RT, Tajbakhsh S, Sharififar F, Sharifi F, Hatami A, Faridi A, Babaei Z. Anti-leishmanial activity of Avicennia marina (Avicenniaceae family) leaves hydroalcoholic extract and its possible cellular mechanisms. Parasite Epidemiol Control 2022; 17:e00239. [PMID: 35146140 PMCID: PMC8801380 DOI: 10.1016/j.parepi.2022.e00239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural products are the main source of potent antioxidants and anti-leishmanial agents. This study was aimed to evaluate Avicennia marina (Avicenniaceae family) extract inhibitory effect against Leishmania tropica by accessing apoptotic markers and arginase activity. The A. marina were extracted and phytochemical analysis conducted. The inhibitory effect of A. marina was evaluated on L. tropica promastigote and amastigote forms, compared to meglumine antimoniate (Glucantime, MA) as standard drug. The level of apoptosis, Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) production and arginase activity was assessed in A. marina-treated cells compared to control group. Phytochemical screening of A. marina extract showed strong presence of tannins and saponins. We demonstrated the inhibitory effect of A. marina on promastigote stages in a dose dependent manner. Also, lower 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of amastigotes was indicated in A. marina group compared with the standard group of Glucantime (60.57 ± 1.46 vs. 73.19 ± 10.12 μg/mL, respectively, P < 0.05). Besides, A. marina represented no cytotoxicity as the selectivity index (SI) was 10.7. Also, it showed the potential to induce early apoptosis of 46.5% in promastigotes at 125 μg/mL concentration. Significant reduction of arginase level was observed in both A. marina-treated cells and promastigotes. The promising results indicated higher effectiveness of A. marina in decreasing parasite growth, inducing apoptosis in promastigotes, increasing ROS production and decreasing arginase level. So, A. marina can be a native plant candidate for anti-leishmanial drug in tropical regions with cutaneous leishmaniasis due to L. tropica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Rashno
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Iraj Sharifi
- Leishmaniasis Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Razieh Tavakoli Oliaee
- Leishmaniasis Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
- Student Research Committee, Afzalipour School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Saeed Tajbakhsh
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
| | - Fariba Sharififar
- Herbal and Traditional Medicines Research Center, Department of Pharmacognosy, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Sharifi
- Research Center of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Abbas Hatami
- Pathology and Stem Cell Research Center, School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Ashkan Faridi
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Zahra Babaei
- Leishmaniasis Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
- Corresponding author at: Leishmaniasis Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran.
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12
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Parreira de Aquino G, Mendes Gomes MA, Köpke Salinas R, Laranjeira-Silva MF. Lipid and fatty acid metabolism in trypanosomatids. MICROBIAL CELL 2021; 8:262-275. [PMID: 34782859 PMCID: PMC8561143 DOI: 10.15698/mic2021.11.764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosomiases and leishmaniases are neglected tropical diseases that have been spreading to previously non-affected areas in recent years. Identification of new chemotherapeutics is needed as there are no vaccines and the currently available treatment options are highly toxic and often ineffective. The causative agents for these diseases are the protozoan parasites of the Trypanosomatidae family, and they alternate between invertebrate and vertebrate hosts during their life cycles. Hence, these parasites must be able to adapt to different environments and compete with their hosts for several essential compounds, such as amino acids, vitamins, ions, carbohydrates, and lipids. Among these nutrients, lipids and fatty acids (FAs) are essential for parasite survival. Trypanosomatids require massive amounts of FAs, and they can either synthesize FAs de novo or scavenge them from the host. Moreover, FAs are the major energy source during specific life cycle stages of T. brucei, T. cruzi, and Leishmania. Therefore, considering the distinctive features of FAs metabolism in trypanosomatids, these pathways could be exploited for the development of novel antiparasitic drugs. In this review, we highlight specific aspects of lipid and FA metabolism in the protozoan parasites T. brucei, T. cruzi, and Leishmania spp., as well as the pathways that have been explored for the development of new chemotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Roberto Köpke Salinas
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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13
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Asady B, Dick CF, Ehrenman K, Sahu T, Romano JD, Coppens I. A single Na+-Pi cotransporter in Toxoplasma plays key roles in phosphate import and control of parasite osmoregulation. PLoS Pathog 2021; 16:e1009067. [PMID: 33383579 PMCID: PMC7817038 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Inorganic ions such as phosphate, are essential nutrients required for a broad spectrum of cellular functions and regulation. During infection, pathogens must obtain inorganic phosphate (Pi) from the host. Despite the essentiality of phosphate for all forms of life, how the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii acquires Pi from the host cell is still unknown. In this study, we demonstrated that Toxoplasma actively internalizes exogenous Pi by exploiting a gradient of Na+ ions to drive Pi uptake across the plasma membrane. The Na+-dependent phosphate transport mechanism is electrogenic and functionally coupled to a cipargarmin sensitive Na+-H+-ATPase. Toxoplasma expresses one transmembrane Pi transporter harboring PHO4 binding domains that typify the PiT Family. This transporter named TgPiT, localizes to the plasma membrane, the inward buds of the endosomal organelles termed VAC, and many cytoplasmic vesicles. Upon Pi limitation in the medium, TgPiT is more abundant at the plasma membrane. We genetically ablated the PiT gene, and ΔTgPiT parasites are impaired in importing Pi and synthesizing polyphosphates. Interestingly, ΔTgPiT parasites accumulate 4-times more acidocalcisomes, storage organelles for phosphate molecules, as compared to parental parasites. In addition, these mutants have a reduced cell volume, enlarged VAC organelles, defects in calcium storage and a slightly alkaline pH. Overall, these mutants exhibit severe growth defects and have reduced acute virulence in mice. In survival mode, ΔTgPiT parasites upregulate several genes, including those encoding enzymes that cleave or transfer phosphate groups from phosphometabolites, transporters and ions exchangers localized to VAC or acidocalcisomes. Taken together, these findings point to a critical role of TgPiT for Pi supply for Toxoplasma and also for protection against osmotic stresses. Inorganic phosphate (Pi) is indispensable for the biosynthesis of key cellular components, and is involved in many metabolic and signaling pathways. Transport across the plasma membrane is the first step in the utilization of Pi. The import mechanism of Pi by the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma is unknown. We characterized a transmembrane, high-affinity Na+-Pi cotransporter, named TgPiT, expressed by the parasite at the plasma membrane for Pi uptake. Interestingly, TgPiT is also localized to inward buds of the endosomal VAC organelles and some cytoplasmic vesicles. Loss of TgPiT results in a severe reduction in Pi internalization and polyphosphate levels, but stimulation of the biogenesis of phosphate-enriched acidocalcisomes. ΔTgPiT parasites have a shrunken cell body, enlarged VAC organelles, poor release of stored calcium and a mildly alkaline pH, suggesting a role for TgPiT in the maintenance of overall ionic homeostasis. ΔTgPiT parasites are poorly infectious in vitro and in mice. The mutant appears to partially cope with the absence of TgPiT by up-regulating genes coding for ion transporters and enzymes catalyzing phosphate group transfer. Our data highlight a scenario in which the role of TgPiT in Pi and Na+ transport is functionally coupled with osmoregulation activities central to sustain Toxoplasma survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beejan Asady
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore Maryland, United States of America
| | - Claudia F. Dick
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore Maryland, United States of America
| | - Karen Ehrenman
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore Maryland, United States of America
| | - Tejram Sahu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore Maryland, United States of America
| | - Julia D. Romano
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore Maryland, United States of America
| | - Isabelle Coppens
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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14
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Bodhale N, Ohms M, Ferreira C, Mesquita I, Mukherjee A, André S, Sarkar A, Estaquier J, Laskay T, Saha B, Silvestre R. Cytokines and metabolic regulation: A framework of bidirectional influences affecting Leishmania infection. Cytokine 2020; 147:155267. [PMID: 32917471 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2020.155267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Leishmania, a protozoan parasite inflicting the complex of diseases called Leishmaniases, resides and replicates as amastigotes within mammalian macrophages. As macrophages are metabolically highly active and can generate free radicals that can destroy this parasite, Leishmania also devise strategies to modulate the host cell metabolism. However, the metabolic changes can also be influenced by the anti-leishmanial immune response mediated by cytokines. This bidirectional, dynamic and complex metabolic coupling established between Leishmania and its host is the result of a long co-evolutionary process. Due to the continuous alterations imposed by the host microenvironment, such metabolic coupling continues to be dynamically regulated. The constant pursuit and competition for nutrients in the host-Leishmania duet alter the host metabolic pathways with major consequences for its nutritional reserves, eventually affecting the phenotype and functionality of the host cell. Altered phenotype and functions of macrophages are particularly relevant to immune cells, as perturbed metabolic fluxes can crucially affect the activation, differentiation, and functions of host immune cells. All these changes can deterministically direct the outcome of an infection. Cytokines and metabolic fluxes can bidirectionally influence each other through molecular sensors and regulators to dictate the final infection outcome. Our studies along with those from others have now identified the metabolic nodes that can be targeted for therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neelam Bodhale
- National Centre for Cell Science, 411007 Pune, India; Jagadis Bose National Science Talent Search (JBNSTS), Kolkata 700107 India
| | - Mareike Ohms
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck 23538, Germany
| | - Carolina Ferreira
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Inês Mesquita
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | | | - Sónia André
- INSERM U1124, Université Paris Descartes, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Arup Sarkar
- Trident Academy of Creative Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751024, India
| | - Jérôme Estaquier
- INSERM U1124, Université Paris Descartes, 75006 Paris, France; Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Tamás Laskay
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck 23538, Germany
| | - Bhaskar Saha
- National Centre for Cell Science, 411007 Pune, India; Trident Academy of Creative Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751024, India
| | - Ricardo Silvestre
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal.
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15
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Abstract
Glucose addiction is observed in cancer and other diseases that are associated with hyperproliferation. The development of compounds that restrict glucose supply and decrease glycolysis has great potential for the development of new therapeutic approaches. Addressing facilitative glucose transporters (GLUTs), which are often upregulated in glucose-dependent cells, is therefore of particular interest. This article reviews a selection of potent, isoform-selective GLUT inhibitors and their biological characterization. Potential therapeutic applications of GLUT inhibitors in oncology and other diseases that are linked to glucose addiction are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena S. Reckzeh
- Department Chemical BiologyMax Planck Institute of Molecular PhysiologyOtto-Hahn-Strasse 1144227DortmundGermany
- Department Chemistry and Chemical BiologyTU Dortmund UniversityOtto-Hahn-Strasse 4a44227DortmundGermany
| | - Herbert Waldmann
- Department Chemical BiologyMax Planck Institute of Molecular PhysiologyOtto-Hahn-Strasse 1144227DortmundGermany
- Department Chemistry and Chemical BiologyTU Dortmund UniversityOtto-Hahn-Strasse 4a44227DortmundGermany
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16
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Sitjà-Bobadilla A, Gil-Solsona R, Estensoro I, Piazzon MC, Martos-Sitcha JA, Picard-Sánchez A, Fuentes J, Sancho JV, Calduch-Giner JA, Hernández F, Pérez-Sánchez J. Disruption of gut integrity and permeability contributes to enteritis in a fish-parasite model: a story told from serum metabolomics. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:486. [PMID: 31619276 PMCID: PMC6796429 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3746-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In the animal production sector, enteritis is responsible for serious economic losses, and intestinal parasitism is a major stress factor leading to malnutrition and lowered performance and animal production efficiency. The effect of enteric parasites on the gut function of teleost fish, which represent the most ancient bony vertebrates, is far from being understood. The intestinal myxozoan parasite Enteromyxum leei dwells between gut epithelial cells and causes severe enteritis in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), anorexia, cachexia, growth impairment, reduced marketability and increased mortality. Methods This study aimed to outline the gut failure in this fish-parasite model using a multifaceted approach and to find and validate non-lethal serum markers of gut barrier dysfunction. Intestinal integrity was studied in parasitized and non-parasitized fish by immunohistochemistry with specific markers for cellular adhesion (E-cadherin) and tight junctions (Tjp1 and Cldn3) and by functional studies of permeability (oral administration of FITC-dextran) and electrophysiology (Ussing chambers). Serum samples from parasitized and non-parasitized fish were analyzed using non-targeted metabolomics and some significantly altered metabolites were selected to be validated using commercial kits. Results The immunodetection of Tjp1 and Cldn3 was significantly lower in the intestine of parasitized fish, while no strong differences were found in E-cadherin. Parasitized fish showed a significant increase in paracellular uptake measured by FITC-dextran detection in serum. Electrophysiology showed a decrease in transepithelial resistance in infected animals, which showed a diarrheic profile. Serum metabolomics revealed 3702 ions, from which the differential expression of 20 identified compounds significantly separated control from infected groups in multivariate analyses. Of these compounds, serum inosine (decreased) and creatine (increased) were identified as relevant and validated with commercial kits. Conclusions The results demonstrate the disruption of tight junctions and the loss of gut barrier function, a metabolomic profile of absorption dysfunction and anorexia, which further outline the pathophysiological effects of E. leei.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariadna Sitjà-Bobadilla
- Fish Pathology Group, Instituto de Acuicultura Torre de la Sal (IATS-CSIC), 12595 Ribera de Cabanes, Castellón, Spain. .,Associated Unit of Marine Ecotoxicology (IATS-IUPA), Castellon, Spain.
| | - Rubén Gil-Solsona
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water (IUPA), University Jaume I, Avda. Vicent Sos Baynat, s/n. Campus del Riu Sec, 12071, Castellón, Spain
| | - Itziar Estensoro
- Fish Pathology Group, Instituto de Acuicultura Torre de la Sal (IATS-CSIC), 12595 Ribera de Cabanes, Castellón, Spain
| | - M Carla Piazzon
- Fish Pathology Group, Instituto de Acuicultura Torre de la Sal (IATS-CSIC), 12595 Ribera de Cabanes, Castellón, Spain
| | - Juan Antonio Martos-Sitcha
- Nutrigenomics and Fish Endocrinology Group, Instituto de Acuicultura Torre de la Sal (IATS-CSIC), 12595 Ribera de Cabanes, Castellón, Spain.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Marine and Environmental Sciences, Instituto Universitario de Investigación Marina (INMAR), Campus Universitario de Puerto Real, University of Cádiz, 11510, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Amparo Picard-Sánchez
- Fish Pathology Group, Instituto de Acuicultura Torre de la Sal (IATS-CSIC), 12595 Ribera de Cabanes, Castellón, Spain
| | - Juan Fuentes
- Comparative Endocrinology and Integrative Biology, CCMar, University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Juan Vicente Sancho
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water (IUPA), University Jaume I, Avda. Vicent Sos Baynat, s/n. Campus del Riu Sec, 12071, Castellón, Spain
| | - Josep A Calduch-Giner
- Associated Unit of Marine Ecotoxicology (IATS-IUPA), Castellon, Spain.,Nutrigenomics and Fish Endocrinology Group, Instituto de Acuicultura Torre de la Sal (IATS-CSIC), 12595 Ribera de Cabanes, Castellón, Spain
| | - Félix Hernández
- Associated Unit of Marine Ecotoxicology (IATS-IUPA), Castellon, Spain.,Research Institute for Pesticides and Water (IUPA), University Jaume I, Avda. Vicent Sos Baynat, s/n. Campus del Riu Sec, 12071, Castellón, Spain
| | - Jaume Pérez-Sánchez
- Associated Unit of Marine Ecotoxicology (IATS-IUPA), Castellon, Spain.,Nutrigenomics and Fish Endocrinology Group, Instituto de Acuicultura Torre de la Sal (IATS-CSIC), 12595 Ribera de Cabanes, Castellón, Spain
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17
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Pramanik PK, Alam MN, Roy Chowdhury D, Chakraborti T. Drug Resistance in Protozoan Parasites: An Incessant Wrestle for Survival. J Glob Antimicrob Resist 2019; 18:1-11. [PMID: 30685461 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgar.2019.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, drug resistance in parasites is considered to be one of the foremost concerns in health and disease management. It is interconnected worldwide and undermines the health of millions of people, threatening to grow worse. Unfortunately, it does not receive serious attention from every corner of society. Consequently, drug resistance in parasites is gradually complicating and challenging the treatment of parasitic diseases. In this context, we have dedicated ourselves to review the incidence of drug resistance in the protozoan parasites Plasmodium, Leishmania, Trypanosoma, Entamoeba and Toxoplasma gondii. Moreover, understanding the role of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in drug resistance is essential in the control of parasitic diseases. Therefore, we also focused on the involvement of ABC transporters in drug resistance, which will be a superior approach to find ways for better regulation of diseases caused by parasitic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pijush Kanti Pramanik
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India
| | - Md Nur Alam
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India
| | - Dibyapriya Roy Chowdhury
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India
| | - Tapati Chakraborti
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India.
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18
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Lauri N, Bazzi Z, Alvarez CL, Leal Denis MF, Schachter J, Herlax V, Ostuni MA, Schwarzbaum PJ. ATPe Dynamics in Protozoan Parasites. Adapt or Perish. Genes (Basel) 2018; 10:E16. [PMID: 30591699 PMCID: PMC6356682 DOI: 10.3390/genes10010016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
In most animals, transient increases of extracellular ATP (ATPe) are used for physiological signaling or as a danger signal in pathological conditions. ATPe dynamics are controlled by ATP release from viable cells and cell lysis, ATPe degradation and interconversion by ecto-nucleotidases, and interaction of ATPe and byproducts with cell surface purinergic receptors and purine salvage mechanisms. Infection by protozoan parasites may alter at least one of the mechanisms controlling ATPe concentration. Protozoan parasites display their own set of proteins directly altering ATPe dynamics, or control the activity of host proteins. Parasite dependent activation of ATPe conduits of the host may promote infection and systemic responses that are beneficial or detrimental to the parasite. For instance, activation of organic solute permeability at the host membrane can support the elevated metabolism of the parasite. On the other hand ecto-nucleotidases of protozoan parasites, by promoting ATPe degradation and purine/pyrimidine salvage, may be involved in parasite growth, infectivity, and virulence. In this review, we will describe the complex dynamics of ATPe regulation in the context of protozoan parasite⁻host interactions. Particular focus will be given to features of parasite membrane proteins strongly controlling ATPe dynamics. This includes evolutionary, genetic and cellular mechanisms, as well as structural-functional relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Lauri
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB) "Prof. Alejandro C. Paladini", Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Biological Chemistry, Chair of Biological Chemistry, University of Buenos Aires, Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Zaher Bazzi
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB) "Prof. Alejandro C. Paladini", Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Cora L Alvarez
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB) "Prof. Alejandro C. Paladini", Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, Department of Biodiversity and Experimental Biology, University of Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes, Buenos Aires 2160, Argentina.
| | - María F Leal Denis
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB) "Prof. Alejandro C. Paladini", Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- Chair of Analytical Chemistry and Physicochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Buenos Aires, Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Julieta Schachter
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB) "Prof. Alejandro C. Paladini", Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Vanesa Herlax
- Biochemistry Research Institute of La Plata (INIBIOLP) "Prof. Dr. Rodolfo R. Brenner", Faculty of Medical Sciences, National University of La Plata, National Scientific and Technical Research Council, Av. 60 y Av. 120 La Plata, Argentina.
- National University of La Plata, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Av. 60 y Av. 120 La Plata, Argentina.
| | - Mariano A Ostuni
- UMR-S1134, Integrated Biology of Red Blood Cells, INSERM, Paris Diderot University, Sorbonne Paris Cité, University of La Réunion, University of Antilles, F-75015 Paris, France.
- National Institute of Blood Transfusion (INTS), Laboratory of Excellence GR-Ex, F-75015 Paris, France.
| | - Pablo J Schwarzbaum
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB) "Prof. Alejandro C. Paladini", Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Biological Chemistry, Chair of Biological Chemistry, University of Buenos Aires, Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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19
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Vijayakumar S, Das P. Recent progress in drug targets and inhibitors towards combating leishmaniasis. Acta Trop 2018; 181:95-104. [PMID: 29452111 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Lesihmaniasis is one of the major neglected tropical disease caused by the parasite of the genus Leishmania. The disease has more than one clinical forms and the visceral form is considered fatal. With the lack of potential vaccine, chemotherapy is the major treatment source considered for the control of the disease in the infected people. Drugs including amphotericin B and miltefosine are widely used for the treatment, however, development of resistance by the parasite towards the administered drug and high-toxicity of the drug are of major concern. Hence, more attention has been shown on identifying new targets, effective inhibitors, and better drug delivery system against the disease. This review deals with recent studies on drug targets and exploring their essentiality for the survival of Leishmania. Further, new inhibitors for those targets, novel anti-leishmanial peptides and vaccines against leishmaniasis were discussed. We believe that this pool of information will ease the researchers to gain knowledge and help in choosing right targets and design of new inhibitors against Leishmaniasis.
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20
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Muxel SM, Aoki JI, Fernandes JCR, Laranjeira-Silva MF, Zampieri RA, Acuña SM, Müller KE, Vanderlinde RH, Floeter-Winter LM. Arginine and Polyamines Fate in Leishmania Infection. Front Microbiol 2018; 8:2682. [PMID: 29379478 PMCID: PMC5775291 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmania is a protozoan parasite that alternates its life cycle between the sand fly and the mammalian host macrophages, involving several environmental changes. The parasite responds to these changes by promoting a rapid metabolic adaptation through cellular signaling modifications that lead to transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene expression regulation and morphological modifications. Molecular approaches such as gene expression regulation, next-generation sequencing (NGS), microRNA (miRNA) expression profiling, in cell Western blot analyses and enzymatic activity profiling, have been used to characterize the infection of murine BALB/c and C57BL/6 macrophages, as well as the human monocytic cell-lineage THP-1, with Leishmania amazonensis wild type (La-WT) or arginase knockout (La-arg-). These models are being used to elucidate physiological roles of arginine and polyamines pathways and the importance of arginase for the establishment of the infection. In this review, we will describe the main aspects of Leishmania-host interaction, focusing on the arginine and polyamines pathways and pointing to possible targets to be used for prognosis and/or in the control of the infection. The parasite enzymes, arginase and nitric oxide synthase-like, have essential roles in the parasite survival and in the maintenance of infection. On the other hand, in mammalian macrophages, defense mechanisms are activated inducing alterations in the mRNA, miRNA and enzymatic profiles that lead to the control of infection. Furthermore, the genetic background of both parasite and host are also important to define the fate of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra M Muxel
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana I Aoki
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliane C R Fernandes
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Ricardo A Zampieri
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Stephanie M Acuña
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Karl E Müller
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Rubia H Vanderlinde
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lucile M Floeter-Winter
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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21
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Nayak A, Akpunarlieva S, Barrett M, Burchmore R. A defined medium for Leishmania culture allows definition of essential amino acids. Exp Parasitol 2018; 185:39-52. [PMID: 29326050 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2018.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Axenic culture of Leishmania is generally performed in rich, serum-supplemented media which sustain robust growth over multiple passages. The use of such undefined media, however, obscures proteomic analyses and confounds the study of metabolism. We have established a simple, defined culture medium that supports the sustained growth of promastigotes over multiple passages and which yields parasites that have similar infectivity to macrophages to parasites grown in a conventional semi-defined medium. We have exploited this medium to investigate the amino acid requirements of promastigotes in culture and have found that phenylalanine, tryptophan, arginine, leucine, lysine and valine are essential for viability in culture. Most of the 20 proteogenic amino acids promote growth of Leishmania promastigotes, with the exception of alanine, asparagine, and glycine. This defined medium will be useful for further studies of promastigote substrate requirements, and will facilitate future proteomic and metabolomic analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Archana Nayak
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation and Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Snezhana Akpunarlieva
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation and Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Michael Barrett
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation and Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Richard Burchmore
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation and Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
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22
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The role of membrane transporters in Leishmania virulence. Emerg Top Life Sci 2017; 1:601-611. [DOI: 10.1042/etls20170119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Revised: 11/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Leishmania are parasitic protozoa which infect humans and cause severe morbidity and mortality. Leishmania parasitise as extracellular promastigotes in the insect vector and as intracellular amastigotes in the mammalian host. Cycling between hosts involves implementation of stringent and co-ordinated responses to shifting environmental conditions. One of the key dynamic aspects of Leishmania biology is substrate acquisition and metabolism. Genomic analyses have revealed that Leishmania encode many putative membrane transporters, many of which are differentially expressed during the parasite life cycle. Only a small fraction of these transporters, however, have been functionally characterised. Currently, most information is available about nutrient transporters, mainly involved in carbohydrate, amino acid, nucleobase and nucleoside, cofactor, and ion acquisition. Several have apparent roles in Leishmania virulence and will be discussed in this perspective.
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23
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Beltrame-Botelho IT, Talavera-López C, Andersson B, Grisard EC, Stoco PH. A Comparative In Silico Study of the Antioxidant Defense Gene Repertoire of Distinct Lifestyle Trypanosomatid Species. Evol Bioinform Online 2016; 12:263-275. [PMID: 27840574 PMCID: PMC5100842 DOI: 10.4137/ebo.s40648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Revised: 10/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Kinetoplastids are an ancestral group of protists that contains free-living species and parasites with distinct mechanisms in response to stress. Here, we compared genes involved in antioxidant defense (AD), proposing an evolution model among trypanosomatids. All genes were identified in Bodo saltans, suggesting that AD mechanisms have evolved prior to adaptation for parasitic lifestyles. While most of the monoxenous and dixenous parasites revealed minor differences from B. saltans, the endosymbiont-bearing species have an increased number of genes. The absence of these genes was mainly observed in the extracellular parasites of the genera Phytomonas and Trypanosoma. In trypanosomes, a distinction was observed between stercorarian and salivarian parasites, except for Trypanosoma rangeli. Our analyses indicate that the variability of AD among trypanosomatids at the genomic level is not solely due to the geographical isolation, being mainly related to specific adaptations of their distinct biological cycles within insect vectors and to a parasitism of a wide range of hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Thaís Beltrame-Botelho
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
- Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina, Palhoça, SC, Brazil
| | | | - Björn Andersson
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Edmundo Carlos Grisard
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Patricia Hermes Stoco
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
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24
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Martin JL, Yates PA, Boitz JM, Koop DR, Fulwiler AL, Cassera MB, Ullman B, Carter NS. A role for adenine nucleotides in the sensing mechanism to purine starvation in Leishmania donovani. Mol Microbiol 2016; 101:299-313. [PMID: 27062185 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Purine salvage by Leishmania is an obligatory nutritional process that impacts both cell viability and growth. Previously, we have demonstrated that the removal of purines in culture provokes significant metabolic changes that enable Leishmania to survive prolonged periods of purine starvation. In order to understand how Leishmania sense and respond to changes in their purine environment, we have exploited several purine pathway mutants, some in which adenine and guanine nucleotide metabolism is uncoupled. While wild type parasites grow in any one of a variety of naturally occurring purines, the proliferation of these purine pathway mutants requires specific types or combinations of exogenous purines. By culturing purine pathway mutants in high levels of extracellular purines that are either permissive or non-permissive for growth and monitoring for previously defined markers of the adaptive response to purine starvation, we determined that adaptation arises from a surveillance of intracellular purine nucleotide pools rather than from a direct sensing of the extracellular purine content of the environment. Specifically, our data suggest that perturbation of intracellular adenine-containing nucleotide pools provides a crucial signal for inducing the metabolic changes necessary for the long-term survival of Leishmania in a purine-scarce environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Martin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR, 97239-3098, USA
| | - Phillip A Yates
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR, 97239-3098, USA
| | - Jan M Boitz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR, 97239-3098, USA
| | - Dennis R Koop
- Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR, 97239-3098, USA
| | - Audrey L Fulwiler
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR, 97239-3098, USA
| | - Maria Belen Cassera
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, M/C 0308, Virginia, Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Buddy Ullman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR, 97239-3098, USA
| | - Nicola S Carter
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR, 97239-3098, USA
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25
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Gold DA, Kaplan AD, Lis A, Bett GCL, Rosowski EE, Cirelli KM, Bougdour A, Sidik SM, Beck JR, Lourido S, Egea PF, Bradley PJ, Hakimi MA, Rasmusson RL, Saeij JPJ. The Toxoplasma Dense Granule Proteins GRA17 and GRA23 Mediate the Movement of Small Molecules between the Host and the Parasitophorous Vacuole. Cell Host Microbe 2016; 17:642-52. [PMID: 25974303 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2015.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Revised: 02/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan pathogen in the phylum Apicomplexa that resides within an intracellular parasitophorous vacuole (PV) that is selectively permeable to small molecules through unidentified mechanisms. We have identified GRA17 as a Toxoplasma-secreted protein that localizes to the parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM) and mediates passive transport of small molecules across the PVM. GRA17 is related to the putative Plasmodium translocon protein EXP2 and conserved across PV-residing Apicomplexa. The PVs of GRA17-deficient parasites have aberrant morphology, reduced permeability to small molecules, and structural instability. GRA17-deficient parasites proliferate slowly and are avirulent in mice. These GRA17-deficient phenotypes are rescued by complementation with Plasmodium EXP2. GRA17 functions synergistically with a related protein, GRA23. Exogenous expression of GRA17 or GRA23 alters the membrane conductance properties of Xenopus oocytes in a manner consistent with a large non-selective pore. Thus, GRA17 and GRA23 provide a molecular basis for PVM permeability and nutrient access.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Gold
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Aaron D Kaplan
- Physiology and Biophysics, The State University of New York, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA; Center for Cellular and Systems Electrophysiology, School of Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, The State University of New York, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
| | - Agnieszka Lis
- Physiology and Biophysics, The State University of New York, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA; Center for Cellular and Systems Electrophysiology, School of Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, The State University of New York, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
| | - Glenna C L Bett
- Physiology and Biophysics, The State University of New York, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA; Center for Cellular and Systems Electrophysiology, School of Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, The State University of New York, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA; Department of Obstetrics and Gynocology, School of Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, The State University of New York, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
| | - Emily E Rosowski
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Kimberly M Cirelli
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Alexandre Bougdour
- UMR5163, LAPM, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 38041 Grenoble, France; Université Joseph Fourier, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Saima M Sidik
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Josh R Beck
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | | | - Pascal F Egea
- Department of Biological Chemistry, UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Peter J Bradley
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Mohamed-Ali Hakimi
- UMR5163, LAPM, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 38041 Grenoble, France; Université Joseph Fourier, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Randall L Rasmusson
- Physiology and Biophysics, The State University of New York, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA; Center for Cellular and Systems Electrophysiology, School of Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, The State University of New York, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
| | - Jeroen P J Saeij
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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26
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Mandal A, Das S, Roy S, Ghosh AK, Sardar AH, Verma S, Saini S, Singh R, Abhishek K, Kumar A, Mandal C, Das P. Deprivation of L-Arginine Induces Oxidative Stress Mediated Apoptosis in Leishmania donovani Promastigotes: Contribution of the Polyamine Pathway. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004373. [PMID: 26808657 PMCID: PMC4726550 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The growth and survival of intracellular parasites depends on the availability of extracellular nutrients. Deprivation of nutrients viz glucose or amino acid alters redox balance in mammalian cells as well as some lower organisms. To further understand the relationship, the mechanistic role of L-arginine in regulation of redox mediated survival of Leishmania donovani promastigotes was investigated. L-arginine deprivation from the culture medium was found to inhibit cell growth, reduce proliferation and increase L-arginine uptake. Relative expression of enzymes, involved in L-arginine metabolism, which leads to polyamine and trypanothione biosynthesis, were downregulated causing decreased production of polyamines in L-arginine deprived parasites and cell death. The resultant increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS), due to L-arginine deprivation, correlated with increased NADP+/NADPH ratio, decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD) level, increased lipid peroxidation and reduced thiol content. A deficiency of L-arginine triggered phosphatidyl serine externalization, a change in mitochondrial membrane potential, release of intracellular calcium and cytochrome-c. This finally led to DNA damage in Leishmania promastigotes. In summary, the growth and survival of Leishmania depends on the availability of extracellular L-arginine. In its absence the parasite undergoes ROS mediated, caspase-independent apoptosis-like cell death. Therefore, L-arginine metabolism pathway could be a probable target for controlling the growth of Leishmania parasites and disease pathogenesis. Leishmania donovani, the causative agent of Indian Visceral Leishmaniasis, resides in the gut of the insect vector and the macrophages of their mammalian host and avail nutrients for survival. Nutrient deprivation such as glucose or amino acid alters redox balance in mammalian cells as well as some lower organisms. However, the role of L-arginine, in regulation of redox balance and L. donovani survival yet not properly elucidated. In the present study, we found that L-arginine deprivation from the culture medium hinders growth and proliferation of Leishmania promastigotes. Starvation of L-arginine downregulates the expression of polyamine biosynthetic and thiol metabolic pathway enzymes leading to decreased production of polyamines in Leishmania parasites. Moreover, deprivation of L-arginine alters redox balance in Leishmania promastigotes characterized by the concomitant increase in ROS and decreased antioxidant level. Furthermore, L-arginine deprivation triggered phosphatidyl serine externalization, alteration in mitochondrial membrane potential, release of intraellular calcium and cytochrome-c followed by DNA damage. In summary, the growth and survival of Leishmania depends on the availability of extracellular L-arginine, in absence of which the parasite undergoes ROS mediated, caspase-independent apoptosis-like cell death. Therefore, targeting L-arginine metabolism pathway could be an alternative approach for controlling Leishmania growth and hence disease outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Mandal
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Sushmita Das
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Patna, India
| | - Saptarshi Roy
- Cancer Biology & Inflammatory Disorder Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Ayan Kumar Ghosh
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Abul Hasan Sardar
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Sudha Verma
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Savita Saini
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Hajipur, India
| | - Ruby Singh
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Kumar Abhishek
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Ajay Kumar
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Chitra Mandal
- Cancer Biology & Inflammatory Disorder Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Pradeep Das
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
- * E-mail:
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27
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Mesquita I, Moreira D, Sampaio-Marques B, Laforge M, Cordeiro-da-Silva A, Ludovico P, Estaquier J, Silvestre R. AMPK in Pathogens. EXPERIENTIA SUPPLEMENTUM (2012) 2016; 107:287-323. [PMID: 27812985 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-43589-3_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
During host-pathogen interactions, a complex web of events is crucial for the outcome of infection. Pathogen recognition triggers powerful cellular signaling events that is translated into the induction and maintenance of innate and adaptive host immunity against infection. In opposition, pathogens employ active mechanisms to manipulate host cell regulatory pathways toward their proliferation and survival. Among these, subversion of host cell energy metabolism by pathogens is currently recognized to play an important role in microbial growth and persistence. Extensive studies have documented the role of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling, a central cellular hub involved in the regulation of energy homeostasis, in host-pathogen interactions. Here, we highlight the most recent advances detailing how pathogens hijack cellular metabolism by suppressing or increasing the activity of the host energy sensor AMPK. We also address the role of lower eukaryote AMPK orthologues in the adaptive process to the host microenvironment and their contribution for pathogen survival, differentiation, and growth. Finally, we review the effects of pharmacological or genetic AMPK modulation on pathogen growth and persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inês Mesquita
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3Bs-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Guimarães, Braga, Portugal
| | - Diana Moreira
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.,IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Belém Sampaio-Marques
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3Bs-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Guimarães, Braga, Portugal
| | | | - Anabela Cordeiro-da-Silva
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.,IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Paula Ludovico
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3Bs-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Guimarães, Braga, Portugal
| | - Jérôme Estaquier
- CNRS FR 3636, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France.,Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Ricardo Silvestre
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal. .,ICVS/3Bs-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Guimarães, Braga, Portugal.
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28
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Guedes CES, Lima JGB, Helfer E, Veras PST, Viallat A. Encapsulation of Living Leishmania Promastigotes in Artificial Lipid Vacuoles. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0134925. [PMID: 26241746 PMCID: PMC4524717 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
After phagocytosis by mammalian macrophages, promastigote forms of Leishmania parasites settle inside intracellular parasitophorous vacuoles (PVs) in which they transform into amastigote forms and replicate. Here, using a variant of the 'inverted emulsion' method, we succeeded in encapsulating living L. amazonensis parasites in giant artificial liposomes that serve as model PVs. We were able to control the size of liposomes, the pH and the composition of their internal volume, and the number of internalized parasites per liposome. L. amazonensis promastigotes encapsulated in liposomes filled with RPMI-Dextran solution at pH 7.5 or 6.5 survived up to 96 h at 24°C. At 37°C and pH 5.5, parasites survived 48h. This method paves the way to identifying certain effectors secreted by the parasite and to unraveling specific mechanisms of fusion between the PV and intracellular vesicles of the host cell. This method will also facilitate the study of the temporal evolution of biophysical properties of the PV during its maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos E. S. Guedes
- Centro de Pesquisas Gonçalo Moniz, Fiocruz, Laboratório de Patologia e Biointervenção, Rua Waldemar Falcão, 121, Candeal, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Jose G. B. Lima
- Centro de Pesquisas Gonçalo Moniz, Fiocruz, Laboratório de Patologia e Biointervenção, Rua Waldemar Falcão, 121, Candeal, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Emmanuèle Helfer
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, CINaM UMR 7325, 13288, Marseille, France
| | - Patricia S. T. Veras
- Centro de Pesquisas Gonçalo Moniz, Fiocruz, Laboratório de Patologia e Biointervenção, Rua Waldemar Falcão, 121, Candeal, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
- * E-mail: (PSTV); (AV)
| | - Annie Viallat
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, CINaM UMR 7325, 13288, Marseille, France
- * E-mail: (PSTV); (AV)
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29
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Li Q, Leija C, Rijo-Ferreira F, Chen J, Cestari I, Stuart K, Tu BP, Phillips MA. GMP synthase is essential for viability and infectivity of Trypanosoma brucei despite a redundant purine salvage pathway. Mol Microbiol 2015; 97:1006-20. [PMID: 26043892 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The causative agent of human African trypanosomiasis, Trypanosoma brucei, lacks de novo purine biosynthesis and depends on purine salvage from the host. The purine salvage pathway is redundant and contains two routes to guanosine-5'-monophosphate (GMP) formation: conversion from xanthosine-5'-monophosphate (XMP) by GMP synthase (GMPS) or direct salvage of guanine by hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT). We show recombinant T. brucei GMPS efficiently catalyzes GMP formation. Genetic knockout of GMPS in bloodstream parasites led to depletion of guanine nucleotide pools and was lethal. Growth of gmps null cells was only rescued by supraphysiological guanine concentrations (100 μM) or by expression of an extrachromosomal copy of GMPS. Hypoxanthine was a competitive inhibitor of guanine rescue, consistent with a common uptake/metabolic conversion mechanism. In mice, gmps null parasites were unable to establish an infection demonstrating that GMPS is essential for virulence and that plasma guanine is insufficient to support parasite purine requirements. These data validate GMPS as a potential therapeutic target for treatment of human African trypanosomiasis. The ability to strategically inhibit key metabolic enzymes in the purine pathway unexpectedly bypasses its functional redundancy by exploiting both the nature of pathway flux and the limited nutrient environment of the parasite's extracellular niche.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Li
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 6001 Forest Park Rd, Dallas, TX, 75390-9041, USA
| | - Christopher Leija
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 6001 Forest Park Rd, Dallas, TX, 75390-9041, USA
| | - Filipa Rijo-Ferreira
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 6001 Forest Park Rd, Dallas, TX, 75390-9041, USA.,Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal.,Graduate Program in Areas of Basic and Applied Biology, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Jun Chen
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 6001 Forest Park Rd, Dallas, TX, 75390-9041, USA
| | - Igor Cestari
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109-5219, USA
| | - Kenneth Stuart
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Suite 500, Seattle, WA, 98109-5219, USA
| | - Benjamin P Tu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 6001 Forest Park Rd, Dallas, TX, 75390-9041, USA
| | - Margaret A Phillips
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 6001 Forest Park Rd, Dallas, TX, 75390-9041, USA
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30
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Srivastava A, Creek DJ, Evans KJ, De Souza D, Schofield L, Müller S, Barrett MP, McConville MJ, Waters AP. Host reticulocytes provide metabolic reservoirs that can be exploited by malaria parasites. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004882. [PMID: 26042734 PMCID: PMC4456406 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Human malaria parasites proliferate in different erythroid cell types during infection. Whilst Plasmodium vivax exhibits a strong preference for immature reticulocytes, the more pathogenic P. falciparum primarily infects mature erythrocytes. In order to assess if these two cell types offer different growth conditions and relate them to parasite preference, we compared the metabolomes of human and rodent reticulocytes with those of their mature erythrocyte counterparts. Reticulocytes were found to have a more complex, enriched metabolic profile than mature erythrocytes and a higher level of metabolic overlap between reticulocyte resident parasite stages and their host cell. This redundancy was assessed by generating a panel of mutants of the rodent malaria parasite P. berghei with defects in intermediary carbon metabolism (ICM) and pyrimidine biosynthesis known to be important for P. falciparum growth and survival in vitro in mature erythrocytes. P. berghei ICM mutants (pbpepc-, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and pbmdh-, malate dehydrogenase) multiplied in reticulocytes and committed to sexual development like wild type parasites. However, P. berghei pyrimidine biosynthesis mutants (pboprt-, orotate phosphoribosyltransferase and pbompdc-, orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylase) were restricted to growth in the youngest forms of reticulocytes and had a severe slow growth phenotype in part resulting from reduced merozoite production. The pbpepc-, pboprt- and pbompdc- mutants retained virulence in mice implying that malaria parasites can partially salvage pyrimidines but failed to complete differentiation to various stages in mosquitoes. These findings suggest that species-specific differences in Plasmodium host cell tropism result in marked differences in the necessity for parasite intrinsic metabolism. These data have implications for drug design when targeting mature erythrocyte or reticulocyte resident parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anubhav Srivastava
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Darren J. Creek
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Australia
| | - Krystal J. Evans
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Division of Infection and Immunity, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - David De Souza
- Metabolomics Australia, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Louis Schofield
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Division of Infection and Immunity, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, Centre for Biodiscovery and Molecular Development of Therapeutics, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia
| | - Sylke Müller
- Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Michael P. Barrett
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Malcolm J. McConville
- Metabolomics Australia, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrew P. Waters
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Renberg RL, Yuan X, Samuel TK, Miguel DC, Hamza I, Andrews NW, Flannery AR. The Heme Transport Capacity of LHR1 Determines the Extent of Virulence in Leishmania amazonensis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003804. [PMID: 26001191 PMCID: PMC4441390 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 05/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania spp. are trypanosomatid parasites that replicate intracellularly in macrophages, causing serious human morbidity and mortality throughout the world. Trypanosomatid protozoa cannot synthesize heme, so must acquire this essential cofactor from their environment. Earlier studies identified LHR1 as a Leishmania amazonensis transmembrane protein that mediates heme uptake. Null mutants of LHR1 are not viable and single knockout strains have reduced virulence, but very little is known about the properties of LHR1 directly associated with heme transport. Here, we use functional assays in Saccharomyces cerevisiae to show that specific tyrosine residues within the first three predicted transmembrane domains of LHR1 are required for efficient heme uptake. These tyrosines are unique to LHR1, consistent with the low similarity between LHR1 and its corresponding homologs in C. elegans and human. Substitution of these tyrosines in LHR1 resulted in varying degrees of heme transport inhibition, phenotypes that closely mirrored the impaired ability of L. amazonensis to replicate as intracellular amastigotes in macrophages and generate cutaneous lesions in mice. Taken together, our results imply that the mechanism for heme transport by LHR1 is distinctive and may have adapted to secure heme, a limiting cofactor, inside the host. Since LHR1 is significantly divergent from the human heme transporter HRG1, our findings lay the groundwork for selective targeting of LHR1 by small molecule antagonists. Leishmania are protozoan parasites that infect humans and replicate intracellularly in macrophages, cells normally engaged in protecting the host from pathogens. These parasites have several strategies to survive inside the hostile environment of the host macrophage, and one of these strategies involves heme acquisition. Heme is an iron-containing molecule that is essential for many cellular functions. Unlike mammalian cells, Leishmania parasites cannot synthesize heme, so must acquire it from the host cell. In earlier work we found that the parasites express a surface protein, LHR1, which transports heme into the parasites. In this study we identified specific amino acids in LHR1 that are required for heme transport. When expressed in yeast cells, LHR1 carrying these mutations had defects in heme transport that were equivalent to the inhibition in virulence observed when these proteins were expressed in Leishmania and tested in macrophage and mouse infection assays. These critical amino acids do not exist in the human heme transporter, indicating that LHR1 is a promising target for the development of specific drugs for the treatment of leishmaniasis and possibly other serious parasitic diseases, such as Chagas’ disease and sleeping sickness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L. Renberg
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Xiaojing Yuan
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Tamika K. Samuel
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Danilo C. Miguel
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Iqbal Hamza
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Norma W. Andrews
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: ,
| | - Andrew R. Flannery
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- PathSensors, Inc., Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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Frame IJ, Deniskin R, Rinderspacher A, Katz F, Deng SX, Moir RD, Adjalley SH, Coburn-Flynn O, Fidock DA, Willis IM, Landry DW, Akabas MH. Yeast-based high-throughput screen identifies Plasmodium falciparum equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1 inhibitors that kill malaria parasites. ACS Chem Biol 2015; 10:775-83. [PMID: 25602169 DOI: 10.1021/cb500981y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Equilibrative transporters are potential drug targets; however, most functional assays involve radioactive substrate uptake that is unsuitable for high-throughput screens (HTS). We developed a robust yeast-based growth assay that is potentially applicable to many equilibrative transporters. As proof of principle, we applied our approach to Equilibrative Nucleoside Transporter 1 of the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum (PfENT1). PfENT1 inhibitors might serve as novel antimalarial drugs since PfENT1-mediated purine import is essential for parasite proliferation. To identify PfENT1 inhibitors, we screened 64 560 compounds and identified 171 by their ability to rescue the growth of PfENT1-expressing fui1Δ yeast in the presence of a cytotoxic PfENT1 substrate, 5-fluorouridine (5-FUrd). In secondary assays, nine of the highest activity compounds inhibited PfENT1-dependent growth of a purine auxotrophic yeast strain with adenosine as the sole purine source (IC50 0.2-2 μM). These nine compounds completely blocked [(3)H]adenosine uptake into PfENT1-expressing yeast and erythrocyte-free trophozoite-stage parasites (IC50 5-50 nM), and inhibited chloroquine-sensitive and -resistant parasite proliferation (IC50 5-50 μM). Wild-type (WT) parasite IC50 values were up to 4-fold lower compared to PfENT1-knockout (pfent1Δ) parasites. pfent1Δ parasite killing showed a delayed-death phenotype not observed with WT. We infer that, in parasites, the compounds inhibit both PfENT1 and a secondary target with similar efficacy. The secondary target identity is unknown, but its existence may reduce the likelihood of parasites developing resistance to PfENT1 inhibitors. Our data support the hypothesis that blocking purine transport through PfENT1 may be a novel and compelling approach for antimalarial drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- I. J. Frame
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, ‡Department of Biochemistry, §Department of Neuroscience, and ∥Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
- Department of Medicine and #Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 630 and 701 West 168th Street, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Roman Deniskin
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, ‡Department of Biochemistry, §Department of Neuroscience, and ∥Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
- Department of Medicine and #Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 630 and 701 West 168th Street, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Alison Rinderspacher
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, ‡Department of Biochemistry, §Department of Neuroscience, and ∥Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
- Department of Medicine and #Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 630 and 701 West 168th Street, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Francine Katz
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, ‡Department of Biochemistry, §Department of Neuroscience, and ∥Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
- Department of Medicine and #Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 630 and 701 West 168th Street, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Shi-Xian Deng
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, ‡Department of Biochemistry, §Department of Neuroscience, and ∥Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
- Department of Medicine and #Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 630 and 701 West 168th Street, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Robyn D. Moir
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, ‡Department of Biochemistry, §Department of Neuroscience, and ∥Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
- Department of Medicine and #Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 630 and 701 West 168th Street, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Sophie H. Adjalley
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, ‡Department of Biochemistry, §Department of Neuroscience, and ∥Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
- Department of Medicine and #Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 630 and 701 West 168th Street, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Olivia Coburn-Flynn
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, ‡Department of Biochemistry, §Department of Neuroscience, and ∥Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
- Department of Medicine and #Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 630 and 701 West 168th Street, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - David A. Fidock
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, ‡Department of Biochemistry, §Department of Neuroscience, and ∥Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
- Department of Medicine and #Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 630 and 701 West 168th Street, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Ian M. Willis
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, ‡Department of Biochemistry, §Department of Neuroscience, and ∥Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
- Department of Medicine and #Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 630 and 701 West 168th Street, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Donald W. Landry
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, ‡Department of Biochemistry, §Department of Neuroscience, and ∥Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
- Department of Medicine and #Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 630 and 701 West 168th Street, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Myles H. Akabas
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, ‡Department of Biochemistry, §Department of Neuroscience, and ∥Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
- Department of Medicine and #Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, 630 and 701 West 168th Street, New York, New York 10032, United States
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Rodriguez-Contreras D, Aslan H, Feng X, Tran K, Yates PA, Kamhawi S, Landfear SM. Regulation and biological function of a flagellar glucose transporter in Leishmania mexicana: a potential glucose sensor. FASEB J 2014; 29:11-24. [PMID: 25300620 DOI: 10.1096/fj.14-251991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In Leishmania mexicana parasites, a unique glucose transporter, LmxGT1, is selectively targeted to the flagellar membrane, suggesting a possible sensory role that is often associated with ciliary membrane proteins. Expression of LmxGT1 is down-regulated ∼20-fold by increasing cell density but is up-regulated ∼50-fold by depleting glucose from the medium, and the permease is strongly down-regulated when flagellated insect-stage promastigotes invade mammalian macrophages and transform into intracellular amastigotes. Regulation of LmxGT1 expression by glucose and during the lifecycle operates at the level of protein stability. Significantly, a ∆lmxgt1 null mutant, grown in abundant glucose, undergoes catastrophic loss of viability when parasites deplete glucose from the medium, a property not exhibited by wild-type or add-back lines. These results suggest that LmxGT1 may function as a glucose sensor that allows parasites to enter the stationary phase when they deplete glucose and that in the absence of this sensor, parasites do not maintain viability when they run out of glucose. However, alternate roles for LmxGT1 in monitoring glucose availability are considered. The absence of known sensory receptors with defined ligands and biologic functions in Leishmania and related kinetoplastid parasites underscores the potential significance of these observations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hamide Aslan
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Xiuhong Feng
- Departments of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology and
| | - Khoa Tran
- Departments of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology and
| | - Phillip A Yates
- Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA; and
| | - Shaden Kamhawi
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Prati F, Goldman-Pinkovich A, Lizzi F, Belluti F, Koren R, Zilberstein D, Bolognesi ML. Quinone-amino acid conjugates targeting Leishmania amino acid transporters. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107994. [PMID: 25254495 PMCID: PMC4177859 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate the feasibility of targeting Leishmania transporters via appropriately designed chemical probes. Leishmania donovani, the parasite that causes visceral leishmaniasis, is auxotrophic for arginine and lysine and has specific transporters (LdAAP3 and LdAAP7) to import these nutrients. Probes 1–15 were originated by conjugating cytotoxic quinone fragments (II and III) with amino acids (i.e. arginine and lysine) by means of an amide linkage. The toxicity of the synthesized conjugates against Leishmania extracellular (promastigotes) and intracellular (amastigotes) forms was investigated, as well their inhibition of the relevant amino acid transporters. We observed that some conjugates indeed displayed toxicity against the parasites; in particular, 7 was identified as the most potent derivative (at concentrations of 1 µg/mL and 2.5 µg/mL residual cell viability was reduced to 15% and 48% in promastigotes and amastigotes, respectively). Notably, 6, while retaining the cytotoxic activity of quinone II, displayed no toxicity against mammalian THP1 cells. Transport assays indicated that the novel conjugates inhibited transport activity of lysine, arginine and proline transporters. Furthermore, our analyses suggested that the toxic conjugates might be translocated by the transporters into the cells. The non-toxic probes that inhibited transport competed with the natural substrates for binding to the transporters without being translocated. Thus, it is likely that 6, by exploiting amino acid transporters, can selectively deliver its toxic effects to Leishmania cells. This work provides the first evidence that amino acid transporters of the human pathogen Leishmania might be modulated by small molecules, and warrants their further investigation from drug discovery and chemical biology perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Prati
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Federica Lizzi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Federica Belluti
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Roni Koren
- Faculty of Biology, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Dan Zilberstein
- Faculty of Biology, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Maria Laura Bolognesi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- * E-mail:
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Moreno MA, Alonso A, Alcolea PJ, Abramov A, de Lacoba MG, Abendroth J, Zhang S, Edwards T, Lorimer D, Myler PJ, Larraga V. Tyrosine aminotransferase from Leishmania infantum: A new drug target candidate. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-DRUGS AND DRUG RESISTANCE 2014; 4:347-54. [PMID: 25516846 PMCID: PMC4266777 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2014.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
The tyrosine aminotransferase from Leishmania infantum has a cytoplasmic distribution and is able to use the oxoacid ketomethiobutyrate, as a co-substrate. L. infantum tyrosine aminotransferase is over-expressed in infective and nitric oxide resistant parasites. The structural differences with the mammalian TAT, together with cellular distribution, expression pattern and activity, support that LiTAT is a drug target candidate. The structure-based model of the pharmacophore of LiTAT with specific substrate ketomethiobutyrate has been generated.
Leishmania infantum is the etiological agent of zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis in the Mediterranean basin. The disease is fatal without treatment, which has been based on antimonial pentavalents for more than 60 years. Due to resistances, relapses and toxicity to current treatment, the development of new drugs is required. The structure of the L. infantum tyrosine aminotransferase (LiTAT) has been recently solved showing important differences with the mammalian orthologue. The characterization of LiTAT is reported herein. This enzyme is cytoplasmic and is over-expressed in the more infective stages and nitric oxide resistant parasites. Unlike the mammalian TAT, LiTAT is able to use ketomethiobutyrate as co-substrate. The pharmacophore model of LiTAT with this specific co-substrate is described herein. This may allow the identification of new inhibitors present in the databases. All the data obtained support that LiTAT is a good target candidate for the development of new anti-leishmanial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Angel Moreno
- Departamento de Microbiología Molecular y Servicio de Bioinformática y Bioestadística, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), calle Ramiro de Maeztu, 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Alonso
- Departamento de Microbiología Molecular y Servicio de Bioinformática y Bioestadística, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), calle Ramiro de Maeztu, 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Pedro Jose Alcolea
- Departamento de Microbiología Molecular y Servicio de Bioinformática y Bioestadística, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), calle Ramiro de Maeztu, 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ariel Abramov
- Seattle Structural Genomics Center for Infectious Disease (SSGCID), USA ; Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Mario García de Lacoba
- Departamento de Microbiología Molecular y Servicio de Bioinformática y Bioestadística, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), calle Ramiro de Maeztu, 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jan Abendroth
- Seattle Structural Genomics Center for Infectious Disease (SSGCID), USA ; Emerald Bio Inc., 7869 NE Day Road West, Bainbridge Island, WA 98110, USA
| | - Sunny Zhang
- Seattle Structural Genomics Center for Infectious Disease (SSGCID), USA ; Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Thomas Edwards
- Seattle Structural Genomics Center for Infectious Disease (SSGCID), USA ; Emerald Bio Inc., 7869 NE Day Road West, Bainbridge Island, WA 98110, USA
| | - Don Lorimer
- Seattle Structural Genomics Center for Infectious Disease (SSGCID), USA ; Emerald Bio Inc., 7869 NE Day Road West, Bainbridge Island, WA 98110, USA
| | - Peter John Myler
- Seattle Structural Genomics Center for Infectious Disease (SSGCID), USA ; Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Seattle, WA 98109, USA ; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98125, USA ; Department of Biomedical Informatics & Medical Education, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98125, USA
| | - Vicente Larraga
- Departamento de Microbiología Molecular y Servicio de Bioinformática y Bioestadística, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), calle Ramiro de Maeztu, 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Parasite aquaporins: Current developments in drug facilitation and resistance. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2014; 1840:1566-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2013] [Revised: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/06/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Exploitation of auxotrophies and metabolic defects in Toxoplasma as therapeutic approaches. Int J Parasitol 2014; 44:109-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2013.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2013] [Revised: 09/22/2013] [Accepted: 09/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Abstract
Cryptosporidium is a protozoan parasite of medical and veterinary importance that causes gastroenteritis in a variety of vertebrate hosts. Several studies have reported different degrees of pathogenicity and virulence among Cryptosporidium species and isolates of the same species as well as evidence of variation in host susceptibility to infection. The identification and validation of Cryptosporidium virulence factors have been hindered by the renowned difficulties pertaining to the in vitro culture and genetic manipulation of this parasite. Nevertheless, substantial progress has been made in identifying putative virulence factors for Cryptosporidium. This progress has been accelerated since the publication of the Cryptosporidium parvum and C. hominis genomes, with the characterization of over 25 putative virulence factors identified by using a variety of immunological and molecular techniques and which are proposed to be involved in aspects of host-pathogen interactions from adhesion and locomotion to invasion and proliferation. Progress has also been made in the contribution of host factors that are associated with variations in both the severity and risk of infection. Here we provide a review comprised of the current state of knowledge on Cryptosporidium infectivity, pathogenesis, and transmissibility in light of our contemporary understanding of microbial virulence.
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Serafim TD, Figueiredo AB, Costa PAC, Marques-da-Silva EA, Gonçalves R, de Moura SAL, Gontijo NF, da Silva SM, Michalick MSM, Meyer-Fernandes JR, de Carvalho RP, Uliana SRB, Fietto JLR, Afonso LCC. Leishmania metacyclogenesis is promoted in the absence of purines. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2012; 6:e1833. [PMID: 23050028 PMCID: PMC3458635 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2012] [Accepted: 08/13/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmania parasites, the causative agent of leishmaniasis, are transmitted through the bite of an infected sand fly. Leishmania parasites present two basic forms known as promastigote and amastigote which, respectively, parasitizes the vector and the mammalian hosts. Infection of the vertebrate host is dependent on the development, in the vector, of metacyclic promastigotes, however, little is known about the factors that trigger metacyclogenesis in Leishmania parasites. It has been generally stated that "stressful conditions" will lead to development of metacyclic forms, and with the exception of a few studies no detailed analysis of the molecular nature of the stress factor has been performed. Here we show that presence/absence of nucleosides, especially adenosine, controls metacyclogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. We found that addition of an adenosine-receptor antagonist to in vitro cultures of Leishmania amazonensis significantly increases metacyclogenesis, an effect that can be reversed by the presence of specific purine nucleosides or nucleobases. Furthermore, our results show that proliferation and metacyclogenesis are independently regulated and that addition of adenosine to culture medium is sufficient to recover proliferative characteristics for purified metacyclic promastigotes. More importantly, we show that metacyclogenesis was inhibited in sand flies infected with Leishmania infantum chagasi that were fed a mixture of sucrose and adenosine. Our results fill a gap in the life cycle of Leishmania parasites by demonstrating how metacyclogenesis, a key point in the propagation of the parasite to the mammalian host, can be controlled by the presence of specific purines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago Donatelli Serafim
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Núcleo de Pesquisas em Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil
| | - Amanda Braga Figueiredo
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Núcleo de Pesquisas em Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil
| | - Pedro Augusto Carvalho Costa
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Núcleo de Pesquisas em Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Almeida Marques-da-Silva
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Núcleo de Pesquisas em Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Gonçalves
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Núcleo de Pesquisas em Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil
| | - Sandra Aparecida Lima de Moura
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Núcleo de Pesquisas em Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil
| | - Nelder Figueiredo Gontijo
- Laboratório de Fisiologia de Insetos Hematófagos, Departamento de Parasitologia/ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Sydnei Magno da Silva
- Laboratório de Sorologia, Departamento de Parasitologia/ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | - José Roberto Meyer-Fernandes
- Laboratório de Bioquímica Celular, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Roberto Paes de Carvalho
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia Celular, Departamento de Neurobiologia/Programa de Neurociências, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil
| | - Silvia Reni Bortolin Uliana
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana Lopes Rangel Fietto
- Laboratório de Infectologia Molecular Animal, Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular/Bioagro, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Brazil
| | - Luís Carlos Crocco Afonso
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Núcleo de Pesquisas em Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil
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Palenchar PM, Palenchar JB. The evolution of metabolic enzymes in Plasmodium and trypanosomatids as compared to Saccharomyces and Schizosaccharomyces. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2012; 184:13-9. [PMID: 22498309 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2012.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2011] [Revised: 02/23/2012] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how the biological connectivity of genes and gene products affects evolution is an important aspect of understanding evolution. Genes encoding enzymes are frequently used to carry out such analyses. Interestingly, studies have shown that connectivity in the metabolic networks in parasitic protists, including Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma brucei, have been substantially altered as compared to free living eukaryotes, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Herein, we have determined K(a) values, which are a measure of the non-synonymous substitution rate, and used them to examine the differences between the evolution of genes in T. brucei, P. falciparum, S. cerevisiae, and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. All four organisms share similar traits with respect to the evolution of genes encoding metabolic enzymes. First, genes encoding metabolic enzymes have lower K(a) values than genes encoding non-metabolic proteins. In addition, perturbations of the metabolic network appear to have limited affects on the genes encoding enzymes near the perturbation. In most cases, there is a negative relationship between connectivity in the metabolic network of the gene product and the K(a) value for the gene, i.e. examining how much constraint there is on gene evolution when it is connected to many other genes. In addition, we find that the K(a) values of orthologs encoding for metabolic enzymes in each organism are significantly correlated, indicating similar patterns of non-synonymous substitutions. In total, our results indicate that the evolution of genes encoding metabolic enzymes do not tend to be greatly affected by changes in the metabolic network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M Palenchar
- Department of Chemistry, Villanova University, 800 E. Lancaster Ave., Villanova, PA 19805, USA.
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On the evolution of hexose transporters in kinetoplastid Protozoans [corrected]. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36303. [PMID: 22567148 PMCID: PMC3342237 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 04/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucose, an almost universally used energy and carbon source, is processed through several well-known metabolic pathways, primarily glycolysis. Glucose uptake is considered to be the first step in glycolysis. In kinetoplastids, a protozoan group that includes relevant human pathogens, the importance of glucose uptake in different phases of the life cycles is well established, and hexose transporters have been proposed as targets for therapeutic drugs. However, little is known about the evolutionary history of these hexose transporters. Hexose transporters contain an intracellular N- and C- termini, and 12 transmembrane spans connected by alternate intracellular and extracellular loops. In the present work we tested the hypothesis that the evolutionary rate of the transmembrane span is different from that of the whole sequence and that it is possible to define evolutionary units inside the sequence. The phylogeny of whole molecules was compared to that of their transmembrane spans and the loops connecting the transmembrane spans. We show that the evolutionary units in these proteins primarily consist of clustered rather than individual transmembrane spans. These analyses demonstrate that there are evolutionary constraints on the organization of these proteins; more specifically, the order of the transmembrane spans along the protein is highly conserved. Finally, we defined a signature sequence for the identification of kinetoplastid hexose transporters.
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Ortíz-Estrada G, Luna-Castro S, Piña-Vázquez C, Samaniego-Barrón L, León-Sicairos N, Serrano-Luna J, de la Garza M. Iron-saturated lactoferrin and pathogenic protozoa: could this protein be an iron source for their parasitic style of life? Future Microbiol 2012; 7:149-64. [PMID: 22191452 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.11.140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron is an essential nutrient for the survival of pathogens inside a host. As a general strategy against microbes, mammals have evolved complex iron-withholding systems for efficiently decreasing the iron accessible to invaders. Pathogens that inhabit the respiratory, intestinal and genitourinary tracts encounter an iron-deficient environment on the mucosal surface, where ferric iron is chelated by lactoferrin, an extracellular glycoprotein of the innate immune system. However, parasitic protozoa have developed several mechanisms to obtain iron from host holo-lactoferrin. Tritrichomonas fetus, Trichomonas vaginalis, Toxoplasma gondii and Entamoeba histolytica express lactoferrin-binding proteins and use holo-lactoferrin as an iron source for growth in vitro; in some species, these binding proteins are immunogenic and, therefore, may serve as potential vaccine targets. Another mechanism to acquire lactoferrin iron has been reported in Leishmania spp. promastigotes, which use a surface reductase to recognize and reduce ferric iron to the accessible ferrous form. Cysteine proteases that cleave lactoferrin have been reported in E. histolytica. This review summarizes the available information on how parasites uptake and use the iron from lactoferrin to survive in hostile host environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Ortíz-Estrada
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Apdo. 14-740, México DF 07000, México
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Osorio EY, Zhao W, Espitia C, Saldarriaga O, Hawel L, Byus CV, Travi BL, Melby PC. Progressive visceral leishmaniasis is driven by dominant parasite-induced STAT6 activation and STAT6-dependent host arginase 1 expression. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1002417. [PMID: 22275864 PMCID: PMC3261917 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2011] [Accepted: 10/19/2011] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The clinicopathological features of the hamster model of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) closely mimic active human disease. Studies in humans and hamsters indicate that the inability to control parasite replication in VL could be related to ineffective classical macrophage activation. Therefore, we hypothesized that the pathogenesis of VL might be driven by a program of alternative macrophage activation. Indeed, the infected hamster spleen showed low NOS2 but high arg1 enzyme activity and protein and mRNA expression (p<0.001) and increased polyamine synthesis (p<0.05). Increased arginase activity was also evident in macrophages isolated from the spleens of infected hamsters (p<0.05), and arg1 expression was induced by L. donovani in primary hamster peritoneal macrophages (p<0.001) and fibroblasts (p<0.01), and in a hamster fibroblast cell line (p<0.05), without synthesis of endogenous IL-4 or IL-13 or exposure to exogenous cytokines. miRNAi-mediated selective knockdown of hamster arginase 1 (arg1) in BHK cells led to increased generation of nitric oxide and reduced parasite burden (p<0.005). Since many of the genes involved in alternative macrophage activation are regulated by Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription-6 (STAT6), and because the parasite-induced expression of arg1 occurred in the absence of exogenous IL-4, we considered the possibility that L. donovani was directly activating STAT6. Indeed, exposure of hamster fibroblasts or macrophages to L. donovani resulted in dose-dependent STAT6 activation, even without the addition of exogenous cytokines. Knockdown of hamster STAT6 in BHK cells with miRNAi resulted in reduced arg1 mRNA expression and enhanced control of parasite replication (p<0.0001). Collectively these data indicate that L. donovani infection induces macrophage STAT6 activation and STAT6-dependent arg1 expression, which do not require but are amplified by type 2 cytokines, and which contribute to impaired control of infection. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL), caused by the intracellular protozoan Leishmania donovani, is a progressive, potentially fatal infection found in many resource-poor regions of the world. We initiated these studies of an experimental model of VL to better understand the molecular and cellular determinants underlying this disease. We found that host macrophages or fibroblasts, when infected with Leishmania donovani or exposed to products secreted by the parasite, are permissive to infection because they fail to metabolize arginine to generate nitric oxide, the effector molecule needed to kill the intracellular parasites. Instead, the infected host cells are activated in a way that leads to the expression of arginase, an enzyme that metabolizes arginine to produce polyamines, which support parasite growth. This detrimental activation pathway was dependent on the parasite-induced activation of the transcription factor STAT6, but contrary to the previously accepted paradigm, did not require (but was amplified by) the presence of polarized Th2 cells or type 2 cytokines. Knockdown of host arginase or STAT6 enhanced control of the infection, indicating that this activation pathway has a critical role in the pathogenesis of the disease. Interventions designed to inhibit the STAT6-arginase-polyamine pathway could help in the treatment or prevention of VL.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Yaneth Osorio
- Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Weiguo Zhao
- Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Claudia Espitia
- Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Omar Saldarriaga
- Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Leo Hawel
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Craig V. Byus
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Bruno L. Travi
- Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Peter C. Melby
- Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Gualdrón-López M, Brennand A, Hannaert V, Quiñones W, Cáceres AJ, Bringaud F, Concepción JL, Michels PAM. When, how and why glycolysis became compartmentalised in the Kinetoplastea. A new look at an ancient organelle. Int J Parasitol 2011; 42:1-20. [PMID: 22142562 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2011.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2011] [Revised: 10/13/2011] [Accepted: 10/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
A characteristic, well-studied feature of the pathogenic protists belonging to the family Trypanosomatidae is the compartmentalisation of the major part of the glycolytic pathway in peroxisome-like organelles, hence designated glycosomes. Such organelles containing glycolytic enzymes appear to be present in all members of the Kinetoplastea studied, and have recently also been detected in a representative of the Diplonemida, but they are absent from the Euglenida. Glycosomes therefore probably originated in a free-living, common ancestor of the Kinetoplastea and Diplonemida. The initial sequestering of glycolytic enzymes inside peroxisomes may have been the result of a minor mistargeting of proteins, as generally observed in eukaryotic cells, followed by preservation and its further expansion due to the selective advantage of this specific form of metabolic compartmentalisation. This selective advantage may have been a largely increased metabolic flexibility, allowing the organisms to adapt more readily and efficiently to different environmental conditions. Further evolution of glycosomes involved, in different taxonomic lineages, the acquisition of additional enzymes and pathways - often participating in core metabolic processes - as well as the loss of others. The acquisitions may have been promoted by the sharing of cofactors and crucial metabolites between different pathways, thus coupling different redox processes and catabolic and anabolic pathways within the organelle. A notable loss from the Trypanosomatidae concerned a major part of the typical peroxisomal H(2)O(2)-linked metabolism. We propose that the compartmentalisation of major parts of the enzyme repertoire involved in energy, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism has contributed to the multiple development of parasitism, and its elaboration to complicated life cycles involving consecutive different hosts, in the protists of the Kinetoplastea clade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melisa Gualdrón-López
- Research Unit for Tropical Diseases, de Duve Institute and Laboratory of Biochemistry, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue Hippocrate 74, Postal Box B1.74.01, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium
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Lin Z, Fernández-Robledo JA, Cellier MFM, Vasta GR. The natural resistance-associated macrophage protein from the protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus mediates iron uptake. Biochemistry 2011; 50:6340-55. [PMID: 21661746 DOI: 10.1021/bi200343h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Microbial pathogens succeed in acquiring essential metals such as iron and manganese despite their limited availability because of the host's immune response. The eukaryotic natural resistance-associated macrophage proteins mediate uptake of divalent metals and, during infection, may compete directly for metal acquisition with the pathogens' transporters. In this study, we characterize the Nramp gene family of Perkinsus marinus, an intracellular parasite of the eastern oyster, and through yeast complementation, we demonstrate for the first time for a protozoan parasite that Nramp imports environmental Fe. Three PmNramp isogenes differ in their exon-intron structures and encode transcripts that display a trans splicing leader at the 5' end. The protein sequences share conserved properties predicted for the Nramp/Solute carrier 11 (Slc11) family, such as 12-transmembrane segment (TMS) topology (N- and C-termini cytoplasmic) and preferential conservation of four TMS predicted to form a pseudosymmetric proton/metal symport pathway. Yeast fet3fet4 mutant complementation assays showed iron transport activity for PmNramp1 and a fusion chimera of the PmNramp3 hydrophobic core and PmNramp1 N- and C-termini. PmNramp1 site-directed mutagenesis demonstrated that Slc11 invariant and predicted pseudosymmetric motifs (TMS1 Asp-Pro-Gly and TMS6 Met-Pro-His) are key for transport function. PmNramp1 TMS1 mutants D76E, G78A, and D76E/G78A prevented membrane protein expression, while TMS6 M250A, H252Y, and M250A/H252Y specifically abrogated Fe uptake; the TMS6 H252Y mutation also correlates with divergence from Nramp specificity for divalent metals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuoer Lin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, IMET, 701 East Pratt Street, Suite 236, Baltimore, Maryland 21202-3101, USA
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