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Pierce ES, Jindal C, Choi YM, Efird JT. The evidence for Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) as a cause of nonsolar uveal melanoma: a narrative review. Transl Cancer Res 2023; 12:398-412. [PMID: 36915598 PMCID: PMC10007888 DOI: 10.21037/tcr-22-2540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Background and Objective Animal microorganisms have been proposed as a cause of human cancers associated with farming, agricultural occupation or residence, and related downstream exposures. Several studies have described uveal melanoma (UvM) as a farming-associated cancer. A possible suspect is the animal microorganism Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), the causative agent of paratuberculosis in dairy cows. This microbe is transmitted to humans through various means, including contact with animal faeces, contaminated dust and soil, organic fertilizers, and as workers in slaughterhouses/animal processing facilities. The objective of the current manuscript was to examine the putative association between Mycobacterium avium sub-species paratuberculosis and non-solar UvM. Methods Online data sources (PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and Google) published in English between 1980 to present were searched for key words pertaining to MAP exposure, farming-related occupations and activities, and locations with or in the vicinity of dairy cattle. Key Content and Findings While higher than expected rates of eye cancer have been suggested among dairy farmers, with MAP being ubiquitous in their environment, the involvement of MAP in the aetiology of non-solar UvMs (which account for ~97% of UvM cases) remains uncertain. Conclusions Alternative explanations exist and future cause-and-effect research is needed to answer this hypothesis. A precautionary approach to exposure continues to be a prudent strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen S Pierce
- Independent Physician Researcher, Spokane Valley, WA, USA
| | | | | | - Jimmy T Efird
- Department of Radiation Oncology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.,VA Cooperative Studies Program Coordinating Center, Boston, MA, USA
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2
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Verdugo C, Marquez D, Paredes E, Moroni M, Navarrete-Talloni MJ, Tomckowiack C, Salgado M. Association between the severity of histopathological lesions and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) molecular diversity in cattle in southern Chile. Front Vet Sci 2023; 9:962241. [PMID: 36713883 PMCID: PMC9878319 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.962241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The objective was to evaluate the association between the severity of histopathological lesions caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) infection and the molecular diversity of this pathogen. Blood, ileum, and mesenteric lymph node samples were collected at slaughter, from 1,352 adult cattle [source population 1 (SP1)]. In addition, 42 dairy herds (n = 4,963 cows) were followed for 2 years, and samples from compatible paratuberculosis clinical cases [source population 2 (SP2)] were collected. MAP infection was confirmed using an ELISA test, liquid media culture, and PCR. Isolates were genotyped using five MIRU-VNTR markers. Tissues from confirmed samples were subjected to a histopathological examination. A histopathological severity score (HSS) system was developed and used to grade (0 to 5) the magnitude of lesions caused by MAP. In general, the HSS system assesses the number of foci and degree of macrophage infiltration, together with the presence of multinucleated giant cells (MGCs) and acid-fast bacilli (AFB), in addition to the fusion of the intestinal villi and hyperplasia of the crypts. Despite the large sampling effort, only 79 MAP isolates were successfully genotyped, where 19 different haplotypes were described. A mixed-effect Poisson regression model was used to assess the relationship between haplotypes and HSS values. The model was controlled by animal age, and the farm was used as a random effect. Haplotypes were grouped based on their relative frequency: the most frequent haplotype (group i, 49.4%), the second most frequent haplotype (group ii, 12.7%), and all other haplotypes (group iii, 37.9%). Model outputs indicated that group i had significantly higher HSS values than group iii. In addition, group i was also associated with higher optical density (OD) values of the ELISA test. These results support the existence of differences in pathogenicity between MAP haplotypes. However, results were based on a relatively small sample size; thus, these should be taken with caution. Despite this, study findings suggest that haplotypes would be associated with differences in disease progression, where the dominant haplotype tends to generate more severe lesions, which could be linked to a greater shed of MAP cells than non-dominant haplotypes, increasing their chances of transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristobal Verdugo
- Instituto de Medicina Preventiva Veterinaria, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile,Center for the Surveillance and Evolution of Infectious Diseases (CSEID), Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile,*Correspondence: Cristobal Verdugo ✉
| | - Diego Marquez
- Instituto de Medicina Preventiva Veterinaria, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile,Escuela de Graduados, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Enrique Paredes
- Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Manuel Moroni
- Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | | | - Camilo Tomckowiack
- Instituto de Medicina Preventiva Veterinaria, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Miguel Salgado
- Instituto de Medicina Preventiva Veterinaria, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
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3
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Park HT, Lee SM, Ko S, Kim S, Park HE, Shin MK, Kim D, Yoo HS. Delineating transcriptional crosstalk between Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis and human THP-1 cells at the early stage of infection via dual RNA-seq analysis. Vet Res 2022; 53:71. [PMID: 36100945 PMCID: PMC9469519 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-022-01089-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is the causative agent of Johne’s disease, a chronic debilitating disease in ruminants. To control this disease, it is crucial to understand immune evasion and the mechanism of persistence by analyzing the early phase interplays of the intracellular pathogens and their hosts. In the present study, host–pathogen interactions at the transcriptomic level were investigated in an in vitro macrophage infection model. When differentiated human THP-1 cells were infected with MAP, the expression of various genes associated with stress responses and metabolism was altered in both host and MAP at 3 h post-infection. MAP upregulates stress-responsive global gene regulators, such as two-component systems and sigma factors, in response to oxidative and cell wall stress. Downstream genes involved in type VII secretion systems, cell wall synthesis (polyketide biosynthesis proteins), and iron uptake were changed in response to the intracellular environment of macrophages. On the host side, upregulation of inflammatory cytokine genes was observed along with pattern recognition receptor genes. Notably, alterations in gene sets involved in arginine metabolism were observed in both the host and MAP, along with significant downregulation of NOS2 expression. These observations suggest that the utilization of metabolites such as arginine by intracellular MAP might affect host NO production. Our dual RNA-seq data can provide novel insights by capturing the global transcriptome with higher resolution, especially in MAP, thus enabling a more systematic understanding of host–pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Tae Park
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Sang-Mok Lee
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Korea
| | - Seyoung Ko
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Korea
| | - Suji Kim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Hyun-Eui Park
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Research Institute of Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, Korea
| | - Min-Kyoung Shin
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Research Institute of Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, Korea
| | - Donghyuk Kim
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Korea.
| | - Han Sang Yoo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea.
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4
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Lim J, Park HT, Ko S, Park HE, Lee G, Kim S, Shin MK, Yoo HS, Kim D. Genomic diversity of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis: pangenomic approach for highlighting unique genomic features with newly constructed complete genomes. Vet Res 2021; 52:46. [PMID: 33736686 PMCID: PMC7977185 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-021-00905-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is a causative agent of Johne’s disease, which is a chronic granulomatous enteropathy in ruminants. Determining the genetic diversity of MAP is necessary to understand the epidemiology and biology of MAP, as well as establishing disease control strategies. In the present study, whole genome-based alignment and comparative analysis were performed using 40 publicly available MAP genomes, including newly sequenced Korean isolates. First, whole genome-based alignment was employed to identify new genomic structures in MAP genomes. Second, the genomic diversity of the MAP population was described by pangenome analysis. A phylogenetic tree based on the core genome and pangenome showed that the MAP was differentiated into two major types (C- and S-type), which was in keeping with the findings of previous studies. However, B-type strains were discriminated from C-type strains. Finally, functional analysis of the pangenome was performed using three virulence factor databases (i.e., PATRIC, VFDB, and Victors) to predict the phenotypic diversity of MAP in terms of pathogenicity. Based on the results of the pangenome analysis, we developed a real-time PCR technique to distinguish among S-, B- and C-type strains. In conclusion, the results of our study suggest that the phenotypic differences between MAP strains can be explained by their genetic polymorphisms. These results may help to elucidate the diversity of MAP, extending from genomic features to phenotypic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaewon Lim
- School of Life Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, Korea
| | - Hong-Tae Park
- Department of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Seyoung Ko
- School of Life Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, Korea
| | - Hyun-Eui Park
- Department of Microbiology, Research Institute of Life Science, College of Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Korea
| | - Gyumin Lee
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, Korea
| | - Suji Kim
- Department of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Min-Kyoung Shin
- Department of Microbiology, Research Institute of Life Science, College of Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Korea
| | - Han Sang Yoo
- Department of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea. .,Bio-MAX/N-Bio Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Korea.
| | - Donghyuk Kim
- School of Life Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, Korea. .,School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, Korea.
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5
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Mizzi R, Timms VJ, Price-Carter ML, Gautam M, Whittington R, Heuer C, Biggs PJ, Plain KM. Comparative Genomics of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis Sheep Strains. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:637637. [PMID: 33659287 PMCID: PMC7917049 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.637637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) is the aetiological agent of Johne's disease (JD), a chronic enteritis that causes major losses to the global livestock industry. Further, it has been associated with human Crohn's disease. Several strains of MAP have been identified, the two major groups being sheep strain MAP, which includes the Type I and Type III sub-lineages, and the cattle strain or Type II MAP lineage, of which bison strains are a sub-grouping. Major genotypic, phenotypic and pathogenic variations have been identified in prior comparisons, but the research has predominately focused on cattle strains of MAP. In countries where the sheep industries are more prevalent, however, such as Australia and New Zealand, ovine JD is a substantial burden. An information gap exists regarding the genomic differences between sheep strain sub-lineages and the relevance of Type I and Type III MAP in terms of epidemiology and/or pathogenicity. We therefore investigated sheep MAP isolates from Australia and New Zealand using whole genome sequencing. For additional context, sheep MAP genome datasets were downloaded from the Sequence Read Archive and GenBank. The final dataset contained 18 Type III and 16 Type I isolates and the K10 cattle strain MAP reference genome. Using a pan-genome approach, an updated global phylogeny for sheep MAP from de novo assemblies was produced. When rooted with the K10 cattle reference strain, two distinct clades representing the lineages were apparent. The Australian and New Zealand isolates formed a distinct sub-clade within the type I lineage, while the European type I isolates formed another less closely related group. Within the type III lineage, isolates appeared more genetically diverse and were from a greater number of continents. Querying of the pan-genome and verification using BLAST analysis revealed lineage-specific variations (n = 13) including genes responsible for metabolism and stress responses. The genetic differences identified may represent important epidemiological and virulence traits specific to sheep MAP. This knowledge will potentially contribute to improved vaccine development and control measures for these strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Mizzi
- Farm Animal Health Group, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia
| | - Verlaine J Timms
- Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Public Health, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW, Australia
| | | | - Milan Gautam
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Richard Whittington
- Farm Animal Health Group, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia
| | - Cord Heuer
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Patrick J Biggs
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.,School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Karren M Plain
- Farm Animal Health Group, Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW, Australia
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6
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Abstract
Paratuberculosis and bovine tuberculosis are two mycobacterial diseases of ruminants which have a considerable impact on livestock health, welfare, and production. These are chronic "iceberg" diseases which take years to manifest and in which many subclinical cases remain undetected. Suggested biomarkers to detect infected or diseased animals are numerous and include cytokines, peptides, and expression of specific genes; however, these do not provide a strong correlation to disease. Despite these advances, disease detection still relies heavily on dated methods such as detection of pathogen shedding, skin tests, or serology. Here we review the evidence for suitable biomarkers and their mechanisms of action, with a focus on identifying animals that are resilient to disease. A better understanding of these factors will help establish new strategies to control the spread of these diseases.
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7
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Kleinwort KJ, Hauck SM, Degroote RL, Scholz AM, Hölzel C, Maertlbauer EP, Deeg C. Peripheral blood bovine lymphocytes and MAP show distinctly different proteome changes and immune pathways in host-pathogen interaction. PeerJ 2019; 7:e8130. [PMID: 31788366 PMCID: PMC6882418 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is a pathogen causing paratuberculosis in cattle and small ruminants. During the long asymptomatic subclinical stage, high numbers of MAP are excreted and can be transmitted to food for human consumption, where they survive many of the standard techniques of food decontamination. Whether MAP is a human pathogen is currently under debate. The aim of this study was a better understanding of the host-pathogen response by analyzing the interaction of peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) from cattle with MAP in their exoproteomes/secretomes to gain more information about the pathogenic mechanisms of MAP. Because in other mycobacterial infections, the immune phenotype correlates with susceptibility, we additionally tested the interaction of MAP with recently detected cattle with a different immune capacity referred as immune deviant (ID) cows. In PBL, different biological pathways were enhanced in response to MAP dependent on the immune phenotype of the host. PBL of control cows activated members of cell activation and chemotaxis of leukocytes pathway as well as IL-12 mediated signaling. In contrast, in ID cows CNOT1 was detected as highly abundant protein, pointing to a different immune response, which could be favorable for MAP. Additionally, MAP exoproteomes differed in either GroEL1 or DnaK abundance, depending on the interacting host immune response. These finding point to an interdependent, tightly regulated response of the bovine immune system to MAP and vise versa.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stefanie M. Hauck
- Research Unit for Protein Science, Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, Munich, Germany
| | - Roxane L. Degroote
- Chair of Animal Physiology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Armin M. Scholz
- Livestock Center of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Christina Hölzel
- Institute of Animal Breeding and Husbandry, Faculty of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, CAU Kiel, Kiel, Germany
- Chair of Hygiene and Technology of Milk, Department of Veterinary Sciences, LMU Munich, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Erwin P. Maertlbauer
- Chair of Hygiene and Technology of Milk, Department of Veterinary Sciences, LMU Munich, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Cornelia Deeg
- Chair of Animal Physiology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
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8
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de Albuquerque PPF, de Melo RPB, de Farias Brito M, Bovino F, de Souza MA, Lima AMC, de Oliveira EAA, de Moraes Pereira H, Mota RA. First molecular epidemiological study of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in cattle and buffalo from different regions of Brazil. Trop Anim Health Prod 2018; 50:1929-1935. [PMID: 29946985 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-018-1650-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Paratuberculosis is an incurable disease in ruminants with great worldwide economic impact, caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP). The objective of this study was to carry out a study of the molecular epidemiology of the MAP using the restriction enzyme analysis (REA) technique of IS1311 MAP region in biological samples of feces, intestinal tissue, and mesenteric lymph nodes of cattle and buffaloes from six Brazilian states. In total, 109 samples of feces and tissues of cattle and buffaloes were collected from animal paratuberculosis suspected. Twenty-five samples were positive in the detection of the DNA of the IS900 region of MAP and it was possible to type 18 strains in the analysis of the region IS1311, being 100% of them identified as belonging to subtype Bison MAP strain. This is the first epidemiological molecular study of MAP in Brazil. The results indicate that paratuberculosis is widespread in cattle and in buffaloes in several regions of Brazil, and the subtype Bison MAP strain was the only one identified in the samples analyzed in this study, demonstrating the similarity between the strains from different states tested. These results provide the necessary support for the implementation of paratuberculosis control strategies in cattle and buffaloes in Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marilene de Farias Brito
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Bovino
- Faculty of Agrarian Sciences of Andradina, Educational Foundation of Andradina, Andradina, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Rinaldo Aparecido Mota
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
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9
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Kim WS, Shin MK, Shin SJ. MAP1981c, a Putative Nucleic Acid-Binding Protein, Produced by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, Induces Maturation of Dendritic Cells and Th1-Polarization. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:206. [PMID: 29977867 PMCID: PMC6021526 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is the causative pathogen of chronic granulomatous enteropathy (Johne's disease) in animals, and has been focused on its association with various autoimmune diseases in humans, including Crohn's disease. The discovery of novel mycobacterial antigens and exploring their role in host immunity can contribute to the advancement of effective defense strategies including vaccines and diagnostic tools. In a preliminary study, we identified cellular extract proteins of MAP that strongly react with the blood of patients with Crohn's disease. In particular, MAP1981c, a putative nucleic acid-binding protein, showed high expression levels and strong reactivity to IgG and IgM in the sera of patients. Here, we investigated the immunological features of MAP1981c and focused on its interaction with dendritic cells (DCs), confirming its immunomodulatory ability. MAP1981c was shown to recognize Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, and induce DC maturation and activation by increasing the expression of co-stimulatory (CD80 and CD86) and MHC class I/II molecules and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α) in DCs. This DC activation by MAP1981c was mediated by downstream signaling of TLR4 via MyD88- and TRIF-, MAP kinase-, and NF-κB-dependent signaling pathways. In addition, MAP1981c-treated DCs activated naïve T cells and induced the differentiation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells to express T-bet, IFN-γ, and/or IL-2, but not GATA-3 and IL-4, thus indicating that MAP1981c contributes to Th1-type immune responses both in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, these results suggest that MAP1981c is a novel immunocompetent antigen that induces DC maturation and a Th1-biased response upon DC activation, suggesting that MAP1981c can be an effective vaccine and diagnostic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woo Sik Kim
- Department of Microbiology and Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea.,Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, South Korea
| | - Min-Kyoung Shin
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Health Sciences, College of Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, South Korea
| | - Sung Jae Shin
- Department of Microbiology and Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
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Barkema HW, Orsel K, Nielsen SS, Koets AP, Rutten VPMG, Bannantine JP, Keefe GP, Kelton DF, Wells SJ, Whittington RJ, Mackintosh CG, Manning EJ, Weber MF, Heuer C, Forde TL, Ritter C, Roche S, Corbett CS, Wolf R, Griebel PJ, Kastelic JP, De Buck J. Knowledge gaps that hamper prevention and control of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017; 65 Suppl 1:125-148. [PMID: 28941207 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In the last decades, many regional and country-wide control programmes for Johne's disease (JD) were developed due to associated economic losses, or because of a possible association with Crohn's disease. These control programmes were often not successful, partly because management protocols were not followed, including the introduction of infected replacement cattle, because tests to identify infected animals were unreliable, and uptake by farmers was not high enough because of a perceived low return on investment. In the absence of a cure or effective commercial vaccines, control of JD is currently primarily based on herd management strategies to avoid infection of cattle and restrict within-farm and farm-to-farm transmission. Although JD control programmes have been implemented in most developed countries, lessons learned from JD prevention and control programmes are underreported. Also, JD control programmes are typically evaluated in a limited number of herds and the duration of the study is less than 5 year, making it difficult to adequately assess the efficacy of control programmes. In this manuscript, we identify the most important gaps in knowledge hampering JD prevention and control programmes, including vaccination and diagnostics. Secondly, we discuss directions that research should take to address those knowledge gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- H W Barkema
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - K Orsel
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - S S Nielsen
- University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - A P Koets
- Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - V P M G Rutten
- Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | | | - G P Keefe
- University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, Canada
| | | | - S J Wells
- University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | | | | | | | - M F Weber
- GD Animal Health, Deventer, The Netherlands
| | - C Heuer
- Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | | | - C Ritter
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - S Roche
- University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - C S Corbett
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - R Wolf
- Amt der Steiermärkischen Landesregierung, Graz, Austria
| | | | - J P Kastelic
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - J De Buck
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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11
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Bannantine JP, Etienne G, Laval F, Stabel JR, Lemassu A, Daffé M, Bayles DO, Ganneau C, Bonhomme F, Branger M, Cochard T, Bay S, Biet F. Cell wall peptidolipids of Mycobacterium avium: from genetic prediction to exact structure of a nonribosomal peptide. Mol Microbiol 2017; 105:525-539. [PMID: 28558126 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacteria have a complex cell wall structure that includes many lipids; however, even within a single subspecies of Mycobacterium avium these lipids can differ. Total lipids from an M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Map) ovine strain (S-type) contained no identifiable glycopeptidolipids or lipopentapeptide (L5P), yet both lipids are present in other M. avium subspecies. We determined the genetic and phenotypic basis for this difference using sequence analysis as well as biochemical and physico-chemical approaches. This strategy showed that a nonribosomal peptide synthase, encoded by mps1, contains three amino acid specifying modules in ovine strains, compared to five modules in bovine strains (C-type). Sequence analysis predicted these modules would produce the tripeptide Phe-N-Methyl-Val-Ala with a lipid moiety, termed lipotripeptide (L3P). Comprehensive physico-chemical analysis of Map S397 extracts confirmed the structural formula of the native L3P as D-Phe-N-Methyl-L-Val-L-Ala-OMe attached in N-ter to a 20-carbon fatty acid chain. These data demonstrate that S-type strains, which are more adapted in sheep, produce a unique lipid. There is a dose-dependent effect observed for L3P on upregulation of CD25+ CD8 T cells from infected cows, while L5P effects were static. In contrast, L5P demonstrated a significantly stronger induction of CD25+ B cells from infected animals compared to L3P.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Bannantine
- National Animal Disease Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Ames, IA, 50010, USA
| | - Gilles Etienne
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France.,Université de Toulouse, UPS, IPBS, Toulouse, 31000, France
| | - Françoise Laval
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France.,Université de Toulouse, UPS, IPBS, Toulouse, 31000, France
| | - Judith R Stabel
- National Animal Disease Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Ames, IA, 50010, USA
| | - Anne Lemassu
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France.,Université de Toulouse, UPS, IPBS, Toulouse, 31000, France
| | - Mamadou Daffé
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France.,Université de Toulouse, UPS, IPBS, Toulouse, 31000, France
| | - Darrell O Bayles
- National Animal Disease Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Ames, IA, 50010, USA
| | - Christelle Ganneau
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Chimie des Biomolécules, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France.,CNRS UMR 3523, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Frédéric Bonhomme
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Chimie des Biomolécules, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France.,CNRS UMR 3523, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Maxime Branger
- Infectiologie et Santé Publique, INRA, Université de Tours, UMR1282, Nouzilly, F-37380, France
| | - Thierry Cochard
- Infectiologie et Santé Publique, INRA, Université de Tours, UMR1282, Nouzilly, F-37380, France
| | - Sylvie Bay
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Chimie des Biomolécules, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France.,CNRS UMR 3523, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Franck Biet
- Infectiologie et Santé Publique, INRA, Université de Tours, UMR1282, Nouzilly, F-37380, France
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12
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Ahlstrom C, Barkema HW, Stevenson K, Zadoks RN, Biek R, Kao R, Trewby H, Haupstein D, Kelton DF, Fecteau G, Labrecque O, Keefe GP, McKenna SLB, Tahlan K, De Buck J. Genome-Wide Diversity and Phylogeography of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Canadian Dairy Cattle. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149017. [PMID: 26871723 PMCID: PMC4752300 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is the causative bacterium of Johne’s disease (JD) in ruminants. The control of JD in the dairy industry is challenging, but can be improved with a better understanding of the diversity and distribution of MAP subtypes. Previously established molecular typing techniques used to differentiate MAP have not been sufficiently discriminatory and/or reliable to accurately assess the population structure. In this study, the genetic diversity of 182 MAP isolates representing all Canadian provinces was compared to the known global diversity, using single nucleotide polymorphisms identified through whole genome sequencing. MAP isolates from Canada represented a subset of the known global diversity, as there were global isolates intermingled with Canadian isolates, as well as multiple global subtypes that were not found in Canada. One Type III and six “Bison type” isolates were found in Canada as well as one Type II subtype that represented 86% of all Canadian isolates. Rarefaction estimated larger subtype richness in Québec than in other Canadian provinces using a strict definition of MAP subtypes and lower subtype richness in the Atlantic region using a relaxed definition. Significant phylogeographic clustering was observed at the inter-provincial but not at the intra-provincial level, although most major clades were found in all provinces. The large number of shared subtypes among provinces suggests that cattle movement is a major driver of MAP transmission at the herd level, which is further supported by the lack of spatial clustering on an intra-provincial scale.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ruth N. Zadoks
- Moredun Research Institute, Penicuik, Scotland
- University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland
| | - Roman Biek
- University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Olivia Labrecque
- Laboratoire d'épidémiosurveillance animale du Québec, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Greg P. Keefe
- University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada
| | - Shawn L. B. McKenna
- University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada
| | - Kapil Tahlan
- Memorial University of Newfoundland and Labrador, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Jeroen De Buck
- University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- * E-mail:
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13
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Host responses to the pathogen Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis and beneficial microbes exhibit host sex specificity. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 80:4481-90. [PMID: 24814797 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01229-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Differences between microbial pathogenesis in male and female hosts are well characterized in disease conditions connected to sexual transmission. However, limited biological insight is available on variances attributed to sex specificity in host-microbe interactions, and it is most often a minimized variable outside these transmission events. In this work, we studied two gut microbes-a pathogen, Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, and a probiotic, Lactobacillus animalis NP-51-and the interaction between each agent and the male and female gastrointestinal systems. This trial was conducted in BALB/c mice (n=5 per experimental group and per sex at a given time point), with analysis at four time points over 180 days. Host responses to M.avium subsp. paratuberculosis and L. animalis were sensitive to sex. Cytokines that were significantly different (P ≤ 0.05) betweenthe sexes included interleukin-1α/β (IL-1α/β), IL-17, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, and gamma interferon (IFN-) and were dependent on experimental conditions. However, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and IL-13/23 showed no sex specificity. A metabolomics study indicated a 0.5- to 2.0-fold (log2 scale) increase in short-chain fatty acids (butyrate and acetate) in males and greater increases in o-phosphocholine or histidine from female colon tissues; variances distinct to each sex were observed with age or long-term probiotic consumption. Two genera, Staphylococcus and Roseburia, were consistently overrepresented in females compared to males; other species were specific to one sex but fluctuated depending on experimental conditions. The differences observed suggest that male and female gut tissues and microbiota respond to newly introduced microorganisms differently and that gut-associated microorganisms with host immune system responses and metabolic activity are supported by biology distinct to the host sex.
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14
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Genetic diversity of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis and the influence of strain type on infection and pathogenesis: a review. Vet Res 2015; 46:64. [PMID: 26092160 PMCID: PMC4473831 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-015-0203-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2014] [Accepted: 01/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (Map) is an important pathogen that causes a chronic, progressive granulomatous enteritis known as Johne's disease or paratuberculosis. The disease is endemic in many parts of the world and responsible for considerable losses to the livestock and associated industries. Diagnosis and control are problematic, due mostly to the long incubation period of the disease when infected animals show no clinical signs and are difficult to detect, and the ability of the organism to survive and persist in the environment. The existence of phenotypically distinct strains of Map has been known since the 1930s but the genetic differentiation of Map strain types has been challenging and only recent technologies have proven sufficiently discriminative for strain comparisons, tracing the sources of infection and epidemiological studies. It is important to understand the differences that exist between Map strains and how they influence both development and transmission of disease. This information is required to develop improved diagnostics and effective vaccines for controlling Johne's disease. Here I review the current classification of Map strain types, the sources of the genetic variability within strains, growth characteristics and epidemiological traits associated with strain type and the influence of strain type on infection and pathogenicity.
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15
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Shin MK, Shin SW, Jung M, Park H, Park HE, Yoo HS. Host gene expression for Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in human THP-1 macrophages. Pathog Dis 2015; 73:ftv031. [PMID: 25877879 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftv031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is the causative agent of Johne's disease, which causes considerable economic loss in the dairy industry and has a possible relationship to Crohn's disease (CD) in humans. As MAP has been detected in retail pasteurized milk samples, its transmission via milk is of concern. Despite its possible role in the etiology of CD, there have been few studies examining the interactions between MAP and human cells. In the current study, we applied Ingenuity Pathway Analysis to the transcription profiles generated from a murine model with MAP infection as part of a previously conducted study. Twenty-one genes were selected as potential host immune responses, compared with the transcriptional profiles in naturally MAP-infected cattle, and validated in MAP-infected human monocyte-derived macrophage THP-1 cells. Of these, the potential host responses included up-regulation of genes related to immune response (CD14, S100A8, S100A9, LTF, HP and CHCIL3), up-regulation of Th1-polarizing factor (CCL4, CCL5, CXCL9 and CXCL10), down-regulation of genes related to metabolism (ELANE, IGF1, TCF7L2 and MPO) and no significant response of other genes (GADD45a, GPNMB, HMOX1, IFNG and NQO1) in THP-1 cells infected with MAP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Kyoung Shin
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742 Korea Dairy and Swine Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Sherbrooke, QC J1M 1Z3, Canada
| | - Seung Won Shin
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742 Korea
| | - Myunghwan Jung
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742 Korea
| | - Hongtae Park
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742 Korea
| | - Hyun-Eui Park
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742 Korea
| | - Han Sang Yoo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742 Korea Institute of Green Bio Science and Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang, 232-916, Korea
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16
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Verdugo C, Pleydell E, Price-Carter M, Prattley D, Collins D, de Lisle G, Vogue H, Wilson P, Heuer C. Molecular epidemiology of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis isolated from sheep, cattle and deer on New Zealand pastoral farms. Prev Vet Med 2014; 117:436-46. [PMID: 25315761 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2014.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 09/26/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The present study aimed to describe the molecular diversity of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) isolates obtained from sheep, cattle (beef and dairy) and deer farms in New Zealand. A total of 206 independent MAP isolates (15 beef cattle, 89 dairy cattle, 35 deer, 67 sheep) were sourced from 172 species-mobs (15 beef cattle, 66 dairy cattle, 31 deer, 60 sheep). Seventeen subtypes were identified, using a combination of variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) and short sequence repeat (SSR) methods. Rarefaction analysis, analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), Fst pairwise comparisons and proportional similarity index (PSI) were used to describe subtype population richness, genetic structure and potential associations between livestock sectors and New Zealand two main islands (North and South). The rarefaction analysis suggests a significantly higher subtype richness in dairy cattle herds when compared to the other livestock sectors. AMOVA results indicate that the main source of subtype variation is attributable to the livestock sector from which samples were sourced suggesting that subtypes are generally sector-specific. The pairwise Fst results were similar, with low Fst values for island differences within a livestock sector when compared to between sector analyses, representing a low subtype differentiation between islands. However, for a given island, potential associations were seen between dominant subtypes and specific livestock sectors. Three subtypes accounted for 76% of the isolates. The most common of these was isolated from sheep and beef cattle in the North Island, the second most frequent subtype was mainly isolated from dairy cattle (either island), while the third most common subtype was associated with deer farmed in the South Island. The PSI analysis suggests similarities in subtypes sourced from sheep and beef cattle. This contrasted with the isolates sourced from other livestock sectors, which tended to present sector-specific subtypes. Sheep and beef cattle were mainly infected with MAP Type I, while dairy cattle and deer were almost exclusively infected with MAP Type II. However, when beef cattle and deer were both present at farm level, they harboured similar subtypes. This study indicates that cross-species transmission of MAP occurs on New Zealand farms although close contact between species appears to be required, as in the case of sheep and beef cattle which are commonly grazed together in New Zealand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristobal Verdugo
- Instituto de Medicina Preventiva Veterinaria, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile; EpiCentre, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
| | - Eve Pleydell
- Infectious Disease Research Centre, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Marian Price-Carter
- AgResearch, National Centre for Biosecurity and Infectious Disease, Wallaceville, P.O. Box 40063, Upper Hutt, New Zealand
| | - Deborah Prattley
- Infectious Disease Research Centre, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Desmond Collins
- AgResearch, National Centre for Biosecurity and Infectious Disease, Wallaceville, P.O. Box 40063, Upper Hutt, New Zealand
| | - Geoffrey de Lisle
- AgResearch, National Centre for Biosecurity and Infectious Disease, Wallaceville, P.O. Box 40063, Upper Hutt, New Zealand
| | - Hinrich Vogue
- Livestock Improvement Corporation, Private Bag 3016, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Peter Wilson
- Institute of Veterinary, Animal, and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Cord Heuer
- EpiCentre, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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17
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Karunasena E, McMahon KW, Kurkure PC, Brashears MM. A comparison of cell mediators and serum cytokines transcript expression between male and female mice infected with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis and/or consuming probiotics. Pathog Dis 2014; 72:104-10. [PMID: 25044984 DOI: 10.1111/2049-632x.12193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The gut immune system is complex, and dysregulation leads to a number of disorders including inflammatory bowel syndrome and (in livestock) Johne's disease. Previous work has demonstrated that males and females respond differently to treatment with pathologic and probiotic microorganisms, suggesting that a 'one-size-fits-all' approach to treat GIT inflammation may be inadequate. While we had observed significant differences between males and females in terms of cytokine production, it remains unclear how these changes occur. To better understand the mechanisms, transcript expression of genes important to gut immunoregulation were monitored from male and female BALB/c mice consuming the probiotic Lactobacillus animalis (1 × 10(6) CFU g(-1) ) and infected with the gut pathogen, Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (1 × 10(7) CFU). Expression of transcripts analyzed included those important to the immune system, intestinal cell differentiation, and/or regulation. Males generally displayed increased expression of Th 2 and B-cell mediators, and females showed repressed cytokine expression after MAP infection (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1 among others). Additionally, regulation of pro-inflammatory mediators in female mice consuming probiotics suggests females responded positively to L. animalis when compared to males. Therefore, we speculate that studying mechanistic changes associated with sex and immunoregulation in gastrointestinal tissues could further elucidate host response to microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enusha Karunasena
- Virginia Bioinformatics Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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18
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Thirunavukkarasu S, Plain KM, de Silva K, Begg D, Whittington RJ, Purdie AC. Expression of genes associated with cholesterol and lipid metabolism identified as a novel pathway in the early pathogenesis of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis-infection in cattle. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2014; 160:147-57. [PMID: 24930699 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2014.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2013] [Revised: 04/02/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Johne's disease (JD) is a chronic disease affecting ruminants and other species caused by the pathogenic mycobacterium, Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP). MAP has developed a multitude of mechanisms to persist within the host, and these in turn are counteracted by the host through various immune pathways. Identifying and characterising the different strategies employed by MAP to alter the host immune system in its favour, and thereby persist intracellularly, could hold the key to developing strategies to fight this disease. In this study we analysed a subset of bovine microarray data derived from early time points after experimental infection with MAP. A specifically developed integrated approach was used to identify and validate host genes involved in cholesterol homeostasis (24DHCR, LDLR, SCD-1), calcium homeostasis and anti-bacterial defence mechanisms, (CD38, GIMAP6) which were downregulated in response to MAP exposure. A trend for upregulation of granulysin gene expression in MAP-exposed cattle in comparison to unexposed cattle was also observed. From these analyses, a model of potential pathogen-host interactions involving these novel pathways was developed which indicates an important role for host lipids in mycobacterial survival and persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyamala Thirunavukkarasu
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, 425 Werombi Road, Camden 2570, NSW, Australia
| | - Karren M Plain
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, 425 Werombi Road, Camden 2570, NSW, Australia
| | - Kumudika de Silva
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, 425 Werombi Road, Camden 2570, NSW, Australia
| | - Douglas Begg
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, 425 Werombi Road, Camden 2570, NSW, Australia
| | - Richard J Whittington
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, 425 Werombi Road, Camden 2570, NSW, Australia
| | - Auriol C Purdie
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, 425 Werombi Road, Camden 2570, NSW, Australia.
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19
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Novel feature of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, highlighted by characterization of the heparin-binding hemagglutinin adhesin. J Bacteriol 2013; 195:4844-53. [PMID: 23974028 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00671-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis comprises two genotypically defined groups, known as the cattle (C) and sheep (S) groups. Recent studies have reported phenotypic differences between M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis groups C and S, including growth rates, infectivity for macrophages, and iron metabolism. In this study, we investigated the genotypes and biological properties of the virulence factor heparin-binding hemagglutinin adhesin (HBHA) for both groups. In Mycobacterium tuberculosis, HBHA is a major adhesin involved in mycobacterium-host interactions and extrapulmonary dissemination of infection. To investigate HBHA in M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis, we studied hbhA polymorphisms by fragment analysis using the GeneMapper technology across a large collection of isolates genotyped by mycobacterial interspersed repetitive-unit-variable-number tandem-repeat (MIRU-VNTR) and IS900 restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP-IS900) analyses. Furthermore, we analyzed the structure-function relationships of recombinant HBHA proteins of types C and S by heparin-Sepharose chromatography and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analyses. In silico analysis revealed two forms of HBHA, corresponding to the prototype genomes for the C and S types of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis. This observation was confirmed using GeneMapper on 85 M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis strains, including 67 strains of type C and 18 strains of type S. We found that HBHAs from all type C strains contain a short C-terminal domain, while those of type S present a long C-terminal domain, similar to that produced by Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium. The purification of recombinant HBHA from M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis of both types by heparin-Sepharose chromatography highlighted a correlation between their affinities for heparin and the lengths of their C-terminal domains, which was confirmed by SPR analysis. Thus, types C and S of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis may be distinguished by the types of HBHA they produce, which differ in size and adherence properties, thereby providing new evidence that strengthens the genotypic differences between the C and S types of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis.
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20
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Magombedze G, Reddy PBJ, Eda S, Ganusov VV. Cellular and population plasticity of helper CD4(+) T cell responses. Front Physiol 2013; 4:206. [PMID: 23966946 PMCID: PMC3744810 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2013.00206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2013] [Accepted: 07/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Vertebrates are constantly exposed to pathogens, and the adaptive immunity has most likely evolved to control and clear such infectious agents. CD4+ T cells are the major players in the adaptive immune response to pathogens. Following recognition of pathogen-derived antigens naïve CD4+ T cells differentiate into effectors which then control pathogen replication either directly by killing pathogen-infected cells or by assisting with generation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) or pathogen-specific antibodies. Pathogen-specific effector CD4+ T cells are highly heterogeneous in terms of cytokines they produce. Three major subtypes of effector CD4+ T cells have been identified: T-helper 1 (Th1) cells producing IFN-γ and TNF-α, Th2 cells producing IL-4 and IL-10, and Th17 cells producing IL-17. How this heterogeneity is maintained and what regulates changes in effector T cell composition during chronic infections remains poorly understood. In this review we discuss recent advances in our understanding of CD4+ T cell differentiation in response to microbial infections. We propose that a change in the phenotype of pathogen-specific effector CD4+ T cells during chronic infections, for example, from Th1 to Th2 response as observed in Mycobactrium avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP) infection of ruminants, can be achieved by conversion of T cells from one effector subset to another (cellular plasticity) or due to differences in kinetics (differentiation, proliferation, death) of different effector T cell subsets (population plasticity). We also shortly review mathematical models aimed at describing CD4+ T cell differentiation and outline areas for future experimental and theoretical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gesham Magombedze
- National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis, University of Tennessee Knoxville, TN, USA
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21
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Bannantine JP, Li LL, Sreevatsan S, Kapur V. How does a Mycobacterium change its spots? Applying molecular tools to track diverse strains of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Lett Appl Microbiol 2013; 57:165-73. [PMID: 23721475 DOI: 10.1111/lam.12109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2013] [Revised: 05/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Defining genetic diversity in the wake of the release of several Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) genome sequences has become a major emphasis in the molecular biology and epidemiology of Johne's disease research. These data can now be used to define the extent of strain diversity on the farm. However, to perform these important tasks, researchers must have a way to distinguish the many MAP isolates/strains that are present in the environment or host to enable tracking over time. Recent studies have described genetic diversity of the Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC), of which MAP is a member, through pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, single sequence repeats, variable-number tandem repeats, genome rearrangements, single nucleotide polymorphisms and genomewide comparisons to identify insertions and deletions. Combinations of these methods can now provide discrimination sufficient for dependable strain tracking. These molecular epidemiology techniques are being applied to understand transmission of Johne's disease within dairy cattle herds as well as identify which strains predominate in wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Bannantine
- National Animal Disease Center, USDA-ARS, Ames, IA, USA.
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22
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Zhang J. Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Novel Entry Mechanisms and a Central Role of SRC in Host Defense during High Multiplicity Mycobacterial Infection. PLoS One 2013; 8:e65128. [PMID: 23824656 PMCID: PMC3688827 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2013] [Accepted: 04/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infects an estimated one-third of the global population and is one of the main causes of mortality from an infectious agent. The characteristics of macrophages challenged by MTB with a high multiplicity of infection (MOI), which mimics both clinical disseminated infection and granuloma formation, are distinct from macrophages challenged with a low MOI. To better understand the cross talk between macrophage host cells and mycobacteria, we compared the transcription patterns of mouse macrophages infected with bacille Calmette-Guérin, H37Ra and M. smegmatis. Attention was focused on the changes in the abundance of transcripts related to immune system function. From the results of a transcriptome profiling study with a high mycobacterial MOI, we defined a pathogen-specific host gene expression pattern. The present study suggests that two integrins, ITGA5 and ITGAV, are novel cell surface receptors mediating mycobacterium entry into macrophages challenged with high MOI. Our results indicate that SRC likely plays a central role in regulating multiple unique signaling pathways activated by MTB infection. The integrated results increase our understanding of the molecular networks behind the host innate immune response and identify important targets that might be useful for the development of tuberculosis therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay Zhang
- Genomics Research Centre, Griffith Health Institute, Gold Coast Campus, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland, Australia
- * E-mail:
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23
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Anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic responses to infection: a common denominator of human and bovine macrophages infected with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:908348. [PMID: 23509800 PMCID: PMC3581090 DOI: 10.1155/2013/908348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2012] [Accepted: 12/26/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Map) is the causative agent of a chronic intestinal inflammation in ruminants named Johne's disease or paratuberculosis and a possible etiopathological agent of human Crohn's disease (CD). Analysis of macrophage transcriptomes in response to Map infection is expected to provide key missing information in the understanding of the role of this pathogen in establishing an inappropriate and persistent infection in a susceptible host and of the molecular mechanisms that might underlie the early phases of CD. In this paper we summarize transcriptomic studies of human and bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs), and macrophages-like cell lines in vitro infected with Map. Most studies included in this paper consistently reported common gene expression signatures of bovine and human macrophages in response to Map such as enhanced expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and IL-6, which promote bacterial survival. Overexpression of IL-10 could be responsible for the Map-associated reduction in the expression of the proapoptotic TNF-α gene observed in bovine and human macrophages.
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Biet F, Sevilla IA, Cochard T, Lefrançois LH, Garrido JM, Heron I, Juste RA, McLuckie J, Thibault VC, Supply P, Collins DM, Behr MA, Stevenson K. Inter- and intra-subtype genotypic differences that differentiate Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis strains. BMC Microbiol 2012; 12:264. [PMID: 23164429 PMCID: PMC3546927 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-12-264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 11/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (Map) is the aetiological agent of Johne’s disease or paratuberculosis and is included within the Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC). Map strains are of two major types often referred to as ‘Sheep’ or ‘S-type’ and ‘Cattle’ or ‘C-type’. With the advent of more discriminatory typing techniques it has been possible to further classify the S-type strains into two groups referred to as Type I and Type III. This study was undertaken to genotype a large panel of S-type small ruminant isolates from different hosts and geographical origins and to compare them with a large panel of well documented C-type isolates to assess the genetic diversity of these strain types. Methods used included Mycobacterial Interspersed Repetitive Units - Variable-Number Tandem Repeat analysis (MIRU-VNTR), analysis of Large Sequence Polymorphisms by PCR (LSP analysis), Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) analysis of gyr genes, Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism analysis coupled with hybridization to IS900 (IS900-RFLP) analysis. Results The presence of LSPA4 and absence of LSPA20 was confirmed in all 24 Map S-type strains analysed. SNPs within the gyr genes divided the S-type strains into types I and III. Twenty four PFGE multiplex profiles and eleven different IS900-RFLP profiles were identified among the S-type isolates, some of them not previously published. Both PFGE and IS900-RFLP segregated the S-type strains into types I and III and the results concurred with those of the gyr SNP analysis. Nine MIRU-VNTR genotypes were identified in these isolates. MIRU-VNTR analysis differentiated Map strains from other members of Mycobacterium avium Complex, and Map S-type from C-type but not type I from III. Pigmented Map isolates were found of type I or III. Conclusion This is the largest panel of S-type strains investigated to date. The S-type strains could be further divided into two subtypes, I and III by some of the typing techniques (IS900-RFLP, PFGE and SNP analysis of the gyr genes). MIRU-VNTR did not divide the strains into the subtypes I and III but did detect genetic differences between isolates within each of the subtypes. Pigmentation is not exclusively associated with type I strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franck Biet
- INRA, UMR1282, Infectiologie Santé Publique (ISP-311), Nouzilly F-37380, France.
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Singh AV, Singh SV, Sohal JS, Singh PK. Genotype profiles of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis recovered from suspected and Crohn's disease patients in India. Int J Infect Dis 2012; 13:e221-7. [PMID: 22471168 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2008.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2008] [Revised: 10/29/2008] [Accepted: 11/08/2008] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Present study aimed to genotype Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) recovered from suspected and Crohn' s disease patients. A total of 32 MAP and DNA (directly from clinical samples) recovered from human origin were genotyped using IS 1311 PCR-REA. Isolates were cultured from stool, biopsies and blood clots of Crohn's disease patients, and stool samples of suspected (animal attendants, lab workers etc). Of the 32 MAP isolates belonging to 28 human beings, majority (84.3%) were genotyped as 'Bison type', while 21.7% were of 'cattle' and none was 'sheep' genotype. Study first time reports distribution of 'Cattle' and 'Bison type' 'genotypes in suspected and Crohn's patients on pilot scale in India. 'Bison type' genotype was predominant in the surveyed human population.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Singh
- Veterinary Microbiology Laboratory, Animal Health Division, Central Institute Makhdoom, PO - Farah, District Mathura-281122 (UP), India.
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Bannantine JP, Wu CW, Hsu C, Zhou S, Schwartz DC, Bayles DO, Paustian ML, Alt DP, Sreevatsan S, Kapur V, Talaat AM. Genome sequencing of ovine isolates of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis offers insights into host association. BMC Genomics 2012; 13:89. [PMID: 22409516 PMCID: PMC3337245 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-13-89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2011] [Accepted: 03/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The genome of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) is remarkably homogeneous among the genomes of bovine, human and wildlife isolates. However, previous work in our laboratories with the bovine K-10 strain has revealed substantial differences compared to sheep isolates. To systematically characterize all genomic differences that may be associated with the specific hosts, we sequenced the genomes of three U.S. sheep isolates and also obtained an optical map. Results Our analysis of one of the isolates, MAP S397, revealed a genome 4.8 Mb in size with 4,700 open reading frames (ORFs). Comparative analysis of the MAP S397 isolate showed it acquired approximately 10 large sequence regions that are shared with the human M. avium subsp. hominissuis strain 104 and lost 2 large regions that are present in the bovine strain. In addition, optical mapping defined the presence of 7 large inversions between the bovine and ovine genomes (~ 2.36 Mb). Whole-genome sequencing of 2 additional sheep strains of MAP (JTC1074 and JTC7565) further confirmed genomic homogeneity of the sheep isolates despite the presence of polymorphisms on the nucleotide level. Conclusions Comparative sequence analysis employed here provided a better understanding of the host association, evolution of members of the M. avium complex and could help in deciphering the phenotypic differences observed among sheep and cattle strains of MAP. A similar approach based on whole-genome sequencing combined with optical mapping could be employed to examine closely related pathogens. We propose an evolutionary scenario for M. avium complex strains based on these genome sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Bannantine
- National Animal Disease Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Ames, Iowa, USA.
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Qin Z. The use of THP-1 cells as a model for mimicking the function and regulation of monocytes and macrophages in the vasculature. Atherosclerosis 2011; 221:2-11. [PMID: 21978918 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2011.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 264] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2011] [Revised: 08/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/01/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Since their establishment thirty years ago, THP-1 cells have become one of most widely used cell lines to investigate the function and regulation of monocytes and macrophages in the cardiovascular system. However, because this cell line was derived from the blood of a patient with acute monocytic leukemia, the extent to which THP-1 cells mimic monocytes and macrophages in the vasculature is not entirely known. This article serves as a meaningful attempt to address this question by reviewing the recent publications. The interactions between THP-1 cells and various vascular cells (such as endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, adipocytes, and T cells) provide insight into the roles of the interconnection of monocytes-macrophages with other vascular cells during vascular inflammation, particularly atherogenesis and obesity. Transcriptome, microRNA profile, and histone modifications of THP-1 cells shed new light on the regulatory mechanism of the monocytes-macrophages in response to various inflammatory mediators, such as oxidized low density lipoprotein, lipopolysaccharide, and glucose. These studies hint that under certain defined conditions, THP-1 cells not only resemble primary monocytes-macrophages isolated from healthy donors or donors with disease, such as diabetes mellitus, but also mimic the in situ alteration of macrophages in the adipose tissue of obese subjects and in atherosclerotic lesions. A potential trajectory is to use this cell line to study the novel molecular mechanisms in monocytes and macrophages in relation to the physiology and pathophysiology of the cardiovascular system, however, the conclusion of studies employing THP-1 cells requires further verification using primary cells and/or in vivo models to be generalized to monocytes and macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyu Qin
- Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, TX 78229, United States.
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Borrmann E, Möbius P, Diller R, Köhler H. Divergent cytokine responses of macrophages to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis strains of Types II and III in a standardized in vitro model. Vet Microbiol 2011; 152:101-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Revised: 03/25/2011] [Accepted: 04/05/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Allen AJ, Park KT, Barrington GM, Lahmers KK, Abdellrazeq GS, Rihan HM, Sreevatsan S, Davies C, Hamilton MJ, Davis WC. Experimental infection of a bovine model with human isolates of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2011; 141:258-66. [PMID: 21477870 PMCID: PMC3097062 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2011.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2010] [Revised: 02/09/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Map), the etiologic agent of Johne's disease (JD) in ruminants, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of Crohn's disease (CD) in humans. We developed a bovine ileal cannulation model to facilitate comparison of the immune response to Map and the mechanisms of pathogenesis in cattle and humans. Initial studies showed a T cannula could be maintained for up to a year in calves without inducing inflammation or adversely affecting intestinal function. Map introduced through the cannula established a persistent low level of infection without inflammation. Infection elicited an immune response to Map antigens detectable by flow cytometry. Further studies now show the cannulation model can be used with cows during the later stage of infection, affording access to the target tissue at all stages of infection. The studies also revealed no difference in infectivity or immunogenicity of isolates of Map obtained from cattle or humans with CD. Comparison of the immune response to Map during the early and late stages of infection using PCR, flow cytometry and QRT-PCR, showed the immune response early in the disease process is dominated by CD4 T cells. A CD8 response is delayed but comparable at later stages of infection. Genes for pro-inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ and the recently identified genes encoding IL-17 and IL-22 are up regulated in infected animals. These findings reveal that both human and bovine isolates of Map can establish infection and induce similar immune responses in a bovine model. They also reveal the cytokine responses elicited in cattle are similar to those implicated in CD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Allen
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164
| | - Kun-Taek Park
- Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164
| | - George M. Barrington
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164
| | - Kevin K. Lahmers
- Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164
- School for Global Animal Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164
| | - Gaber S. Abdellrazeq
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Med, Alexandria University, Egypt
| | - Heba M. Rihan
- Department of Bacteriology, Mycology and Immunology, Faculty of Vet Med, Mansoura University, Egypt
| | - Srinand Sreevatsan
- Veterinary Population Medicine Department University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - Christopher Davies
- Department of Animal, Dairy and Veterinary Sciences and Center for Integrated BioSystems, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322
| | - Mary J. Hamilton
- Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164
| | - William C. Davis
- Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164
- Center of Reproductive Biology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164
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Genomic and transcriptomic studies in Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2010; 138:303-11. [PMID: 21047690 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2010.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Microarray technology is an important tool in functional genomic research. It has enabled a deeper analysis of genomic diversity among bacteria belonging to the Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC). In addition, the expression of thousands of genes can be studied simultaneously in a single experiment. With the complete genome sequence of a bovine isolate of M. avium subspecies paratuberculosis, and the independent construction of DNA microarrays in our laboratories, transcriptomic studies for this veterinary pathogen are now possible. Furthermore, the bovine genome sequence project is completed and bovine arrays have been developed to examine host responses to infection with M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Collectively, genomic and transcriptomic data has yielded novel insights surrounding the genetic regulation and biology of Johne's disease.
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Janagama HK, Senthilkumar, Bannantine JP, Kugadas A, Jagtap P, Higgins L, Witthuhn B, Sreevatsan S. Iron-sparing response of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis is strain dependent. BMC Microbiol 2010; 10:268. [PMID: 20969756 PMCID: PMC2975660 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-10-268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2010] [Accepted: 10/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Two genotypically and microbiologically distinct strains of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) exist - S and C MAP strains that primarily infect sheep and cattle, respectively. Concentration of iron in the cultivation medium has been suggested as one contributing factor for the observed microbiologic differences. We recently demonstrated that S strains have defective iron storage systems, leading us to propose that these strains might experience iron toxicity when excess iron is provided in the medium. To test this hypothesis, we carried out transcriptional and proteomic profiling of these MAP strains under iron-replete or -deplete conditions. Results We first complemented M. smegmatisΔideR with IdeR of C MAP or that derived from S MAP and compared their transcription profiles using M. smegmatis mc2155 microarrays. In the presence of iron, sIdeR repressed expression of bfrA and MAP2073c, a ferritin domain containing protein suggesting that transcriptional control of iron storage may be defective in S strain. We next performed transcriptional and proteomic profiling of the two strain types of MAP under iron-deplete and -replete conditions. Under iron-replete conditions, C strain upregulated iron storage (BfrA), virulence associated (Esx-5 and antigen85 complex), and ribosomal proteins. In striking contrast, S strain downregulated these proteins under iron-replete conditions. iTRAQ (isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantitation) based protein quantitation resulted in the identification of four unannotated proteins. Two of these were upregulated by a C MAP strain in response to iron supplementation. The iron-sparing response to iron limitation was unique to the C strain as evidenced by repression of non-essential iron utilization enzymes (aconitase and succinate dehydrogenase) and upregulation of proteins of essential function (iron transport, [Fe-S] cluster biogenesis and cell division). Conclusions Taken together, our study revealed that C and S strains of MAP utilize divergent metabolic pathways to accommodate in vitro iron stress. The knowledge of the metabolic pathways these divergent responses play a role in are important to 1) advance our ability to culture the two different strains of MAP efficiently, 2) aid in diagnosis and control of Johne's disease, and 3) advance our understanding of MAP virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harish K Janagama
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, USA
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Janagama HK, Lamont EA, George S, Bannantine JP, Xu WW, Tu ZJ, Wells SJ, Schefers J, Sreevatsan S. Primary transcriptomes of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis reveal proprietary pathways in tissue and macrophages. BMC Genomics 2010; 11:561. [PMID: 20939887 PMCID: PMC3091710 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-11-561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2010] [Accepted: 10/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) persistently infects intestines and mesenteric lymph nodes leading to a prolonged subclinical disease. The MAP genome sequence was published in 2005, yet its transcriptional organization in natural infection is unknown. While prior research analyzed regulated gene sets utilizing defined, in vitro stress related or advanced surgical methods with various animal species, we investigated the intracellular lifestyle of MAP in the intestines and lymph nodes to understand the MAP pathways that function to govern this persistence. Results Our transcriptional analysis shows that 21%, 8% and 3% of the entire MAP genome was represented either inside tissues, macrophages or both, respectively. Transcripts belonging to latency and cell envelope biogenesis were upregulated in the intestinal tissues whereas those belonging to intracellular trafficking and secretion were upregulated inside the macrophages. Transcriptomes of natural infection and in vitro macrophage infection shared genes involved in transcription and inorganic ion transport and metabolism. MAP specific genes within large sequence polymorphisms of ancestral M. avium complex were downregulated exclusively in natural infection. Conclusions We have unveiled common and unique MAP pathways associated with persistence, cell wall biogenesis and virulence in naturally infected cow intestines, lymph nodes and in vitro infected macrophages. This dichotomy also suggests that in vitro macrophage models may be insufficient in providing accurate information on the events that transpire during natural infection. This is the first report to examine the primary transcriptome of MAP at the local infection site (i.e. intestinal tissue). Regulatory pathways that govern the lifecycle of MAP appear to be specified by tissue and cell type. While tissues show a "shut-down" of major MAP metabolic genes, infected macrophages upregulate several MAP specific genes along with a putative pathogenicity island responsible for iron acquisition. Many of these regulatory pathways rely on the advanced interplay of host and pathogen and in order to decipher their message, an interactome must be established using a systems biology approach. Identified MAP pathways place current research into direct alignment in meeting the future challenge of creating a MAP-host interactome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harish K Janagama
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, 1365 Gortner Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
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Chowdhury RP, Saraswathi R, Chatterji D. Mycobacterial stress regulation: The Dps "twin sister" defense mechanism and structure-function relationship. IUBMB Life 2010; 62:67-77. [PMID: 20014234 DOI: 10.1002/iub.285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we have tried to emphasize the connection between mycobacterial growth and regulation of gene expression. Utilization of multiple carbon sources and diauxic growth helps bacteria to regulate gene expression at an optimum level so that the inhospitable conditions encountered during nutrient depletion can be circumvented. These aspects will be discussed with respect to mycobacterial growth in subsequent sections. Identification and characterization of genes induced under such conditions is helpful to understand the physiology of the bacterium. Although it is necessary to compare the total expression profile of proteins as they transit from vegetative growth to stationary phase, at times a lot of insights can be deciphered from the expression pattern of one or two proteins. We have compared the protein expression and sigma factor selectivity of two such proteins in M. smegmatis to understand the differential regulation of genes playing diverse function in the same species. Some newer insights on the structure and function of one of the Dps proteins are also explained.
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Stevenson K, Alvarez J, Bakker D, Biet F, de Juan L, Denham S, Dimareli Z, Dohmann K, Gerlach GF, Heron I, Kopecna M, May L, Pavlik I, Sharp JM, Thibault VC, Willemsen P, Zadoks RN, Greig A. Occurrence of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis across host species and European countries with evidence for transmission between wildlife and domestic ruminants. BMC Microbiol 2009; 9:212. [PMID: 19811631 PMCID: PMC2765967 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-9-212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2009] [Accepted: 10/07/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (Map) causes an infectious chronic enteritis (paratuberculosis or Johne's disease) principally of ruminants. The epidemiology of Map is poorly understood, particularly with respect to the role of wildlife reservoirs and the controversial issue of zoonotic potential (Crohn's disease). Genotypic discrimination of Map isolates is pivotal to descriptive epidemiology and resolving these issues. This study was undertaken to determine the genetic diversity of Map, enhance our understanding of the host range and distribution and assess the potential for interspecies transmission. Results 164 Map isolates from seven European countries representing 19 different host species were genotyped by standardized IS900 - restriction fragment length polymorphism (IS900-RFLP), pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP) and mycobacterial interspersed repeat unit-variable number tandem repeat (MIRU-VNTR) analyses. Six PstI and 17 BstEII IS900-RFLP, 31 multiplex [SnaBI-SpeI] PFGE profiles and 23 MIRU-VNTR profiles were detected. AFLP gave insufficient discrimination of isolates for meaningful genetic analysis. Point estimates for Simpson's index of diversity calculated for the individual typing techniques were in the range of 0.636 to 0.664 but a combination of all three methods increased the discriminating power to 0.879, sufficient for investigating transmission dynamics. Two predominant strain types were detected across Europe with all three typing techniques. Evidence for interspecies transmission between wildlife and domestic ruminants on the same property was demonstrated in four cases, between wildlife species on the same property in two cases and between different species of domestic livestock on one property. Conclusion The results of this study showed that it is necessary to use multiple genotyping techniques targeting different sources of genetic variation to obtain the level of discrimination necessary to investigate transmission dynamics and trace the source of Map infections. Furthermore, the combination of genotyping techniques may depend on the geographical location of the population to be tested. Identical genotypes were obtained from Map isolated from different host species co-habiting on the same property strongly suggesting that interspecies transmission occurs. Interspecies transmission of Map between wildlife species and domestic livestock on the same property provides further evidence to support a role for wildlife reservoirs of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Stevenson
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik EH26 0PZ, UK.
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Janagama HK, Senthilkumar TMA, Bannantine JP, Rodriguez GM, Smith I, Paustian ML, McGarvey JA, Sreevatsan S. Identification and functional characterization of the iron-dependent regulator (IdeR) of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2009; 155:3683-3690. [PMID: 19684064 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.031948-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), the causative agent of Johne's disease in cattle and sheep, has unique iron requirements in that it is mycobactin-dependent for cultivation in vitro. The iron-dependent regulator (IdeR) is a well-characterized global regulator responsible for maintaining iron homeostasis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). We identified an orthologous segment in the MAP genome, MAP2827, with >93 % amino acid identity to MTB IdeR. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays and DNase protection assays confirmed that MAP2827 binds the 19 bp consensus motif (iron box) on the MAP genome. Sequencing of MAP2827 from multiple isolates revealed a non-synonymous change (R91G) exclusive to sheep strains. Reporter gene assays and quantitative real-time RT-PCR assays in two diverse MAP strains and in an ideR deletion mutant of M. smegmatis (mc(2)155) suggested that both sheep MAP IdeR (sIdeR) and cattle MAP IdeR (cIdeR) repress mbtB transcription at high iron concentrations and relieve repression at low iron concentrations. On the other hand, bfrA (an iron storage gene) was upregulated by cIdeR when presented with MTB or the cattle MAP bfrA promoter, and was downregulated by sIdeR in the presence of MTB, or sheep or cattle MAP bfrA promoters, at high iron concentrations. The differential iron regulatory mechanisms between IdeR-regulated genes across strains may contribute to the differential growth or pathogenic characteristics of sheep and cattle MAP strains. Taken together, our study provides a possible reason for mycobactin dependency and suggests strong implications in the differential iron acquisition and storage mechanisms in MAP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harish K Janagama
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, USA
| | - T M A Senthilkumar
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, USA
| | - John P Bannantine
- National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, USA
| | | | - Issar Smith
- PHRI, UMNDJ-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Michael L Paustian
- National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Jeffery A McGarvey
- Foodborne Contaminants Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA, USA
| | - Srinand Sreevatsan
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, USA.,Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, USA
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Wu CW, Schramm TM, Zhou S, Schwartz DC, Talaat AM. Optical mapping of the Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis genome. BMC Genomics 2009; 10:25. [PMID: 19146697 PMCID: PMC2633350 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-10-25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2008] [Accepted: 01/15/2009] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infection of cattle with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (M. ap) causes severe economic losses to the dairy industry in the USA and worldwide. In an effort to better examine diversity among M. ap strains, we used optical mapping to profile genomic variations between strains of M. ap K-10 (sequenced strain) and M. ap ATCC 19698 (type strain). RESULTS The assembled physical restriction map of M. ap ATCC 19698 showed a genome size of 4,839 kb compared to the sequenced K-10 genome of 4,830 kb. Interestingly, alignment of the optical map of the M. ap ATCC 19698 genome to the complete M. ap K-10 genome sequence revealed a 648-kb inversion around the origin of replication. However, Southern blotting, PCR amplification and sequencing analyses of the inverted region revealed that the genome of M. ap K-10 differs from the published sequence in the region starting from 4,197,080 bp to 11,150 bp, spanning the origin of replication. Additionally, two new copies of the coding sequences > 99.8% were identified, identical to the MAP0849c and MAP0850c genes located immediately downstream of the MAP3758c gene. CONCLUSION The optical map of M. ap ATCC 19698 clearly indicated the miss-assembly of the sequenced genome of M. ap K-10. Moreover, it identified 2 new genes in M. ap K-10 genome. This analysis strongly advocates for the utility of physical mapping protocols to complement genome sequencing projects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-wei Wu
- The Laboratory of Bacterial Genomics, Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI, USA.
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Oligonucleotide Microarray Technology and its Application to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis Research: A Review. Mol Biotechnol 2009; 42:30-40. [DOI: 10.1007/s12033-008-9137-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2008] [Accepted: 11/25/2008] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Discovery of stable and variable differences in the Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis type I, II, and III genomes by pan-genome microarray analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2008; 75:676-86. [PMID: 19047395 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01683-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis is an important animal pathogen widely disseminated in the environment that has also been associated with Crohn's disease in humans. Three M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis genomotypes are recognized, but genomic differences have not been fully described. To further investigate these potential differences, a 60-mer oligonucleotide microarray (designated the MAPAC array), based on the combined genomes of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis (strain K-10) and Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis (strain 104), was designed and validated. By use of a test panel of defined M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis strains, the MAPAC array was able to identify a set of large sequence polymorphisms (LSPs) diagnostic for each of the three major M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis types. M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis type II strains contained a smaller genomic complement than M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis type I and M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis type III genomotypes, which included a set of genomic regions also found in M. avium subsp. hominissuis 104. Specific PCRs for genes within LSPs that differentiated M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis types were devised and shown to accurately screen a panel (n = 78) of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis strains. Analysis of insertion/deletion region INDEL12 showed deletion events causing a reduction in the complement of mycobacterial cell entry genes in M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis type II strains and significantly altering the coding of a major immunologic protein (MPT64) associated with persistence and granuloma formation. Analysis of MAPAC data also identified signal variations in several genomic regions, termed variable genomic islands (vGIs), suggestive of transient duplication/deletion events. vGIs contained significantly low GC% and were immediately flanked by insertion sequences, integrases, or short inverted repeat sequences. Quantitative PCR demonstrated that variation in vGI signals could be associated with colony growth rate and morphology.
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Zhu X, Tu ZJ, Coussens PM, Kapur V, Janagama H, Naser S, Sreevatsan S. Transcriptional analysis of diverse strains Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in primary bovine monocyte derived macrophages. Microbes Infect 2008; 10:1274-82. [PMID: 18692151 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2008.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2007] [Revised: 07/01/2008] [Accepted: 07/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this study we analyzed the macrophage-induced gene expression of three diverse genotypes of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP). Using selective capture of transcribed sequences (SCOTS) on three genotypically diverse MAP isolates from cattle, human, and sheep exposed to primary bovine monocyte derived macrophages for 48 h and 120 h we created and sequenced six cDNA libraries. Sequence annotations revealed that the cattle isolate up-regulated 27 and 241 genes; the human isolate up-regulated 22 and 53 genes, and the sheep isolate up-regulated 35 and 358 genes, at the two time points respectively. Thirteen to thirty-three percent of the genes identified did not have any annotated function. Despite variations in the genes identified, the patterns of expression fell into overlapping cellular functions as inferred by pathway analysis. For example, 10-12% of the genes expressed by all three strains at each time point were associated with cell-wall biosynthesis. All three strains of MAP studied up-regulated genes in pathways that combat oxidative stress, metabolic and nutritional starvation, and cell survival. Taken together, this comparative transcriptional analysis suggests that diverse MAP genotypes respond with similar modus operandi for survival in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaochun Zhu
- Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, 1365 Gortner Avenue, 225 VMC, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
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Verna AE, Garcia-Pariente C, Muñoz M, Moreno O, García-Marin JF, Romano MI, Paolicchi F, Pérez V. Variation in the Immuno-pathological Responses of Lambs after Experimental Infection with Different Strains of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Zoonoses Public Health 2007; 54:243-52. [PMID: 17803513 DOI: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2007.01058.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Ruminant infection by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) causes a granulomatous inflammatory response in the intestine and associated lymph nodes. Differences either in the affected organs or in the inflammatory infiltrate were observed between species and individuals. Such differences are usually attributed to variations in host immune responses or to inconsistent effects among different MAP strains. To evaluate if different MAP strains induce different immuno-pathological responses in lambs, 28 one-month-old individuals were divided into six groups and inoculated with different MAP strains. Groups 1 and 2 were inoculated with two bovine strains isolated in Argentina that showed different genetic patterns after BstEII-IS900-RFLP (hereafter strains E and A respectively). Group 3 was inoculated with a bovine strain isolated in Spain obtained after a previous step of culture (patterns C1). Group 4 was inoculated with a homogenate of intestinal mucosa of a clinical case affected by the same bovine strain as that of group 3. Group 5 was inoculated with an ovine strain that was directly purified from the intestinal mucosa of a clinical case, and group 6 was kept as control (i.e. no inoculation). Peripheral immune responses were assessed until 150 days post-infection (dpi), when lambs were humanely killed. Pathological studies were performed in tissues from the intestine and lymph nodes. Lesion types and inflammatory infiltrates were examined as indicators of pathogenicity. All the lambs infected with bovine MAP strains showed a common lesion pattern regardless of the strain type. Such pattern was characterized by focal lesions mainly in the mesenteric lymph nodes, the presence of fibrous tissue, and, occasionally, necrosis in the granulomas as well as the presence of numerous giant cells. Differences in lesion severity were observed among groups: lambs from groups 1 and 2 had the highest number of granulomas and the largest lymph node area affected. Lesions in animals from group 5 (infected with an ovine strain) were more severe and occurred mostly in the intestinal lymphoid tissue; necrosis, fibrosis or giant cells were never detected in this group. These results indicate that the MAP strain type induces different pathological responses in lambs.
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Affiliation(s)
- A E Verna
- CONICET, National Scientific and Technological Research Council, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Castellanos E, Aranaz A, Romero B, de Juan L, Alvarez J, Bezos J, Rodríguez S, Stevenson K, Mateos A, Domínguez L. Polymorphisms in gyrA and gyrB genes among Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis type I, II, and III isolates. J Clin Microbiol 2007; 45:3439-42. [PMID: 17670925 PMCID: PMC2045374 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.01411-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The analysis of the gyrA and gyrB genes of a panel of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis isolates from types I, II, and III detected type-specific single nucleotide polymorphisms. Based on these results, we developed a PCR and restriction enzyme analysis to discriminate type I and III isolates. The application of this technique would be the unique strategy to characterize these strains when there is not enough bacterial growth to perform pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and IS900 restriction fragment length polymorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Castellanos
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Avda. Puerta de Hierro s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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