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Waidner LA, Potdukhe TV. Tools to Enumerate and Predict Distribution Patterns of Environmental Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2502. [PMID: 37894160 PMCID: PMC10609196 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11102502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Vibrio vulnificus (Vv) and Vibrio parahaemolyticus (Vp) are water- and foodborne bacteria that can cause several distinct human diseases, collectively called vibriosis. The success of oyster aquaculture is negatively impacted by high Vibrio abundances. Myriad environmental factors affect the distribution of pathogenic Vibrio, including temperature, salinity, eutrophication, extreme weather events, and plankton loads, including harmful algal blooms. In this paper, we synthesize the current understanding of ecological drivers of Vv and Vp and provide a summary of various tools used to enumerate Vv and Vp in a variety of environments and environmental samples. We also highlight the limitations and benefits of each of the measurement tools and propose example alternative tools for more specific enumeration of pathogenic Vv and Vp. Improvement of molecular methods can tighten better predictive models that are potentially important for mitigation in more controlled environments such as aquaculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A. Waidner
- Hal Marcus College of Science and Engineering, University of West Florida, 11000 University Pkwy, Building 58, Room 108, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
| | - Trupti V. Potdukhe
- GEMS Program, College of Medicine, University of Illinois Chicago, 1853 W. Polk St., Chicago, IL 60612, USA;
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2
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Conrad JW, Harwood VJ. Sewage Promotes Vibrio vulnificus Growth and Alters Gene Transcription in Vibrio vulnificus CMCP6. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0191321. [PMID: 35171011 PMCID: PMC8849060 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01913-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Vibrio vulnificus is a naturally occurring, potentially lethal pathogen found in coastal waters, fish, and shellfish. Sewage spills in coastal waters occur when infrastructure fails due to severe storms or age, and may affect bacterial populations by altering nutrient levels. This study investigated effects of sewage on clonal and natural V. vulnificus populations in microcosms. Addition of 1% sewage to estuarine water caused the density of a pure culture of V. vulnificus CMCP6 and a natural V. vulnificus population to increase significantly, by two to three orders of magnitude, whether measured by quantitative PCR (qPCR) or culture and in batch and continuous cultures. Changes in the transcription of six virulence- and survival-associated genes in response to sewage were assessed using continuous culture. Exposure to sewage affected transcription of genes that may be associated with virulence, i.e., it modulated the oxidative stress response by altering superoxide dismutase transcription, significantly increasing sodB transcription while repressing sodA. Sewage also repressed transcription of nptA, which encodes a sodium-phosphate cotransporter. Sewage had no effect on sodC transcription or the putative virulence-associated genes hupA or wza. The effects of environmentally relevant levels of sewage on V. vulnificus populations and gene transcription suggest that sewage spills that impact warm coastal waters could lead to an increased risk of V. vulnificus infections. IMPORTANCE Vibrio vulnificus infections have profound impacts such as limb amputation and death for individuals with predisposing conditions. The warming climate is contributing to rising V. vulnificus prevalence in waters that were previously too cold to support high levels of the pathogen. Climate change is also expected to increase precipitation in many regions, which puts more pressure on wastewater infrastructure and will result in more frequent sewage spills. The finding that 1% wastewater in estuarine water leads to 100 to over 1,000-fold greater V. vulnificus concentrations suggests that human exposure to oysters and estuarine water could have greater health impacts in the future. Further, wastewater had a significant effect on gene transcription and has the potential to affect virulence during the initial environment-to-host transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W. Conrad
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Valerie J. Harwood
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
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3
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Huang XH, Ma Y, Zheng MM, Chen N, Hu MN, Wu LY, Zheng Y, Lou YL, Xie DL. NLRP3 and mTOR Reciprocally Regulate Macrophage Phagolysosome Formation and Acidification Against Vibrio vulnificus Infection. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:587961. [PMID: 33117816 PMCID: PMC7578225 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.587961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The marine bacterium Vibrio vulnificus causes potentially fatal bloodstream infections, typically in patients with chronic liver diseases. The inflammatory response and anti-bacterial function of phagocytes are crucial for limiting bacterial infection in the human hosts. How V. vulnificus affects macrophages after phagocytosis is unclear. In this report, we found that the bactericidal activity of macrophages to internalize V. vulnificus was dependent on mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and NOD-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) interaction. Additionally, the NLRP3 expression was dependent on mTORC1 activation. Inhibited mTORC1 or absence of NLRP3 in macrophages impaired V. vulnificus-induced phagosome acidification and phagolysosome formation, leading to a reduction of intracellular bacterial clearance. mTORC1 signaling overactivation could increase NLRP3 expression and restore insufficient phagosome acidification. Together, these findings indicate that the intracellular bactericidal activity of macrophages responding to V. vulnificus infection is tightly controlled by the crosstalk of NLRP3 and mTOR and provide critical insight into the host bactericidal activity basis of clearance of V. vulnificus through lyso/phagosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian-Hui Huang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, Wenzhou, China.,Wenzhou Key Laboratory of Sanitary Microbiology, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yao Ma
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, Wenzhou, China
| | - Meng-Meng Zheng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, Wenzhou, China
| | - Na Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, Wenzhou, China
| | - Mei-Na Hu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, Wenzhou, China
| | - Liu-Ying Wu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yi Zheng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, Wenzhou, China.,Wenzhou Key Laboratory of Sanitary Microbiology, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yong-Liang Lou
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, Wenzhou, China.,Wenzhou Key Laboratory of Sanitary Microbiology, Wenzhou, China
| | - Dan-Li Xie
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, Wenzhou, China.,Wenzhou Key Laboratory of Sanitary Microbiology, Wenzhou, China
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4
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Hernández-Cabanyero C, Amaro C. Phylogeny and life cycle of the zoonotic pathogen Vibrio vulnificus. Environ Microbiol 2020; 22:4133-4148. [PMID: 32567215 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.15137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Vibrio vulnificus is a zoonotic pathogen able to cause diseases in humans and fish that occasionally result in sepsis and death. Most reviews about this pathogen (including those related to its ecology) are clearly biased towards its role as a human pathogen, emphasizing its relationship with oysters as its main reservoir, the role of the known virulence factors as well as the clinic and the epidemiology of the human disease. This review tries to give to the reader a wider vision of the biology of this pathogen covering aspects related to its phylogeny and evolution and filling the gaps in our understanding of the general strategies that V. vulnificus uses to survive outside and inside its two main hosts, the human and the eel, and how its response to specific environmental parameters determines its survival, its death, or the triggering of an infectious process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carmen Amaro
- ERI-Biotecmed, University of Valencia, Dr. Moliner, 50, Valencia, 46100, Spain
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5
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Lemos ML, Balado M. Iron uptake mechanisms as key virulence factors in bacterial fish pathogens. J Appl Microbiol 2020; 129:104-115. [PMID: 31994331 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 01/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes the current knowledge about iron uptake systems in bacterial fish pathogens and their involvement in the infective process. Like most animal pathogens, fish pathogens have evolved sophisticated iron uptake mechanisms some of which are key virulence factors for colonization of the host. Among these systems, siderophore production and heme uptake systems are the best studied in fish pathogenic bacteria. Siderophores like anguibactin or piscibactin, have been described in Vibrio and Photobacterium pathogens as key virulence factors to cause disease in fish. In many other bacterial fish pathogens production of siderophores was demonstrated but the compounds were not yet chemically characterized and their role in virulence was not determined. The role of heme uptake in virulence was not yet clearly elucidated in fish pathogens although there exist evidence that these systems are expressed in fish tissues during infection. The relationship of other systems, like Fe(II) transporters or the use of citrate as iron carrier, with virulence is also unclear. Future trends of research on all these iron uptake mechanisms in bacterial fish pathogens are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Lemos
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Institute of Aquaculture, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - M Balado
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Institute of Aquaculture, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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6
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Datta S, Kenton RJ. Characterization of temperature-dependent hemin uptake receptors HupA and HvtA in Vibrio vulnificus. Microbiologyopen 2019; 8:e905. [PMID: 31290613 PMCID: PMC6813434 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The Gram-negative pathogen Vibrio vulnificus produces several iron-sequestration systems including a hemin uptake system in response to iron limitation as a means to acquire this essential element. Strains of this organism are capable of causing serious septicemia in humans and eels, where hemin is abundant and an advantageous source of iron. Vibrio vulnificus hemin uptake systems consist of HupA, a well studied outer membrane protein, and a recently identified HvtA protein receptor. In this study, we confirmed that the expression of the hvtA gene is iron-regulated in a fur-dependent manner. When analyzed for virulence in a hemin-overloaded murine model system, the hupA gene was more important for establishing infection than the hvtA gene. Transcriptional profiling of these genes using strains of two different biotypes, biotype 1 (human pathogen) and biotype 2 (eel pathogen), showed that the expression of the two receptors was also regulated in response to temperature. The expression of hupA was highly induced in elevated temperatures in the human pathogenic strain when tested in iron-depleted conditions. Conversely, hvtA expression was induced significantly in the eel pathogenic strain at a lower temperature, a condition where the hupA locus was relatively repressed. Our results indicate that although both hupA and hvtA are involved for optimal hemin uptake in V. vulnificus, their expression is dually regulated by the environmental cues of iron concentration and temperature. Together, these data suggest that the virulence genes hupA and hvtA are tightly regulated and strictly induced during iron limitation combined with the physiological temperature of the host organism.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ryan J. Kenton
- Department of BiologyUniversity of PortlandPortlandORUSA
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7
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Phobalysin: Fisheye View of Membrane Perforation, Repair, Chemotaxis and Adhesion. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11070412. [PMID: 31315179 PMCID: PMC6669599 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11070412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Phobalysin P (PhlyP, for photobacterial lysin encoded on a plasmid) is a recently described small β-pore forming toxin of Photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae (Pdd). This organism, belonging to the family of Vibrionaceae, is an emerging pathogen of fish and various marine animals, which occasionally causes life-threatening soft tissue infections and septicemia in humans. By using genetically modified Pdd strains, PhlyP was found to be an important virulence factor. More recently, in vitro studies with purified PhlyP elucidated some basic consequences of pore formation. Being the first bacterial small β-pore forming toxin shown to trigger calcium-influx dependent membrane repair, PhlyP has advanced to a revealing model toxin to study this important cellular function. Further, results from co-culture experiments employing various Pdd strains and epithelial cells together with data on other bacterial toxins indicate that limited membrane damage may generally enhance the association of bacteria with target cells. Thereby, remodeling of plasma membrane and cytoskeleton during membrane repair could be involved. In addition, a chemotaxis-dependent attack-and track mechanism influenced by environmental factors like salinity may contribute to PhlyP-dependent association of Pdd with cells. Obviously, a synoptic approach is required to capture the regulatory links governing the interaction of Pdd with target cells. The characterization of Pdd’s secretome may hold additional clues because it may lead to the identification of proteases activating PhlyP’s pro-form. Current findings on PhlyP support the notion that pore forming toxins are not just killer proteins but serve bacteria to fulfill more subtle functions, like accessing their host.
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8
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9
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Pajuelo D, Hernández-Cabanyero C, Sanjuan E, Lee CT, Silva-Hernández FX, Hor LI, MacKenzie S, Amaro C. Iron and Fur in the life cycle of the zoonotic pathogenVibrio vulnificus. Environ Microbiol 2016; 18:4005-4022. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 06/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Pajuelo
- Estructura de Recerca Interdisciplinar en Biotecnologia i Biomedicina (ERI BIOTECMED); University of Valencia; Dr. Moliner, 50 Valencia 46100 Spain
| | - Carla Hernández-Cabanyero
- Estructura de Recerca Interdisciplinar en Biotecnologia i Biomedicina (ERI BIOTECMED); University of Valencia; Dr. Moliner, 50 Valencia 46100 Spain
| | - Eva Sanjuan
- Estructura de Recerca Interdisciplinar en Biotecnologia i Biomedicina (ERI BIOTECMED); University of Valencia; Dr. Moliner, 50 Valencia 46100 Spain
| | - Chung-Te Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Institute of Basic Medical Sciences; Tainan Taiwan Republic of China
| | - Francisco Xavier Silva-Hernández
- Estructura de Recerca Interdisciplinar en Biotecnologia i Biomedicina (ERI BIOTECMED); University of Valencia; Dr. Moliner, 50 Valencia 46100 Spain
| | - Lien-I Hor
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Institute of Basic Medical Sciences; Tainan Taiwan Republic of China
- College of Medicine; National Cheng Kung University; Tainan 701 Taiwan Republic of China
| | - Simon MacKenzie
- Institute of Aquaculture; University of Stirling; Stirling UK
| | - Carmen Amaro
- Estructura de Recerca Interdisciplinar en Biotecnologia i Biomedicina (ERI BIOTECMED); University of Valencia; Dr. Moliner, 50 Valencia 46100 Spain
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10
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Payne SM, Mey AR, Wyckoff EE. Vibrio Iron Transport: Evolutionary Adaptation to Life in Multiple Environments. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2016; 80:69-90. [PMID: 26658001 PMCID: PMC4711184 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00046-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron is an essential element for Vibrio spp., but the acquisition of iron is complicated by its tendency to form insoluble ferric complexes in nature and its association with high-affinity iron-binding proteins in the host. Vibrios occupy a variety of different niches, and each of these niches presents particular challenges for acquiring sufficient iron. Vibrio species have evolved a wide array of iron transport systems that allow the bacteria to compete for this essential element in each of its habitats. These systems include the secretion and uptake of high-affinity iron-binding compounds (siderophores) as well as transport systems for iron bound to host complexes. Transporters for ferric and ferrous iron not complexed to siderophores are also common to Vibrio species. Some of the genes encoding these systems show evidence of horizontal transmission, and the ability to acquire and incorporate additional iron transport systems may have allowed Vibrio species to more rapidly adapt to new environmental niches. While too little iron prevents growth of the bacteria, too much can be lethal. The appropriate balance is maintained in vibrios through complex regulatory networks involving transcriptional repressors and activators and small RNAs (sRNAs) that act posttranscriptionally. Examination of the number and variety of iron transport systems found in Vibrio spp. offers insights into how this group of bacteria has adapted to such a wide range of habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley M Payne
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
| | - Alexandra R Mey
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
| | - Elizabeth E Wyckoff
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
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Murciano C, Hor LI, Amaro C. Host-pathogen interactions in Vibrio vulnificus: responses of monocytes and vascular endothelial cells to live bacteria. Future Microbiol 2016; 10:471-87. [PMID: 25865188 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.14.136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To demonstrate that Vibrio vulnificus, a sepsis-related aquatic pathogen, can provoke a strong pro-inflammatory reaction in blood-associated target cells. MATERIALS & METHODS We selected two strains of the two main phylogenetic lineages, two human cell lines, monocytes and vascular endothelial cells and designed an in vitro infection model simulating early septicemia. RESULTS Both strains caused a strong cell-specific pro-inflammatory response and produced a high degree of cell damage that ended with death by lysis (endothelial cells) or apoptosis/lysis (monocytes). The interaction with endothelial cells was stronger than expected and significantly different for both lineages. CONCLUSION The early interaction with endothelial cells could have a direct role in sepsis and could explain, at least partially, the differences in pathogenicity between both lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia Murciano
- Estructura de Investigación Interdisciplinar en Biotecnología y Medicina (ERI BIOTECMED). Department of Microbiology & Ecology, University of Valencia, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
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12
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The Fish Pathogen
Vibrio vulnificus
Biotype 2: Epidemiology, Phylogeny, and Virulence Factors Involved in Warm-Water Vibriosis. Microbiol Spectr 2015; 3. [DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.ve-0005-2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Vibrio vulnificus
biotype 2 is the etiological agent of warm-water vibriosis, a disease that affects eels and other teleosts, especially in fish farms. Biotype 2 is polyphyletic and probably emerged from aquatic bacteria by acquisition of a transferable virulence plasmid that encodes resistance to innate immunity of eels and other teleosts. Interestingly, biotype 2 comprises a zoonotic clonal complex designated as serovar E that has extended worldwide. One of the most interesting virulence factors produced by serovar E is RtxA1
3
, a multifunctional protein that acts as a lethal factor for fish, an invasion factor for mice, and a survival factor outside the host. Two practically identical copies of
rtxA1
3
are present in all biotype 2 strains regardless of the serovar, one in the virulence plasmid and the other in chromosome II. The plasmid also contains other genes involved in survival and growth in eel blood:
vep07
, a gene for an outer membrane (OM) lipoprotein involved in resistance to eel serum and
vep20
, a gene for an OM receptor specific for eel-transferrin and, probably, other related fish transferrins. All the three genes are highly conserved within biotype 2, which suggests that they are under a strong selective pressure. Interestingly, the three genes are related with transferable plasmids, which emphasizes the role of horizontal gene transfer in the evolution of
V. vulnificus
in nutrient-enriched aquatic environments, such as fish farms.
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13
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Pajuelo D, Lee CT, Roig FJ, Hor LI, Amaro C. Novel host-specific iron acquisition system in the zoonotic pathogenVibrio vulnificus. Environ Microbiol 2015; 17:2076-89. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.12782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Revised: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Pajuelo
- Estructura de Investigación Interdisciplinar en Biotecnología y Medicina (ERI BIOTECMED); Department of Microbiology and Ecology; University of Valencia; Dr. Moliner 50 Valencia 46100 Spain
| | - Chung-Te Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Institute of Basic Medical Sciences; Tainan 701 Taiwan
| | - Francisco J. Roig
- Estructura de Investigación Interdisciplinar en Biotecnología y Medicina (ERI BIOTECMED); Department of Microbiology and Ecology; University of Valencia; Dr. Moliner 50 Valencia 46100 Spain
| | - Lien-I. Hor
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Institute of Basic Medical Sciences; Tainan 701 Taiwan
- College of Medicine; National Cheng-Kung University; Tainan 701 Taiwan
| | - Carmen Amaro
- Estructura de Investigación Interdisciplinar en Biotecnología y Medicina (ERI BIOTECMED); Department of Microbiology and Ecology; University of Valencia; Dr. Moliner 50 Valencia 46100 Spain
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