1
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Handy NB, Xu Y, Moon D, Sowizral JJ, Moon E, Ho M, Wilson BA. Hierarchical determinants in cytotoxic necrotizing factor (CNF) toxins driving Rho G-protein deamidation versus transglutamination. mBio 2024; 15:e0122124. [PMID: 38920360 PMCID: PMC11253639 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01221-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The cytotoxic necrotizing factor (CNF) family of AB-type bacterial protein toxins catalyze two types of modification on their Rho GTPase substrates: deamidation and transglutamination. It has been established that E. coli CNF1 and its close homolog proteins catalyze primarily deamidation and Bordetella dermonecrotic toxin (DNT) catalyzes primarily transglutamination. The rapidly expanding microbial genome sequencing data have revealed that there are at least 13 full-length variants of CNF1 homologs. CNFx from E. coli strain GN02091 is the most distant from all other members of the CNF family with 50%-55% sequence identity at the protein level and 0.45-0.52 nucleotide substitutions per site at the DNA level. CNFx modifies RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42, and like CNF1, activates downstream SRE-dependent mitogenic signaling pathways in human HEK293T cells, but at a 1,000-fold higher EC50 value. Unlike other previously characterized CNF toxins, CNFx modifies Rho proteins primarily through transglutamination, as evidenced by gel-shift assay and confirmed by MALDI mass spectral analysis, when coexpressed with Rho-protein substrates in E. coli BL21 cells or through direct treatment of HEK293T cells. A comparison of CNF1 and CNFx sequences identified two critical active-site residues corresponding to positions 832 and 862 in CNF1. Reciprocal site-specific mutations at these residues in each toxin revealed hierarchical rules that define the preference for deamidase versus a transglutaminase activity in CNFs. An additional unique Cys residue at the C-terminus of CNFx was also discovered to be critical for retarding cargo delivery.IMPORTANCECytotoxic necrotizing factor (CNF) toxins not only play important virulence roles in pathogenic E. coli and other bacterial pathogens, but CNF-like genes have also been found in an expanding number of genomes from clinical isolates. Harnessing the power of evolutionary relationships among the CNF toxins enabled the deciphering of the hierarchical active-site determinants that define whether they modify their Rho GTPase substrates through deamidation or transglutamination. With our finding that a distant CNF variant (CNFx) unlike other known CNFs predominantly transglutaminates its Rho GTPase substrates, the paradigm of "CNFs deamidate and DNTs transglutaminate" could finally be attributed to two critical amino acid residues within the active site other than the previously identified catalytic Cys-His dyad residues. The significance of our approach and research findings is that they can be applied to deciphering enzyme reaction determinants and substrate specificities for other bacterial proteins in the development of precision therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B. Handy
- Department of Microbiology, School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Yiting Xu
- Department of Microbiology, School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Damee Moon
- Department of Microbiology, School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Jacob J. Sowizral
- Department of Microbiology, School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Eric Moon
- Department of Microbiology, School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Mengfei Ho
- Department of Microbiology, School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Brenda A. Wilson
- Department of Microbiology, School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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2
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Schmidt G. Some Examples of Bacterial Toxins as Tools. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:202. [PMID: 38787054 PMCID: PMC11125981 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16050202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic bacteria produce diverse protein toxins to disturb the host's defenses. This includes the opening of epithelial barriers to establish bacterial growth in deeper tissues of the host and to modulate immune cell functions. To achieve this, many toxins share the ability to enter mammalian cells, where they catalyze the modification of cellular proteins. The enzymatic activity is diverse and ranges from ribosyl- or glycosyl-transferase activity, the deamidation of proteins, and adenylate-cyclase activity to proteolytic cleavage. Protein toxins are highly active enzymes often with tight specificity for an intracellular protein or a protein family coupled with the intrinsic capability of entering mammalian cells. A broad understanding of their molecular mechanisms established bacterial toxins as powerful tools for cell biology. Both the enzymatic part and the pore-forming/protein transport capacity are currently used as tools engineered to study signaling pathways or to transport cargo like labeled compounds, nucleic acids, peptides, or proteins directly into the cytosol. Using several representative examples, this review is intended to provide a short overview of the state of the art in the use of bacterial toxins or parts thereof as tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gudula Schmidt
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 25, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
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3
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Lisboa J, Pereira C, Pinto RD, Rodrigues IS, Pereira LMG, Pinheiro B, Oliveira P, Pereira PJB, Azevedo JE, Durand D, Benz R, do Vale A, Dos Santos NMS. Unconventional structure and mechanisms for membrane interaction and translocation of the NF-κB-targeting toxin AIP56. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7431. [PMID: 37973928 PMCID: PMC10654918 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43054-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial AB toxins are secreted key virulence factors that are internalized by target cells through receptor-mediated endocytosis, translocating their enzymatic domain to the cytosol from endosomes (short-trip) or the endoplasmic reticulum (long-trip). To accomplish this, bacterial AB toxins evolved a multidomain structure organized into either a single polypeptide chain or non-covalently associated polypeptide chains. The prototypical short-trip single-chain toxin is characterized by a receptor-binding domain that confers cellular specificity and a translocation domain responsible for pore formation whereby the catalytic domain translocates to the cytosol in an endosomal acidification-dependent way. In this work, the determination of the three-dimensional structure of AIP56 shows that, instead of a two-domain organization suggested by previous studies, AIP56 has three-domains: a non-LEE encoded effector C (NleC)-like catalytic domain associated with a small middle domain that contains the linker-peptide, followed by the receptor-binding domain. In contrast to prototypical single-chain AB toxins, AIP56 does not comprise a typical structurally complex translocation domain; instead, the elements involved in translocation are scattered across its domains. Thus, the catalytic domain contains a helical hairpin that serves as a molecular switch for triggering the conformational changes necessary for membrane insertion only upon endosomal acidification, whereas the middle and receptor-binding domains are required for pore formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johnny Lisboa
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal.
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Cassilda Pereira
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
| | - Rute D Pinto
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
| | - Inês S Rodrigues
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
| | - Liliana M G Pereira
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
| | - Bruno Pinheiro
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
- Doctoral Program in Molecular and Cell Biology (MCbiology), Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar - Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro Oliveira
- EPIUnit, ICBAS-Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro José Barbosa Pereira
- Biomolecular Structure Group, IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
- Macromolecular Structure Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
| | - Jorge E Azevedo
- ICBAS-Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Organelle Biogenesis and Function, IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
- Organelle Biogenesis and Function, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
| | - Dominique Durand
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Roland Benz
- Science Faculty, Constructor University, Bremen, Germany
| | - Ana do Vale
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno M S Dos Santos
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal.
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal.
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Lafrance AE, Chimalapati S, Garcia Rodriguez N, Kinch LN, Kaval KG, Orth K. Enzymatic Specificity of Conserved Rho GTPase Deamidases Promotes Invasion of Vibrio parahaemolyticus at the Expense of Infection. mBio 2022; 13:e0162922. [PMID: 35862776 PMCID: PMC9426531 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01629-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Vibrio parahaemolyticus is among the leading causes of bacterial seafood-borne acute gastroenteritis. Like many intracellular pathogens, V. parahaemolyticus invades host cells during infection by deamidating host small Rho GTPases. The Rho GTPase deamidating activity of VopC, a type 3 secretion system (T3SS) translocated effector, drives V. parahaemolyticus invasion. The intracellular pathogen uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) invades host cells by secreting a VopC homolog, the secreted toxin cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 (CNF1). Because of the homology between VopC and CNF1, we hypothesized that topical application of CNF1 during V. parahaemolyticus infection could supplement VopC activity. Here, we demonstrate that CNF1 improves the efficiency of V. parahaemolyticus invasion, a bottleneck in V. parahaemolyticus infection, across a range of doses. CNF1 increases V. parahaemolyticus invasion independent of both VopC and the T3SS altogether but leaves a disproportionate fraction of intracellular bacteria unable to escape the endosome and complete their infection cycle. This phenomenon holds true in the presence or absence of VopC but is particularly pronounced in the absence of a T3SS. The native VopC, by contrast, promotes a far less efficient invasion but permits the majority of internalized bacteria to escape the endosome and complete their infection cycle. These studies highlight the significance of enzymatic specificity during infection, as virulence factors (VopC and CNF1 in this instance) with similarities in function (bacterial uptake), catalytic activity (deamidation), and substrates (Rho GTPases) are not sufficiently interchangeable for mediating a successful invasion for neighboring bacterial pathogens. IMPORTANCE Many species of intracellular bacterial pathogens target host small Rho GTPases to initiate invasion, including the human pathogens Vibrio parahaemolyticus and uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC). The type three secretion system (T3SS) effector VopC of V. parahaemolyticus promotes invasion through the deamidation of Rac1 and CDC42 in the host, whereas the secreted toxin cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 (CNF1) drives UPEC's internalization through the deamidation of Rac1, CDC42, and RhoA. Despite these similarities in the catalytic activity of CNF1 and VopC, we observed that the two enzymes were not interchangeable. Although CNF1 increased V. parahaemolyticus endosomal invasion, most intracellular V. parahaemolyticus aborted their infection cycle and remained trapped in endosomes. Our findings illuminate how the precise biochemical fine-tuning of T3SS effectors is essential for efficacious pathogenesis. Moreover, they pave the way for future investigations into the biochemical mechanisms underpinning V. parahaemolyticus endosomal escape and, more broadly, the regulation of successful pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander E. Lafrance
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Suneeta Chimalapati
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Nalleli Garcia Rodriguez
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Lisa N. Kinch
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Karan Gautam Kaval
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Kim Orth
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
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5
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Abstract
AB toxins are protein virulence factors secreted by many bacterial pathogens, contributing to the pathogenicity of the cognate bacteria. AB toxins consist of two functionally distinct components: the enzymatic "A" component for pathogenicity and the receptor-binding "B" component for toxin delivery. Consistently, unlike other virulence factors such as effectors, AB toxins do not require additional systems to deliver them to the target host cells. Target host cells are located in the infection site and/or located distantly from infected host cells. The first part of this review discusses the structural and functional features of single-peptide and multiprotein AB toxins in the context of host-microbe interactions, using several well-characterized examples. The second part of this review discusses toxin neutralization strategies, as well as applications of AB toxins relevant to developing intervention strategies against diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongmin Song
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States.
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6
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Interactions of Bacterial Toxin CNF1 and Host JAK1/2 Driven by Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation Enhance Macrophage Polarization. mBio 2022; 13:e0114722. [PMID: 35766380 PMCID: PMC9426534 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01147-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are a global public health concern, which is mainly caused by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC). Cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 (CNF1) is a key UPEC toxin and regulates multiple host cellular processes through activating the Rho GTPases; however, the effect of CNF1 on macrophage polarization remains unknown. Here, we found that CNF1 promoted M1 macrophage polarization through regulating NF-κB and JAK-STAT1 signaling pathways in kidney at an early stage of acute UTIs. Notably, we identified CNF1 could directly interact with JAK1/2 through its domain without Rho GTPases activation, which induced JAK1/2 phosphorylation, subsequent STAT1 activation and M1 polarization. Moreover, CNF1 exhibited liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) to induce a CNF1-JAK1/2 complex, promoting macrophage reprogramming. These findings highlight the LLPS-dependent and Rho GTPase-independent effect of CNF1 as an adaptor on interfering with host cell signals.
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7
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The Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factors (CNFs)-A Family of Rho GTPase-Activating Bacterial Exotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13120901. [PMID: 34941738 PMCID: PMC8709095 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The cytotoxic necrotizing factors (CNFs) are a family of Rho GTPase-activating single-chain exotoxins that are produced by several Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria. Due to the pleiotropic activities of the targeted Rho GTPases, the CNFs trigger multiple signaling pathways and host cell processes with diverse functional consequences. They influence cytokinesis, tissue integrity, cell barriers, and cell death, as well as the induction of inflammatory and immune cell responses. This has an enormous influence on host-pathogen interactions and the severity of the infection. The present review provides a comprehensive insight into our current knowledge of the modular structure, cell entry mechanisms, and the mode of action of this class of toxins, and describes their influence on the cell, tissue/organ, and systems levels. In addition to their toxic functions, possibilities for their use as drug delivery tool and for therapeutic applications against important illnesses, including nervous system diseases and cancer, have also been identified and are discussed.
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8
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Mezerova K, Raclavsky V, Stary L. Which bacterial toxins are worthy of validation as markers in colorectal cancer screening? A critical review. Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub 2021; 166:1-11. [PMID: 34747413 DOI: 10.5507/bp.2021.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Appropriate screening of early asymptomatic cases can reduce the disease burden and mortality rate of sporadic colorectal cancer (CRC) significantly. Currently, fecal occult blood testing (FOBT) is able to detect up to 80% of asymptomatic cases in the population aged 50+. Therefore, there is still a demand for new screening tests that would complement FOBT, mainly by detecting at least a part of the FOBT-negative CRC and adenoma cases, or possibly by identifying person at increased risk of sporadic CRC in order to offer them tailored follow-up. Among the potential markers studied, our knowledge has advanced at most in toxigenic gram-negative bacteria. In this review, we assess their potential critically and recommend those best suited for prospective evaluation of their true ability to increase the sensitivity of FOBT when combined during general population screening. In our opinion, colibactin and Bacteroides fragilis toxin are the best candidates, possibly complemented by the cytotoxic necrotizing factor (CNF).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Mezerova
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, Palacky University Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Vladislav Raclavsky
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, Palacky University Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Lubomir Stary
- Department of Surgery I, University Hospital Olomouc, Czech Republic
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9
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Haywood EE, Handy NB, Lopez JW, Ho M, Wilson BA. Insertion-trigger residues differentially modulate endosomal escape by cytotoxic necrotizing factor toxins. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:101347. [PMID: 34715130 PMCID: PMC8592880 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The cellular specificity, potency, and modular nature of bacterial protein toxins enable their application for targeted cytosolic delivery of therapeutic cargo. Efficient endosomal escape is a critical step in the design of bacterial toxin-inspired drug delivery (BTIDD) vehicles to avoid lysosomal degradation and promote optimal cargo delivery. The cytotoxic necrotizing factor (CNF) family of modular toxins represents a useful model for investigating cargo-delivery mechanisms due to the availability of many homologs with high sequence identity, their flexibility in swapping domains, and their differential activity profiles. Previously, we found that CNFy is more sensitive to endosomal acidification inhibitors than CNF1 and CNF2. Here, we report that CNF3 is even less sensitive than CNF1/2. We identified two amino acid residues within the putative translocation domain (E374 and E412 in CNFy, Q373 and S411 in CNF3) that differentiate between these two toxins. Swapping these corresponding residues in each toxin changed the sensitivity to endosomal acidification and efficiency of cargo-delivery to be more similar to the other toxin. Results suggested that trafficking to the more acidic late endosome is required for cargo delivery by CNFy but not CNF3. This model was supported by results from toxin treatment of cells in the presence of NH4Cl, which blocks endosomal acidification, and of small-molecule inhibitors EGA, which blocks trafficking to late endosomes, and ABMA, which blocks endosomal escape and trafficking to the lysosomal degradative pathway. These findings suggest that it is possible to fine-tune endosomal escape and cytosolic cargo delivery efficiency in designing BTIDD platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth E Haywood
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Nicholas B Handy
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - James W Lopez
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Mengfei Ho
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Brenda A Wilson
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA.
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Sora VM, Meroni G, Martino PA, Soggiu A, Bonizzi L, Zecconi A. Extraintestinal Pathogenic Escherichia coli: Virulence Factors and Antibiotic Resistance. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10111355. [PMID: 34832511 PMCID: PMC8618662 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10111355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The One Health approach emphasizes the importance of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) as a major concern both in public health and in food animal production systems. As a general classification, E. coli can be distinguished based on the ability to cause infection of the gastrointestinal system (IPEC) or outside of it (ExPEC). Among the different pathogens, E. coli are becoming of great importance, and it has been suggested that ExPEC may harbor resistance genes that may be transferred to pathogenic or opportunistic bacteria. ExPEC strains are versatile bacteria that can cause urinary tract, bloodstream, prostate, and other infections at non-intestinal sites. In this context of rapidly increasing multidrug-resistance worldwide and a diminishingly effective antimicrobial arsenal to tackle resistant strains. ExPEC infections are now a serious public health threat worldwide. However, the clinical and economic impact of these infections and their optimal management are challenging, and consequently, there is an increasing awareness of the importance of ExPECs amongst healthcare professionals and the general public alike. This review aims to describe pathotype characteristics of ExPEC to increase our knowledge of these bacteria and, consequently, to increase our chances to control them and reduce the risk for AMR, following a One Health approach.
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Kowarschik S, Schöllkopf J, Müller T, Tian S, Knerr J, Bakker H, Rein S, Dong M, Weber S, Grosse R, Schmidt G. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis cytotoxic necrotizing factor interacts with glycosaminoglycans. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21647. [PMID: 34165206 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202001630r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factor Y (CNFY) is produced by the gram-negative, enteric pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. The bacterial toxin belongs to a family of deamidases, which constitutively activate Rho GTPases, thereby balancing inflammatory processes. We identified heparan sulfate proteoglycans as essential host cell factors for intoxication with CNFY. Using flow cytometry, microscopy, knockout cell lines, pulsed electron-electron double resonance, and bio-layer interferometry, we studied the role of glucosaminoglycans in the intoxication process of CNFY. Especially the C-terminal part of CNFY, which encompasses the catalytic activity, binds with high affinity to heparan sulfates. CNFY binding with the N-terminal domain to a hypothetical protein receptor may support the interaction between the C-terminal domain and heparan sulfates, which seems sterically hindered in the full toxin. A second conformational change occurs by acidification of the endosome, probably allowing insertion of the hydrophobic regions of the toxin into the endosomal membrane. Our findings suggest that heparan sulfates play a major role for intoxication within the endosome, rather than being relevant for an interaction at the cell surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Kowarschik
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Julian Schöllkopf
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Songhai Tian
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Julian Knerr
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Hans Bakker
- Hannover Medical School, Institute for Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover, Germany
| | - Stephan Rein
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Min Dong
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Stefan Weber
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Robert Grosse
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Gudula Schmidt
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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12
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Complete Whole Genome Sequences of Escherichia coli Surrogate Strains and Comparison of Sequence Methods with Application to the Food Industry. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9030608. [PMID: 33809423 PMCID: PMC8001026 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9030608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
In 2013, the U.S. Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service (USDA-FSIS) began transitioning to whole genome sequencing (WGS) for foodborne disease outbreak- and recall-associated isolate identification of select bacterial species. While WGS offers greater precision, certain hurdles must be overcome before widespread application within the food industry is plausible. Challenges include diversity of sequencing platform outputs and lack of standardized bioinformatics workflows for data analyses. We sequenced DNA from USDA-FSIS approved, non-pathogenic E. coli surrogates and a derivative group of rifampicin-resistant mutants (rifR) via both Oxford Nanopore MinION and Illumina MiSeq platforms to generate and annotate complete genomes. Genome sequences from each clone were assembled separately so long-read, short-read, and combined sequence assemblies could be directly compared. The combined sequence data approach provides more accurate completed genomes. The genomes from these isolates were verified to lack functional key E. coli elements commonly associated with pathogenesis. Genetic alterations known to confer rifR were also identified. As the food industry adopts WGS within its food safety programs, these data provide completed genomes for commonly used surrogate strains, with a direct comparison of sequence platforms and assembly strategies relevant to research/testing workflows applicable for both processors and regulators.
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13
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Chaoprasid P, Lukat P, Mühlen S, Heidler T, Gazdag E, Dong S, Bi W, Rüter C, Kirchenwitz M, Steffen A, Jänsch L, Stradal TEB, Dersch P, Blankenfeldt W. Crystal structure of bacterial cytotoxic necrotizing factor CNF Y reveals molecular building blocks for intoxication. EMBO J 2021; 40:e105202. [PMID: 33410511 PMCID: PMC7883292 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2020105202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic necrotizing factors (CNFs) are bacterial single-chain exotoxins that modulate cytokinetic/oncogenic and inflammatory processes through activation of host cell Rho GTPases. To achieve this, they are secreted, bind surface receptors to induce endocytosis and translocate a catalytic unit into the cytosol to intoxicate host cells. A three-dimensional structure that provides insight into the underlying mechanisms is still lacking. Here, we determined the crystal structure of full-length Yersinia pseudotuberculosis CNFY . CNFY consists of five domains (D1-D5), and by integrating structural and functional data, we demonstrate that D1-3 act as export and translocation module for the catalytic unit (D4-5) and for a fused β-lactamase reporter protein. We further found that D4, which possesses structural similarity to ADP-ribosyl transferases, but had no equivalent catalytic activity, changed its position to interact extensively with D5 in the crystal structure of the free D4-5 fragment. This liberates D5 from a semi-blocked conformation in full-length CNFY , leading to higher deamidation activity. Finally, we identify CNF translocation modules in several uncharacterized fusion proteins, which suggests their usability as a broad-specificity protein delivery tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paweena Chaoprasid
- Institute of InfectiologyCenter for Molecular Biology of Inflammation (ZMBE)University of MünsterMünsterGermany
- Molecular Infection BiologyHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
| | - Peer Lukat
- Structure and Function of ProteinsHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
| | - Sabrina Mühlen
- Institute of InfectiologyCenter for Molecular Biology of Inflammation (ZMBE)University of MünsterMünsterGermany
- Molecular Infection BiologyHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
- Deutsches Zentrum für InfektionsforschungBraunschweigGermany
| | - Thomas Heidler
- Molecular Structural BiologyHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
| | - Emerich‐Mihai Gazdag
- Structure and Function of ProteinsHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
| | - Shuangshuang Dong
- Structure and Function of ProteinsHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
| | - Wenjie Bi
- Cellular ProteomicsHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
| | - Christian Rüter
- Institute of InfectiologyCenter for Molecular Biology of Inflammation (ZMBE)University of MünsterMünsterGermany
| | - Marco Kirchenwitz
- Cell BiologyHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
| | - Anika Steffen
- Cell BiologyHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
| | - Lothar Jänsch
- Cellular ProteomicsHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
- Institute of ZoologyTechnische Universität BraunschweigBraunschweigGermany
| | - Theresia E B Stradal
- Cell BiologyHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
- Institute of ZoologyTechnische Universität BraunschweigBraunschweigGermany
| | - Petra Dersch
- Institute of InfectiologyCenter for Molecular Biology of Inflammation (ZMBE)University of MünsterMünsterGermany
- Molecular Infection BiologyHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
- Deutsches Zentrum für InfektionsforschungBraunschweigGermany
- Institute of MicrobiologyTechnische Universität BraunschweigBraunschweigGermany
| | - Wulf Blankenfeldt
- Structure and Function of ProteinsHelmholtz Centre for Infection ResearchBraunschweigGermany
- Institute for Biochemistry, Biotechnology and BioinformaticsTechnische Universität BraunschweigBraunschweigGermany
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14
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Richter L, Oberländer V, Schmidt G. RhoA/C inhibits proliferation by inducing the synthesis of GPRC5A. Sci Rep 2020; 10:12532. [PMID: 32719397 PMCID: PMC7385118 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69481-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Rho GTPases are important regulators of many cellular functions like cell migration, adhesion and polarity. The molecular switches are often dysregulated in cancer. We detected Rho-dependent upregulation of the orphan seven-transmembrane receptor G-protein-coupled receptor family C group 5 member A (GPRC5A). GPRC5A is highly expressed in breast cancer whereas in lung cancer, it is often downregulated. Here, we analyzed the function of GPRC5A in breast epithelial and breast cancer cells. Activation or expression of RhoA/C led to GPRC5A-dependent inhibition of proliferation and reduction of the colony forming capacity of benign breast epithelial cells. This effect is based on an inhibition of EGFR signalling. Knockout of retinoic acid induced 3 (RAI3, the gene for GPRC5A) in breast cancer cells increased cell division, whereas Rho activation had no effect on proliferation. Knockout of RAI3 in benign breast epithelial cells led to decrease of EGFR expression and diminished proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Richter
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Albert-Str. 25, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Viktoria Oberländer
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Albert-Str. 25, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Gudula Schmidt
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Albert-Str. 25, 79104, Freiburg, Germany.
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15
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Colarusso A, Maroccia Z, Parrilli E, Germinario EAP, Fortuna A, Loizzo S, Ricceri L, Tutino ML, Fiorentini C, Fabbri A. Cnf1 Variants Endowed with the Ability to Cross the Blood-Brain Barrier: A New Potential Therapeutic Strategy for Glioblastoma. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12050291. [PMID: 32375387 PMCID: PMC7290510 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Among gliomas, primary tumors originating from glial cells, glioblastoma (GBM) identified as WHO grade IV glioma, is the most common and aggressive malignant brain tumor. We have previously shown that the Escherichia coli protein toxin cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 (CNF1) is remarkably effective as an anti-neoplastic agent in a mouse model of glioma, reducing the tumor volume, increasing survival, and maintaining the functional properties of peritumoral neurons. However, being unable to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB), CNF1 requires injection directly into the brain, which is a very invasive administration route. Thus, to overcome this pitfall, we designed a CNF1 variant characterized by the presence of an N-terminal BBB-crossing tag. The variant was produced and we verified whether its activity was comparable to that of wild-type CNF1 in GBM cells. We investigated the signaling pathways engaged in the cell response to CNF1 variants to provide preliminary data to the subsequent studies in experimental animals. CNF1 may represent a novel avenue for GBM therapy, particularly because, besides blocking tumor growth, it also preserves the healthy surrounding tissue, maintaining its architecture and functionality. This renders CNF1 the most interesting candidate for the treatment of brain tumors, among other potentially effective bacterial toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Colarusso
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario M. S. Angelo, Via Cintia, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (A.C.); (E.P.); (M.L.T.)
| | - Zaira Maroccia
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy; (Z.M.); (E.A.P.G.); (A.F.); (S.L.); (L.R.); (C.F.)
| | - Ermenegilda Parrilli
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario M. S. Angelo, Via Cintia, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (A.C.); (E.P.); (M.L.T.)
| | - Elena Angela Pia Germinario
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy; (Z.M.); (E.A.P.G.); (A.F.); (S.L.); (L.R.); (C.F.)
| | - Andrea Fortuna
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy; (Z.M.); (E.A.P.G.); (A.F.); (S.L.); (L.R.); (C.F.)
| | - Stefano Loizzo
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy; (Z.M.); (E.A.P.G.); (A.F.); (S.L.); (L.R.); (C.F.)
| | - Laura Ricceri
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy; (Z.M.); (E.A.P.G.); (A.F.); (S.L.); (L.R.); (C.F.)
| | - Maria Luisa Tutino
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario M. S. Angelo, Via Cintia, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (A.C.); (E.P.); (M.L.T.)
| | - Carla Fiorentini
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy; (Z.M.); (E.A.P.G.); (A.F.); (S.L.); (L.R.); (C.F.)
- Association for Research on Integrative Oncological Therapies (ARTOI), 00165 Rome, Italy
| | - Alessia Fabbri
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy; (Z.M.); (E.A.P.G.); (A.F.); (S.L.); (L.R.); (C.F.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-06-4990-2939
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16
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Fabbri A, Travaglione S, Rosadi F, Ballan G, Maroccia Z, Giambenedetti M, Guidotti M, Ødum N, Krejsgaard T, Fiorentini C. The Escherichia coli protein toxin cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 induces epithelial mesenchymal transition. Cell Microbiol 2019; 22:e13138. [PMID: 31698538 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Some toxigenic bacteria produce protein toxins with carcinogenic signatures, which either directly damage DNA or stimulate signalling pathways related to cancer. So far, however, only a few of them have been proved to favour the induction or progression of cancer. In this work, we report that the Rho-activating Escherichia coli protein toxin, cytotoxic necrotising factor 1 (CNF1), induces epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) in intestinal epithelial cells. EMT is a crucial step in malignant tumour conversion and invasiveness. In the case of CNF1, it occurs by up-regulation of the transcription factors ZEB1 and Snail1, delocalisation of E-cadherin and β-catenin, activation of the serine/threonine kinase mTOR, accelerated wound healing, and invasion. However, our results highlight that nontransformed epithelial cells entail the presence of inflammatory factors, in addition to CNF1, to acquire a mesenchymal-like behaviour. All this suggests that the surrounding microenvironment, as well as the cell type, dramatically influences the CNF1 ability to promote carcinogenic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Fabbri
- Italian Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Sara Travaglione
- Italian Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Rosadi
- Italian Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Giulia Ballan
- Italian Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Zaira Maroccia
- Italian Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Marco Guidotti
- Department of Food Safety and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Niels Ødum
- LEO Foundation Skin Immunology Research Center, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thorbjørn Krejsgaard
- LEO Foundation Skin Immunology Research Center, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Carla Fiorentini
- Italian Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.,Preclinical Research Section, Associazione Ricerca Terapie Oncologiche Integrate (ARTOI), Rome, Italy
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17
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Ho M, Mettouchi A, Wilson BA, Lemichez E. CNF1-like deamidase domains: common Lego bricks among cancer-promoting immunomodulatory bacterial virulence factors. Pathog Dis 2018; 76:4992304. [PMID: 29733372 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/fty045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Alterations of the cellular proteome over time due to spontaneous or toxin-mediated enzymatic deamidation of glutamine (Gln) and asparagine (Asn) residues contribute to bacterial infection and might represent a source of aging-related diseases. Here, we put into perspective what is known about the mode of action of the CNF1 toxin from pathogenic Escherichia coli, a paradigm of bacterial deamidases that activate Rho GTPases, to illustrate the importance of determining whether exposure to these factors are risk factors in the etiology age-related diseases, such as cancer. In particular, through in silico analysis of the distribution of the CNF1-like deamidase active site Gly-Cys-(Xaa)n-His sequence motif in bacterial genomes, we unveil the wide distribution of the super-family of CNF-like toxins and CNF-like deamidase domains among members of the Enterobacteriacae and in association with a large variety of toxin delivery systems. We extent our discussion with recent findings concerning cellular systems that control activated Rac1 GTPase stability and provide protection against cancer. These findings point to the urgency for developing holistic approaches toward personalized medicine that include monitoring for asymptomatic carriage of pathogenic toxin-producing bacteria and that ultimately might lead to improved public health and increased lifespans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengfei Ho
- Department of Microbiology, School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Amel Mettouchi
- Bacterial Toxins Unit, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, 25 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris, France
| | - Brenda A Wilson
- Department of Microbiology, School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Emmanuel Lemichez
- Bacterial Toxins Unit, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, 25 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris, France
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18
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Tantillo E, Colistra A, Vannini E, Cerri C, Pancrazi L, Baroncelli L, Costa M, Caleo M. Bacterial Toxins and Targeted Brain Therapy: New Insights from Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factor 1 (CNF1). Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19061632. [PMID: 29857515 PMCID: PMC6032336 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19061632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic bacteria produce toxins to promote host invasion and, therefore, their survival. The extreme potency and specificity of these toxins confer to this category of proteins an exceptionally strong potential for therapeutic exploitation. In this review, we deal with cytotoxic necrotizing factor (CNF1), a cytotoxin produced by Escherichia coli affecting fundamental cellular processes, including cytoskeletal dynamics, cell cycle progression, transcriptional regulation, cell survival and migration. First, we provide an overview of the mechanisms of action of CNF1 in target cells. Next, we focus on the potential use of CNF1 as a pharmacological treatment in central nervous system’s diseases. CNF1 appears to impact neuronal morphology, physiology, and plasticity and displays an antineoplastic activity on brain tumors. The ability to preserve neural functionality and, at the same time, to trigger senescence and death of proliferating glioma cells, makes CNF1 an encouraging new strategy for the treatment of brain tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Tantillo
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
- Fondazione Pisana per la Scienza Onlus (FPS), via Ferruccio Giovannini 13, San Giuliano Terme, 56017 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Antonella Colistra
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
- Departement of Biology, University of Pisa, via Luca Ghini 13, 56126 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Eleonora Vannini
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Chiara Cerri
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
- Fondazione Umberto Veronesi, Piazza Velasca 5, 20122 Milano, Italy.
| | - Laura Pancrazi
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Laura Baroncelli
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Mario Costa
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Matteo Caleo
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
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19
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Reppin F, Cochet S, El Nemer W, Fritz G, Schmidt G. High Affinity Binding of Escherichia coli Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factor 1 (CNF1) to Lu/BCAM Adhesion Glycoprotein. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 10:toxins10010003. [PMID: 29267242 PMCID: PMC5793090 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Revised: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The protein toxin Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factor 1 (CNF1) is a major virulence factor of pathogenic Escherichia coli strains. It belongs to a family of single chain AB-toxins, which enter mammalian cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Recently, we identified the Lutheran (Lu) adhesion glycoprotein/basal cell adhesion molecule (BCAM) as a cellular receptor for CNF1. Here, we identified the Ig-like domain 2 of Lu/BCAM as main interaction site of the toxin by direct protein-protein interaction and competition studies. Using surface plasmon resonance, we showed a high affinity CNF-Lu/BCAM interaction with a KD of 2.8 nM. Furthermore, we performed small-angle X-ray scattering to define the molecular envelope of the Lu/BCAM-CNF1 complex, suggesting a 6:1 ratio of Lu/BCAM to CNF1 in the receptor-toxin complex. This study leads to a deeper understanding of the interaction between CNF1 and Lu/BCAM, and presents novel opportunities for the development of future anti-toxin strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Reppin
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Albert-Street 25, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
- Biological Faculty, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Albert-Street 25, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Sylvie Cochet
- Universite Sorbonne Paris Cite, Universite Paris Diderot, Inserm, INTS, Unite Biologie Integree du Globule Rouge, Laboratoire d'Excellence GR-Ex, 75013 Paris, France.
| | - Wassim El Nemer
- Universite Sorbonne Paris Cite, Universite Paris Diderot, Inserm, INTS, Unite Biologie Integree du Globule Rouge, Laboratoire d'Excellence GR-Ex, 75013 Paris, France.
| | - Günter Fritz
- Department of Neuropathology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Breisacher Strasse 64, 79106 Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Gudula Schmidt
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Albert-Street 25, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
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20
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Colarusso A, Caterino M, Fabbri A, Fiorentini C, Vergara A, Sica F, Parrilli E, Tutino ML. High yield purification and first structural characterization of the full-length bacterial toxin CNF1. Biotechnol Prog 2017; 34:150-159. [PMID: 29063721 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.2574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factor 1 (CNF1) is a bacterial toxin secreted by certain Escherichia coli strains causing severe pathologies, making it a protein of pivotal interest in toxicology. In parallel, the CNF1 capability to influence important neuronal processes, like neuronal arborization, astrocytic support, and efficient ATP production, has been efficiently used in the treatment of neurological diseases, making it a promising candidate for therapy. Nonetheless, there are still some unsolved issues about the CNF1 mechanism of action and structuration probably caused by the difficulty to achieve sufficient amounts of the full-length protein for further studies. Here, we propose an efficient strategy for the production and purification of this toxin as a his-tagged recombinant protein from E. coli extracts (CNF1-H8). CNF1-H8 was expressed at the low temperature of 15°C to diminish its characteristic degradation. Then, its purification was achieved using an immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) and a size exclusion chromatography so as to collect up to 8 mg of protein per liter of culture in a highly pure form. Routine dynamic light scattering (DLS) experiments showed that the recombinant protein preparations were homogeneous and preserved this state for a long time. Furthermore, CNF1-H8 functionality was confirmed by testing its activity on purified RhoA and on HEp-2 cultured cells. Finally, a first structural characterization of the full-length toxin in terms of secondary structure and thermal stability was performed by circular dichroism (CD). These studies demonstrate that our system can be used to produce high quantities of pure recombinant protein for a detailed structural analysis. © 2017 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 34:150-159, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Colarusso
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte Sant'Angelo, Via Cinthia, Napoli, 80126, Italy
| | - Marco Caterino
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte Sant'Angelo, Via Cinthia, Napoli, 80126, Italy
| | - Alessia Fabbri
- Italian Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, Roma, 00161, Italy
| | - Carla Fiorentini
- Italian Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, Roma, 00161, Italy
| | - Alessandro Vergara
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte Sant'Angelo, Via Cinthia, Napoli, 80126, Italy.,CEINGE Biotecnologie Avanzate scarl, Via G. Salvatore, Napoli, 80100, Italy.,Institute of Biostructures and Biomaging, CNR, Napoli, Italia Via Mezzocannone 16, Napoli, 80134, Italy
| | - Filomena Sica
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte Sant'Angelo, Via Cinthia, Napoli, 80126, Italy.,Institute of Biostructures and Biomaging, CNR, Napoli, Italia Via Mezzocannone 16, Napoli, 80134, Italy
| | - Ermenegilda Parrilli
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte Sant'Angelo, Via Cinthia, Napoli, 80126, Italy
| | - Maria Luisa Tutino
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario Monte Sant'Angelo, Via Cinthia, Napoli, 80126, Italy
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21
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Guo Y, Zhang Z, Wei H, Wang J, Lv J, Zhang K, Keller ET, Yao Z, Wang Q. Cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 promotes prostate cancer progression through activating the Cdc42-PAK1 axis. J Pathol 2017; 243:208-219. [PMID: 28707808 DOI: 10.1002/path.4940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 06/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is the leading cause of urinary tract infections and plays a role in prostatic carcinogenesis and prostate cancer (PCa) progression. However, the mechanisms through which UPEC promotes PCa development and progression are unclear. Cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 (CNF1) is one of the most important UPEC toxins and its role in PCa progression has never been studied. We found that UPEC-secreted CNF1 promoted the migration and invasion of PCa cells and PCa metastasis. In vitro studies showed that CNF1 promotes pro-migratory and pro-invasive activity through entering PCa cells and activating Cdc42, which subsequently induced PAK1 phosphorylation and up-regulation of MMP-9 expression. CNF1 also promoted pulmonary metastasis in a xenograft mouse model through these mechanisms. PAK1 phosphorylation correlated with advanced grades of PCa in human clinical PCa tissues. These results suggest that CNF1 derived from UPEC plays an important role in PCa progression through activating a Cdc42-PAK1 signal axis and up-regulating the expression of MMP-9. Therefore, surveillance for and treatment of cnf1-carrying UPEC strains may diminish PCa progression and thus have an important clinical therapeutic impact. Copyright © 2017 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaxiu Guo
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Educational Ministry of China, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, PR China
| | - Zhisong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology and College of Pharmacy, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Molecular Drug Research, Nankai University, Tianjin, PR China
| | - Huiting Wei
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Educational Ministry of China, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, PR China
| | - Jingyu Wang
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Educational Ministry of China, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, PR China
| | - Junqiang Lv
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Educational Ministry of China, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, PR China
| | - Kai Zhang
- 2011 Collaborative Innovation Center of Tianjin for Medical Epigenetics, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, PR China.,Tianjin Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, PR China
| | - Evan T Keller
- Department of Urology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Zhi Yao
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Educational Ministry of China, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, PR China.,2011 Collaborative Innovation Center of Tianjin for Medical Epigenetics, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, PR China
| | - Quan Wang
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Educational Ministry of China, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, PR China
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22
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Abstract
Escherichia coli are a common cause of infectious disease outside of the gastrointestinal tract. Several independently evolved E. coli clades are common causes of urinary tract and bloodstream infections. There is ample epidemiological and in vitro evidence that several different protein toxins common to many, but not all, of these strains are likely to aid the colonization and immune-evasion ability of these bacteria. This review discusses our current knowledge and areas of ignorance concerning the contribution of the hemolysin; cytotoxic-necrotizing factor-1; and the autotransporters, Sat, Pic, and Vat, to extraintestinal human disease.
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23
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El-Aouar Filho RA, Nicolas A, De Paula Castro TL, Deplanche M, De Carvalho Azevedo VA, Goossens PL, Taieb F, Lina G, Le Loir Y, Berkova N. Heterogeneous Family of Cyclomodulins: Smart Weapons That Allow Bacteria to Hijack the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Promote Infections. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:208. [PMID: 28589102 PMCID: PMC5440457 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Some bacterial pathogens modulate signaling pathways of eukaryotic cells in order to subvert the host response for their own benefit, leading to successful colonization and invasion. Pathogenic bacteria produce multiple compounds that generate favorable conditions to their survival and growth during infection in eukaryotic hosts. Many bacterial toxins can alter the cell cycle progression of host cells, impairing essential cellular functions and impeding host cell division. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding cyclomodulins, a heterogeneous family of bacterial effectors that induce eukaryotic cell cycle alterations. We discuss the mechanisms of actions of cyclomodulins according to their biochemical properties, providing examples of various cyclomodulins such as cycle inhibiting factor, γ-glutamyltranspeptidase, cytolethal distending toxins, shiga toxin, subtilase toxin, anthrax toxin, cholera toxin, adenylate cyclase toxins, vacuolating cytotoxin, cytotoxic necrotizing factor, Panton-Valentine leukocidin, phenol soluble modulins, and mycolactone. Special attention is paid to the benefit provided by cyclomodulins to bacteria during colonization of the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachid A El-Aouar Filho
- STLO, Agrocampus Ouest Rennes, Institut National de la Recherche AgronomiqueRennes, France.,Departamento de Biologia Geral, Laboratório de Genética Celular e Molecular (LGCM), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Aurélie Nicolas
- STLO, Agrocampus Ouest Rennes, Institut National de la Recherche AgronomiqueRennes, France
| | - Thiago L De Paula Castro
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Laboratório de Genética Celular e Molecular (LGCM), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Martine Deplanche
- STLO, Agrocampus Ouest Rennes, Institut National de la Recherche AgronomiqueRennes, France
| | - Vasco A De Carvalho Azevedo
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Laboratório de Genética Celular e Molecular (LGCM), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Pierre L Goossens
- HistoPathologie et Modèles Animaux/Pathogénie des Toxi-Infections Bactériennes, Institut PasteurParis, France
| | - Frédéric Taieb
- CHU Purpan USC INRA 1360-CPTP, U1043 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Pathogénie Moléculaire et Cellulaire des Infections à Escherichia coliToulouse, France
| | - Gerard Lina
- International Center for Infectiology ResearchLyon, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR5308, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1111, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1Lyon, France.,Département de Biologie, Institut des Agents Infectieux, Hospices Civils de LyonLyon, France
| | - Yves Le Loir
- STLO, Agrocampus Ouest Rennes, Institut National de la Recherche AgronomiqueRennes, France
| | - Nadia Berkova
- STLO, Agrocampus Ouest Rennes, Institut National de la Recherche AgronomiqueRennes, France
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24
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Abstract
Enteric pathogens of the family Enterobacteriaceae colonize various niches within animals and humans in which they compete with intestinal commensals and are attacked by the host immune system. To survive these hostile environments they possess complex, multilayer regulatory networks that coordinate the control of virulence factors, host-adapted metabolic functions and stress resistance. An important part of these intricate control networks are RNA-based control systems that enable the pathogen to fine-tune its responses. Recent next-generation sequencing approaches revealed a large repertoire of conserved and species-specific riboregulators, including numerous cis- and trans-acting non-coding RNAs, sensory RNA elements (RNA thermometers, riboswitches), regulatory RNA-binding proteins and RNA degrading enzymes which regulate colonization factors, toxins, host defense processes and virulence-relevant physiological and metabolic processes. All of which are important cues for pathogens to sense and respond to fluctuating conditions during the infection. This review covers infection-relevant riboregulators of E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella and Yersinia, highlights their versatile regulatory mechanisms, complex target regulons and functions, and discusses emerging topics and future challenges to fully understand and exploit RNA-based control to combat bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann Kathrin Heroven
- a Department of Molecular Infection Biology , Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research , Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Aaron M Nuss
- a Department of Molecular Infection Biology , Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research , Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Petra Dersch
- a Department of Molecular Infection Biology , Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research , Braunschweig , Germany
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25
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Travaglione S, Loizzo S, Ballan G, Fiorentini C, Fabbri A. The E. coli CNF1 as a pioneering therapy for the central nervous system diseases. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:270-82. [PMID: 24402235 PMCID: PMC3920261 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6010270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Revised: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 12/31/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factor 1 (CNF1), a protein toxin from pathogenic E. coli, modulates the Rho GTPases, thus, directing the organization of the actin cytoskeleton. In the nervous system, the Rho GTPases play a key role in several processes, controlling the morphogenesis of dendritic spines and synaptic plasticity in brain tissues. This review is focused on the peculiar property of CNF1 to enhance brain plasticity in in vivo animal models of central nervous system (CNS) diseases, and on its possible application in therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Travaglione
- Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation, Superior Health Institute, viale Regina Elena 299, Rome 00161, Italy.
| | - Stefano Loizzo
- Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation, Superior Health Institute, viale Regina Elena 299, Rome 00161, Italy.
| | - Giulia Ballan
- Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation, Superior Health Institute, viale Regina Elena 299, Rome 00161, Italy.
| | - Carla Fiorentini
- Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation, Superior Health Institute, viale Regina Elena 299, Rome 00161, Italy.
| | - Alessia Fabbri
- Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation, Superior Health Institute, viale Regina Elena 299, Rome 00161, Italy.
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26
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Piteau M, Papatheodorou P, Schwan C, Schlosser A, Aktories K, Schmidt G. Lu/BCAM adhesion glycoprotein is a receptor for Escherichia coli Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factor 1 (CNF1). PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1003884. [PMID: 24453976 PMCID: PMC3894216 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factor 1 (CNF1) is a protein toxin which is a major virulence factor of pathogenic Escherichia coli strains. Here, we identified the Lutheran (Lu) adhesion glycoprotein/basal cell adhesion molecule (BCAM) as cellular receptor for CNF1 by co-precipitation of cell surface molecules with tagged toxin. The CNF1-Lu/BCAM interaction was verified by direct protein-protein interaction analysis and competition studies. These studies revealed amino acids 720 to 1014 of CNF1 as the binding site for Lu/BCAM. We suggest two cell interaction sites in CNF1: first the N-terminus, which binds to p37LRP as postulated before. Binding of CNF1 to p37LRP seems to be crucial for the toxin's action. However, it is not sufficient for the binding of CNF1 to the cell surface. A region directly adjacent to the catalytic domain is a high affinity interaction site for Lu/BCAM. We found Lu/BCAM to be essential for the binding of CNF1 to cells. Cells deficient in Lu/BCAM but expressing p37LRP could not bind labeled CNF1. Therefore, we conclude that LRP and Lu/BCAM are both required for toxin action but with different functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne Piteau
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Biological Faculty, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Panagiotis Papatheodorou
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Carsten Schwan
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Schlosser
- Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum für Experimentelle Biomedizin, Universität Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Klaus Aktories
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- BIOSS (Centre for Biological Signalling Studies), Freiburg, Germany
| | - Gudula Schmidt
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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27
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Schweer J, Kulkarni D, Kochut A, Pezoldt J, Pisano F, Pils MC, Genth H, Huehn J, Dersch P. The cytotoxic necrotizing factor of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis (CNFY) enhances inflammation and Yop delivery during infection by activation of Rho GTPases. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003746. [PMID: 24244167 PMCID: PMC3820761 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Some isolates of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis produce the cytotoxic necrotizing factor (CNFY), but the functional consequences of this toxin for host-pathogen interactions during the infection are unknown. In the present study we show that CNFY has a strong influence on virulence. We demonstrate that the CNFY toxin is thermo-regulated and highly expressed in all colonized lymphatic tissues and organs of orally infected mice. Most strikingly, we found that a cnfY knock-out variant of a naturally toxin-expressing Y. pseudotuberculosis isolate is strongly impaired in its ability to disseminate into the mesenteric lymph nodes, liver and spleen, and has fully lost its lethality. The CNFY toxin contributes significantly to the induction of acute inflammatory responses and to the formation of necrotic areas in infected tissues. The analysis of the host immune response demonstrated that presence of CNFY leads to a strong reduction of professional phagocytes and natural killer cells in particular in the spleen, whereas loss of the toxin allows efficient tissue infiltration of these immune cells and rapid killing of the pathogen. Addition of purified CNFY triggers formation of actin-rich membrane ruffles and filopodia, which correlates with the activation of the Rho GTPases, RhoA, Rac1 and Cdc42. The analysis of type III effector delivery into epithelial and immune cells in vitro and during the course of the infection further demonstrated that CNFY enhances the Yop translocation process and supports a role for the toxin in the suppression of the antibacterial host response. In summary, we highlight the importance of CNFY for pathogenicity by showing that this toxin modulates inflammatory responses, protects the bacteria from attacks of innate immune effectors and enhances the severity of a Yersinia infection. Various toxins and effector proteins of bacterial pathogens have been found to manipulate eukaryotic cell machineries to promote persistence and proliferation within their hosts. Many of these virulence factors target small Rho GTPases, but their role in pathogenesis is often unknown. Here, we addressed the expression and functional consequences of the CNFY toxin found in some isolates of Y. pseudotuberculosis. We found that CNFY besides modulating the cell cytoskeleton by activation of the GTPases RhoA, Rac1 and Cdc42, contributes to increased inflammation and tissue damage. Moreover, CNFY increases the ability of Yersinia to prevent the attack of the immune system, by enhancing the delivery of antiphagocytic and cytotoxic effectors into professional phagocytes. Our findings provide the first insights into the multi-functional action and severe consequences of the CNFY toxin on the inflammatory response and disease-associated tissue damage during the natural course of the infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina Schweer
- Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Devesha Kulkarni
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Annika Kochut
- Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Joern Pezoldt
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Fabio Pisano
- Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Marina C. Pils
- Mouse Pathology, Animal Experimental Unit, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Harald Genth
- Institute for Toxicology, Medical School Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jochen Huehn
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Petra Dersch
- Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
- * E-mail:
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28
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The cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 from E. coli: a janus toxin playing with cancer regulators. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:1462-74. [PMID: 23949007 PMCID: PMC3760046 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5081462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2013] [Revised: 07/24/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Certain strains of Escherichia coli have been indicated as a risk factor for colon cancer. E. coli is a normal inhabitant of the human intestine that becomes pathogenic, especially in extraintestinal sites, following the acquisition of virulence factors, including the protein toxin CNF1. This Rho GTPases-activating toxin induces dysfunctions in transformed epithelial cells, such as apoptosis counteraction, pro-inflammatory cytokines’ release, COX2 expression, NF-kB activation and boosted cellular motility. As cancer may arise when the same regulatory pathways are affected, it is conceivable to hypothesize that CNF1-producing E. coli infections can contribute to cancer development. This review focuses on those aspects of CNF1 related to transformation, with the aim of contributing to the identification of a new possible carcinogenic agent from the microbial world.
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29
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Pasteurella multocida toxin as a transporter of non-cell-permeating proteins. Infect Immun 2013; 81:2459-67. [PMID: 23630953 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00429-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The protein toxin Pasteurella multocida toxin (PMT) is the causative agent of atrophic rhinitis in pigs, leading to atrophy of the nasal turbinate bones by affecting osteoblasts and osteoclasts. The mechanism of PMT-induced intoxication is a deamidation of α-subunits of heterotrimeric G proteins, including Gαq, Gα13, and Gαi, thereby causing persistent activation of the G proteins. Here we utilized PMT as a transporter of the non-cell-permeating A domain of diphtheria toxin (DTa). Fusion proteins of PMT and DTa ADP-ribosylated elongation factor 2, the natural target of diphtheria toxin, leading to cell toxicity. PMT-DTa effects were competed by PMT, indicating binding to the same cell surface receptor. Fluorescently labeled PMT-DTa and PMT colocalized with specific markers of early and late endosomes. Bafilomycin A, which inhibits vacuolar H(+)-ATPase, blocked PMT-DTa-induced intoxication of HEK-293 cells. By constructing various PMT-DTa chimeras, we identified a minimal region of PMT necessary for uptake of DTa. The data suggest that PMT is able to transport cargo proteins into eukaryotic cells by utilizing the PMT-specific uptake route.
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30
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Silva DS, Pereira LMG, Moreira AR, Ferreira-da-Silva F, Brito RM, Faria TQ, Zornetta I, Montecucco C, Oliveira P, Azevedo JE, Pereira PJB, Macedo-Ribeiro S, do Vale A, dos Santos NMS. The apoptogenic toxin AIP56 is a metalloprotease A-B toxin that cleaves NF-κb P65. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003128. [PMID: 23468618 PMCID: PMC3585134 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2012] [Accepted: 11/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
AIP56 (apoptosis-inducing protein of 56 kDa) is a major virulence factor of Photobacterium damselae piscicida (Phdp), a Gram-negative pathogen that causes septicemic infections, which are among the most threatening diseases in mariculture. The toxin triggers apoptosis of host macrophages and neutrophils through a process that, in vivo, culminates with secondary necrosis of the apoptotic cells contributing to the necrotic lesions observed in the diseased animals. Here, we show that AIP56 is a NF-κB p65-cleaving zinc-metalloprotease whose catalytic activity is required for the apoptogenic effect. Most of the bacterial effectors known to target NF-κB are type III secreted effectors. In contrast, we demonstrate that AIP56 is an A-B toxin capable of acting at distance, without requiring contact of the bacteria with the target cell. We also show that the N-terminal domain cleaves NF-κB at the Cys39-Glu40 peptide bond and that the C-terminal domain is involved in binding and internalization into the cytosol. The apoptosis inducing protein of 56 kDa (AIP56) is a key virulence factor secreted by Photobacterium damselae piscicida (Phdp), a Gram-negative bacterium that causes septicaemic infections in economically important marine fish species. It is known that AIP56 induces massive destruction of the phagocytic cells of the infected host, allowing the extracellular multiplication of the bacteria and contributing to the genesis of the pathology. Here we show that AIP56 acts by cleaving NF-κB p65. The NF-κB family of transcription factors is evolutionarily conserved and plays a central role in the host responses to microbial pathogen invasion, regulating the expression of inflammatory and anti-apoptotic genes. Pathogenic bacteria have evolved complex strategies to interfere with NF-κB signalling, usually by injecting protein effectors directly into the cell's cytosol through bacterial secretion machineries that require contact with host cells. In contrast, AIP56 acts at distance and has an intrinsic ability to reach the cytosol due to the presence of a C-terminal domain that functions as “delivery module.”
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela S. Silva
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Liliana M. G. Pereira
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana R. Moreira
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Frederico Ferreira-da-Silva
- Protein Production and Purification, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Rui M. Brito
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Tiago Q. Faria
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Irene Zornetta
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche dell'Università di Padova and Instituto di Neuroscienze del CNR, Padova, Italy
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche dell'Università di Padova and Instituto di Neuroscienze del CNR, Padova, Italy
| | - Pedro Oliveira
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Jorge E. Azevedo
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Organelle Biogenesis and Function, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro J. B. Pereira
- Biomolecular Structure, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sandra Macedo-Ribeiro
- Protein Crystallography, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana do Vale
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno M. S. dos Santos
- Fish Immunology and Vaccinology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
- * E-mail:
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31
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Bielek H, Schmidt G. How to analyze bacterial toxins targeting Rho GTPases. Methods Mol Biol 2011; 827:59-75. [PMID: 22144267 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-442-1_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial pathogens developed several strategies to overcome defense systems of eukaryotic hosts. Within the infection process, they need to attach to and cross through epithelial layers, escape from the innate and adaptive immune response, and find a physiological niche to survive. One target to modulate the host-pathogen interaction in order to deceit pathogen resistance is the actin cytoskeleton and its regulators: the family of Rho GTPases. Some bacterial toxins catalyze a covalent modification of Rho GTPases to keep these molecular switches in a constitutive active or inactive state. This leads to rearrangement of the actin cytoskeleton. Toxin-treated cells show typical morphological changes depending on substrate specificity and action of the toxins. In this chapter, we discuss the classes of bacterial toxins based on their mode of action, their recombinant expression (specifically CNF1), intoxication and subsequent morphological changes of the actin cytoskeleton, and cell shape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Bielek
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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32
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Popoff MR. Multifaceted interactions of bacterial toxins with the gastrointestinal mucosa. Future Microbiol 2011; 6:763-97. [PMID: 21797691 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.11.58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The digestive tract is one of the ecosystems that harbors the largest number and greatest variety of bacteria. Among them, certain bacteria have developed various strategies, including the synthesis of virulence factors such as toxins, to interact with the intestinal mucosa, and are responsible for various pathologies. A large variety of bacterial toxins of different sizes, structures and modes of action are able to interact with the gastrointestinal mucosa. Some toxins, termed enterotoxins, directly stimulate fluid secretion in enterocytes or cause their death, whereas other toxins pass through the intestinal barrier and disseminate by the general circulation to remote organs or tissues, where they are active. After recognition of a membrane receptor on target cells, toxins can act at the cell membrane by transducing a signal across the membrane in a hormone-like manner, by pore formation or by damaging membrane compounds. Other toxins can enter the cells and modify an intracellular target leading to a disregulation of certain physiological processes or disorganization of some structural architectures and cell death. Toxins are fascinating molecules, which mimic or interfere with eukaryotic physiological processes. Thereby, they have permitted the identification and characterization of new natural hormones or regulatory pathways. Besides use as protective antigens in vaccines, toxins offer multiple possibilities in pharmacology, such as immune modulation or specific delivery of a protein of interest into target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Popoff
- Institut Pasteur, Unité des Bactéries anaérobies et Toxines, 25 rue du Dr Roux, 757245 Paris cedex 15, France.
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33
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Abstract
Many bacterial pathogens produce protein toxins to outmanoeuvre the immune system of the host. Some of these proteins target regulatory GTPases such as those belonging to the RHO family, which control the actin cytoskeleton of the host cell. In this Review, I discuss a diversity of mechanisms that are used by bacterial effectors and toxins to modulate the activity of host GTPases, with a focus on covalent modifications such as ADP-ribosylation, glucosylation, adenylylation, proteolysis, deamidation and transglutamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Aktories
- Institut für Experimentelle und Klinische Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Albertstr. 25, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
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34
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Knust Z, Schmidt G. Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factors (CNFs)-A Growing Toxin Family. Toxins (Basel) 2011; 2:116-27. [PMID: 22069550 PMCID: PMC3206620 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2010116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2009] [Revised: 01/15/2010] [Accepted: 01/20/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The Escherichia coli Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factors, CNF1, CNF2, CNF3 and CNFY from Yersinia pseudotuberculosis belong to a family of deamidating toxins. CNFs deamidate glutamine 63/61 in the switch II region of Rho GTPases that is essential for GTP hydrolysing activity. Deamidation leads to constitutive activation of Rho GTPases. However, cellular mechanisms like proteasomal degradation of the activated Rho proteins restrict the action of the GTPases. This review describes the differences between the toxin family members concerning expression, cellular entry and substrate specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeynep Knust
- Institut für Experimentelle und Klinische Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Albertstr. 25, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
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Visvikis O, Boyer L, Torrino S, Doye A, Lemonnier M, Lorès P, Rolando M, Flatau G, Mettouchi A, Bouvard D, Veiga E, Gacon G, Cossart P, Lemichez E. Escherichia coli Producing CNF1 Toxin Hijacks Tollip to Trigger Rac1-Dependent Cell Invasion. Traffic 2011; 12:579-90. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0854.2011.01174.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Escherichia coli Cytotoxic Necrotizing Factor 1 (CNF1): Toxin Biology, in Vivo Applications and Therapeutic Potential. Toxins (Basel) 2010. [DOI: 10.3390/toxins2020282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
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Fabbri A, Travaglione S, Fiorentini C. Escherichia coli cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 (CNF1): toxin biology, in vivo applications and therapeutic potential. Toxins (Basel) 2010; 2:283-96. [PMID: 22069584 PMCID: PMC3202811 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2020283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2010] [Revised: 02/20/2010] [Accepted: 02/20/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
CNF1 is a protein toxin produced by certain pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli. It permanently activates the regulatory Rho, Rac, and Cdc42 GTPases in eukaryotic cells, by deamidation of a glutamine residue. This modification promotes new activities in cells, such as gene transcription, cell proliferation and survival. Since the Rho GTPases play a pivotal role also in several processes in vivo, the potentiality of CNF1 to act as a new pharmacological tool has been explored in experimental animals and in diverse pathological contexts. In this review, we give an update overview on the potential in vivo applications of CNF1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Fabbri
- Department of Therapeutic Research and Medicines Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Roma, Italy.
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