Toll-like receptor 9-dependent macrophage activation by Entamoeba histolytica DNA

Blood Bacteria-Free DNA in Septic Mice Enhances LPS-Induced Inflammation in Mice through Macrophage Response

Although bacteria-free DNA in blood during systemic infection is mainly derived from bacterial death, translocation of the DNA from the gut into the blood circulation (gut translocation) is also possible. Hence, several mouse models with experiments on macrophages were conducted to explore the sources, influences, and impacts of bacteria-free DNA in sepsis. First, bacteria-free DNA and bacteriome in blood were demonstrated in cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) sepsis mice. Second, administration of bacterial lysate (a source of bacterial DNA) in dextran sulfate solution (DSS)-induced mucositis mice elevated blood bacteria-free DNA without bacteremia supported gut translocation of free DNA. The absence of blood bacteria-free DNA in DSS mice without bacterial lysate implies an impact of the abundance of bacterial DNA in intestinal contents on the translocation of free DNA. Third, higher serum cytokines in mice after injection of combined bacterial DNA with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), when compared to LPS injection alone, supported an influence of blood bacteria-free DNA on systemic inflammation. The synergistic effects of free DNA and LPS on macrophage pro-inflammatory responses, as indicated by supernatant cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10), pro-inflammatory genes (NFκB, iNOS, and IL-1β), and profound energy alteration (enhanced glycolysis with reduced mitochondrial functions), which was neutralized by TLR-9 inhibition (chloroquine), were demonstrated. In conclusion, the presence of bacteria-free DNA in sepsis mice is partly due to gut translocation of bacteria-free DNA into the systemic circulation, which would enhance sepsis severity. Inhibition of the responses against bacterial DNA by TLR-9 inhibition could attenuate LPS-DNA synergy in macrophages and might help improve sepsis hyper-inflammation in some situations.

A Squalene-Based Nanoemulsion for Therapeutic Delivery of Resiquimod

Agonists for toll-like receptors (TLRs) have shown promising activities against cancer. In the present study, a squalene-based nanoemulsion (NE) was loaded with resiquimod, a TLR7/8 agonist for therapeutic delivery. R848 NE was developed and characterized for long-term stability. In vitro and in vivo antitumor immunity of R848 NE were also evaluated in combination with SD-101, a CpG-containing TLR9 agonist. In vitro studies demonstrated strong long-term stability and immune responses to R848 NE. When combined with SD-101, strong antitumor activity was observed in MC38 murine colon carcinoma model with over 80% tumor growth inhibition. The combination treatment showed a 4-fold increase in systemic TNFa production and a 2.6-fold increase in Cd8a expression in tumor tissues, suggesting strong cell-mediated immune responses against the tumor. The treatment not only demonstrated a strong antitumor immunity by TLR7/8 and TLR9 activations but also induced PD-L1 upregulation in tumors, suggesting a potential therapeutic synergy with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

The NF-κB Pathway: Modulation by Entamoeba histolytica and Other Protozoan Parasites

Protozoan parasites have led to worldwide devastation because of their ability to cause infectious diseases. They have evolved as successful pathogens in part because of their remarkable and sophisticated ways to evade innate host defenses. This holds true for both intracellular and extracellular parasites that deploy multiple strategies to circumvent innate host defenses for their survival. The different strategies protozoan parasites use include hijacking the host cellular signaling pathways and transcription factors. In particular, the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway seems to be an attractive target for different pathogens owing to their central role in regulating prompt innate immune responses in host defense. NF-κB is a ubiquitous transcription factor that plays an indispensable role not only in regulating immediate immune responses against invading pathogens but is also a critical regulator of cell proliferation and survival. The major immunomodulatory components include parasite surface and secreted proteins/enzymes and stimulation of host cells intracellular pathways and inflammatory caspases that directly or indirectly interfere with the NF-κB pathway to thwart immune responses that are directed for containment and/or elimination of the pathogen. To showcase how protozoan parasites exploits the NF-κB signaling pathway, this review highlights recent advances from Entamoeba histolytica and other protozoan parasites in contact with host cells that induce outside-in and inside-out signaling to modulate NF-κB in disease pathogenesis and survival in the host.

Leishmania amazonensis Promastigotes or Extracellular Vesicles Modulate B-1 Cell Activation and Differentiation

B-1 cells are considered an innate-like B cell population that participates in effective innate and adaptive responses to pathogens. B-1 cells produce immunoglobulins, cytokines, chemokines, migrate to inflammatory sites, and differentiate into mononuclear phagocyte-like cells. Murine B-1 cells phagocytosed Leishmaniain vitro and in vivo and participate in immunity against Leishmania. Our group showed that B-1 cells or their extracellular vesicles (EVs) led to a resistance to experimental infection by L. amazonensis. However, the B-1 cells’ responses to Leishmania or EVs isolated from parasites are still poorly characterized. Studying the activation and differentiation of B-1 cells in vivo can contribute to a better understanding of how these cells participate in immunity to L. amazonensis. Thus, we evaluated the expression of myeloid (M-csfr, G-csfr, Spi-1) and lymphoid (EBF, E2A, IL-7R) lineage commitment factors, Toll-like receptors (TLRs), activation cell surface markers, nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in murine peritoneal B-1 cells collected after 24 or 48 h post-infection with Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis promastigotes or EVs released by the parasites. Our results demonstrated that L. amazonensis infection did not stimulate the expression of CD40, CD80, CD86, F4/80, and MHC II in B-1 cells, but a significant decrease in the production of NO and ROS was observed. The infection induced a significantly higher arginase expression in B-1 cells, but the stimulation with EVs led to a decrease in this gene expression. TLR-2 and TLR-6 had significantly higher expression in B-1 cells from mice intraperitoneally stimulated with the parasite. The TLR-9 expression was higher in animals infected or stimulated for 48 h with EVs. Interestingly, in B-1 cells the stimulus with L. amazonensis led to a substantial increase in the expression of myeloid restricted transcription factors. Thus, our study suggests that the parasites or EVs differently modulated the activation and differentiation of B-1 cells.

Entamoeba histolytica: Host parasite interactions at the colonic epithelium

Entamoeba histolytica (Eh) is the protozoan parasite responsible for intestinal amebiasis and interacts dynamically with the host intestinal epithelium during disease pathogenesis. A multifaceted pathogenesis profile accounts for why 90% of individuals infected with Eh are largely asymptomatic. For 100 millions individuals that are infected each year, key interactions within the intestinal mucosa dictate disease susceptibility. The ability for Eh to induce amebic colitis and disseminate into extraintestinal organs depends on the parasite competing with indigenous bacteria and overcoming the mucus barrier, binding to host cells inducing their cell death, invasion through the mucosa and outsmarting the immune system. In this review we summarize how Eh interacts with the intestinal epithelium and subverts host defense mechanisms in disease pathogenesis.

Enteric Virome Sensing-Its Role in Intestinal Homeostasis and Immunity

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) sensing commensal microorganisms in the intestine induce tightly controlled tonic signaling in the intestinal mucosa, which is required to maintain intestinal barrier integrity and immune homeostasis. At the same time, PRR signaling pathways rapidly trigger the innate immune defense against invasive pathogens in the intestine. Intestinal epithelial cells and mononuclear phagocytes in the intestine and the gut-associated lymphoid tissues are critically involved in sensing components of the microbiome and regulating immune responses in the intestine to sustain immune tolerance against harmless antigens and to prevent inflammation. These processes have been mostly investigated in the context of the bacterial components of the microbiome so far. The impact of viruses residing in the intestine and the virus sensors, which are activated by these enteric viruses, on intestinal homeostasis and inflammation is just beginning to be unraveled. In this review, we will summarize recent findings indicating an important role of the enteric virome for intestinal homeostasis as well as pathology when the immune system fails to control the enteric virome. We will provide an overview of the virus sensors and signaling pathways, operative in the intestine and the mononuclear phagocyte subsets, which can sense viruses and shape the intestinal immune response. We will discuss how these might interact with resident enteric viruses directly or in context with the bacterial microbiome to affect intestinal homeostasis.

Characteristics of inflammatory reactions during development of liver abscess in hamsters inoculated with Entamoeba nuttalli

Background

Entamoeba nuttalli is an intestinal protozoan with pathogenic potential that can cause amebic liver abscess. It is highly prevalent in wild and captive macaques. Recently, cysts were detected in a caretaker of nonhuman primates in a zoo, indicating that E. nuttalli may be a zoonotic pathogen. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the pathogenicity of E. nuttalli in detail and in comparison with that of E. histolytica.

Methodology/Principal findings

Trophozoites of E. nuttalli GY4 and E. histolytica SAW755 strains were inoculated into liver of hamsters. Expression levels of proinflammatory factors of hamsters and virulence factors from E. histolytica and E. nuttalli were compared between the two parasites. Inoculations with trophozoites of E. nuttalli resulted in an average necrotic area of 24% in liver tissue in 7 days, whereas this area produced by E. histolytica was nearly 50%. Along with the mild liver tissue damage induced by E. nuttalli, expression levels of proinflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β) and amebic virulence protein genes (lectins, cysteine proteases and amoeba pores) in local tissues were lower with E. nuttalli in comparison with E. histolytica. In addition, M2 type macrophages were increased in E. nuttalli-induced amebic liver abscesses in the late stage of disease progression and lysate of E. nuttalli trophozoites induced higher arginase expression than E. histolytica in vitro.

Conclusions/Significance

The results show that differential secretion of amebic virulence proteins during E. nuttalli infection triggered lower levels of secretion of various cytokines and had an impact on polarization of macrophages towards a M1/M2 balance. However, regardless of the degree of macrophage polarization, there is unambiguous evidence of an intense acute inflammatory reaction in liver of hamsters after infection by both Entamoeba species.

Entamoeba nuttalli is the phylogenetically closest protozoan to Entamoeba histolytica and is highly prevalent in macaques. Previous studies have indicated that E. nuttalli is virulent in a hamster model. In this study, we compared the immunopathological basis of formation of liver abscess in hamsters between E. nuttalli and E. histolytica. Mild liver tissue damage developed after intrahepatic injection of trophozoites of E. nuttalli, and lower expression levels of genes for host proinflammatory factors and amebic virulence proteins were detected at the edges of liver abscesses induced by E. nuttalli. In addition, alternatively activated macrophages were increased in E. nuttalli-induced liver abscesses in the late stage of disease progression. The lysate of E. nuttalli trophozoites also induced higher arginase expression than E. histolytica in vitro. Polarization of macrophages is likely to affect the degree of acute inflammatory reactions in liver in an animal model during E. nuttalli infection. Our data reveal new characteristics of abscess formation by E. nuttalli.

Entamoeba histolytica-Induced Mucin Exocytosis Is Mediated by VAMP8 and Is Critical in Mucosal Innate Host Defense

Intestinal mucus secretion is critical in maintaining mucosal host defense against a myriad of pathogens by preventing direct association with the epithelium. Entamoeba histolytica specifically binds colonic MUC2 mucin and also induces potent hypersecretion from goblet cells; however, characterization of the nature of the mechanisms controlling mucus release remains elusive. In this report, we identify vesicle SNARE vesicle-associated membrane protein 8 (VAMP8) present on mucin granules as orchestrating regulated exocytosis in human goblet cells in response to the presence of E. histolytica. VAMP8 was specifically activated during E. histolytica infection, and ablation of VAMP8 led to impaired mucin secretion. As a consequence, loss of VAMP8 increased E. histolytica adherence to epithelial cells associated with enhanced cell death through apoptosis characterized by caspase 3 and 9 cleavages and DNA fragmentation. With the mucosal barrier compromised in Vamp8^−/− animals, E. histolytica induced an aggressive proinflammatory response with elevated levels of interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1α), IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) secretion. This report is the first to characterize regulated mucin exocytosis in intestinal goblet cells in response to a pathogen and the downstream consequences of improper mucin secretion in mucosal barrier defense.

The intestinal tract is exposed to countless substances and pathogens, and yet homeostasis is maintained, in part by the mucus layer that houses the microbiota and spatially separates potential threats from the underlying single layer of epithelium. Despite the critical role of mucus in innate host defense, characterization of the mechanisms by which mucus is secreted from specialized goblet cells in the gut remains elusive. Here, we describe the machinery that regulates mucus secretion as well as the consequence during infection with the colonic pathogen Entamoeba histolytica. Abolishment of the key machinery protein VAMP8 abrogated mucus release in cultured human colonic goblet cells and during E. histolytica infection in Vamp8^−/− mice, which showed enhanced amoeba contact and killing of epithelial cells, triggering a potent proinflammatory response. This report highlights the importance of the VAMP8 secretory machinery in facilitating mucus release from intestinal goblet cells and the dire consequences that occur during disease pathogenesis if these pathways are not functional.

Bovine milk RNases modulate pro-inflammatory responses induced by nucleic acids in cultured immune and epithelial cells

Activation of innate immune receptors by exogenous substances is crucial for the detection of microbial pathogens and a subsequent inflammatory response. The inflammatory response to microbial lipopolysaccharide via Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is facilitated by soluble accessory proteins, but the role of such proteins in the activation of other pathogen recognition receptors for microbial nucleic acid is not well understood. Here we demonstrate that RNase4 and RNase5 purified from bovine milk bind to Salmonella typhimurium DNA and stimulate pro-inflammatory responses induced by nucleic acid mimetics and S. typhimurium DNA in an established mouse macrophage cell culture model, RAW264.7, as well as in primary bovine mammary epithelial cells. RNase4 and 5 also modulated pro-inflammatory signalling in response to nucleic acids in bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells, although producing a distinct response. These results support a role for RNase4 and RNase5 in mediating inflammatory signals in both immune and epithelial cells, involving mechanisms that are cell-type specific.

Excretory and Secretory Proteins of Naegleria fowleri Induce Inflammatory Responses in BV-2 Microglial Cells

Naegleria fowleri, a free-living amoeba that is found in diverse environmental habitats, can cause a type of fulminating hemorrhagic meningoencephalitis, primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), in humans. The pathogenesis of PAM is not fully understood, but it is likely to be primarily caused by disruption of the host's nervous system via a direct phagocytic mechanism by the amoeba. Naegleria fowleri trophozoites are known to secrete diverse proteins that may indirectly contribute to the pathogenic function of the amoeba, but this factor is not clearly understood. In this study, we analyzed the inflammatory responses in BV-2 microglial cells induced by excretory and secretory proteins of N. fowleri (NfESP). Treatment of BV-2 cells with NfESP induced the expression of various cytokines and chemokines, including the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1α and TNF-α. NfESP-induced IL-1α and TNF-α expression in BV-2 cells were regulated by p38, JNK, and ERK MAPKs. NfESP-induced IL-1α and TNF-α production in BV-2 cells were effectively downregulated by inhibition of NF-kB and AP-1. These results collectively suggest that NfESP stimulates BV-2 cells to release IL-1α and TNF-α via NF-kB- and AP-1-dependent MAPK signaling pathways. The released cytokines may contribute to inflammatory responses in microglia and other cell types in the brain during N. fowleri infection.

Immune responses against protozoan parasites: a focus on the emerging role of Nod-like receptors

Nod-like receptors (NLRs) have gained attention in recent years because of the ability of some family members to assemble into a multimeric protein complex known as the inflammasome. The role of NLRs and the inflammasome in regulating innate immunity against bacterial pathogens has been well studied. However, recent studies show that NLRs and inflammasomes also play a role during infections caused by protozoan parasites, which pose a significant global health burden. Herein, we review the diseases caused by the most common protozoan parasites in the world and discuss the roles of NLRs and inflammasomes in host immunity against these parasites.

TRAF3: a novel tumor suppressor gene in macrophages

Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 3 (TRAF3), a member of the TRAF family of cytoplasmic adaptor proteins with E3 ligase activity, is ubiquitously expressed in various cell types of the immune system. It is shared for signaling by a variety of adaptive and innate immune receptors as well as cytokine receptors. Previous studies examining conditional TRAF3-deficient mouse models that have the Traf3 gene specifically deleted in B lymphocytes or T lymphocytes have revealed the diverse and critical in vivo functions of TRAF3 in adaptive immunity. Although in vitro evidence points to a pivotal and indispensable role for TRAF3 in type I interferon production induced by pattern recognition receptors in macrophages and dendritic cells, the in vivo functions of TRAF3 in the innate immune system had long remained unclear. Three laboratories have recently addressed this gap in knowledge by investigating myeloid cell-specific TRAF3-deficient (genotype: TRAF3^flox/floxLysM^+/Cre) mice. The new evidence together demonstrates that specific ablation of TRAF3 in myeloid cells leads to inflammatory diseases, altered progression of diabetes, and spontaneous development of different types of tumors and infections in mice. These new findings indicate that TRAF3 acts as an anti-inflammatory factor and is required for optimal innate immunity in myeloid cells. Strikingly, the new evidence also identifies TRAF3 as a novel tumor suppressor gene in macrophages and other myeloid cells. In this review, we discuss and summarize the new findings and current knowledge about the multi-faceted regulatory roles and complex signaling mechanisms of myeloid cell TRAF3 in inflammation, innate immunity, and tumor development.

Berberine Prevents Intestinal Mucosal Barrier Damage During Early Phase of Sepsis in Rat through the Toll-Like Receptors Signaling Pathway

Our previous study has shown berberine prevents damage to the intestinal mucosal barrier during early phase of sepsis in rat through mechanisms independent of the NOD-like receptors signaling pathway. In this study, we explored the regulatory effects of berberine on Toll-like receptors during the intestinal mucosal damaging process in rats. Male Sprague-Dawlay (SD) rats were treated with berberine for 5 d before undergoing cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) to induce polymicrobial sepsis. The expression of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR 2), TLR 4, TLR 9, the activity of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), the levels of selected cytokines and chemokines, percentage of cell death in intestinal epithelial cells, and mucosal permeability were investigated at 0, 2, 6, 12 and 24 h after CLP. Results showed that the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α ) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) level were significantly lower in berberine-treated rats compared to the control animals. Conversely, the expression level of tight junction proteins, percentage of cell death in intestinal epithelial cells and the mucosal permeability were significantly higher in berberine-treated rats. The mRNA expression of TLR 2, TLR 4, and TLR 9 were significantly affected by berberine treatment. Our results indicate that pretreatment with berberine attenuates tissue injury and protects the intestinal mucosal barrier in early phase of sepsis and this may possibly have been mediated through the TLRs pathway.

Myeloid cell TRAF3 regulates immune responses and inhibits inflammation and tumor development in mice

Myeloid cells, including granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, are crucial players in innate immunity and inflammation. These cells constitutively or inducibly express a number of receptors of the TNFR and TLR families, whose signals are transduced by TNFR-associated factor (TRAF) molecules. In vitro studies showed that TRAF3 is required for TLR-induced type I IFN production, but the in vivo function of TRAF3 in myeloid cells remains unknown. In this article, we report the generation and characterization of myeloid cell-specific TRAF3-deficient (M-TRAF3(-/-)) mice, which allowed us to gain insights into the in vivo functions of TRAF3 in myeloid cells. We found that TRAF3 ablation did not affect the maturation or homeostasis of myeloid cells in young adult mice, even though TRAF3-deficient macrophages and neutrophils exhibited constitutive NF-κB2 activation. However, in response to injections with LPS (a bacterial mimic) or polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (a viral mimic), M-TRAF3(-/-) mice exhibited an altered profile of cytokine production. M-TRAF3(-/-) mice immunized with T cell-independent and -dependent Ags displayed elevated T cell-independent IgG3 and T cell-dependent IgG2b responses. Interestingly, 15- to 22-mo-old M-TRAF3(-/-) mice spontaneously developed chronic inflammation or tumors, often affecting multiple organs. Taken together, our findings indicate that TRAF3 expressed in myeloid cells regulates immune responses in myeloid cells and acts to inhibit inflammation and tumor development in mice.

Differential regulation of proinflammatory cytokine expression by mitogen-activated protein kinases in macrophages in response to intestinal parasite infection

Blastocystis is a common enteric protistan parasite that can cause acute, as well as chronic, infection and is associated with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). However, the pathogenic status of Blastocystis infection remains unclear. In this study, we found that Blastocystis antigens induced abundant expression of proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin 1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), in mouse intestinal explants, in mouse colitis colon, and in macrophages. Further investigation utilizing RAW264.7 murine macrophages showed that Blastocystis treatment in RAW264.7 macrophages induced the activation of ERK, JNK, and p38, the three major groups of mammalian mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases that play essential roles in the expression of proinflammatory cytokines. ERK inhibition in macrophages significantly suppressed both mRNA and protein expression of IL-6 and TNF-α and mRNA expression of IL-1β. On the other hand, JNK inhibition resulted in reductions in both c-Jun and ERK activation and significant suppression of all three proinflammatory cytokines at both the mRNA and protein levels. Inhibition of p38 suppressed only IL-6 protein expression with no effect on the expression of IL-1β and TNF-α. Furthermore, we found that serine proteases produced by Blastocystis play an important role in the induction of ERK activation and proinflammatory cytokine expression by macrophages. Our study thus demonstrated for the first time that Blastocystis could induce the expression of various proinflammatory cytokines via the activation of MAP kinases and that infection with Blastocystis may contribute to the pathogenesis of inflammatory intestinal diseases through the activation of inflammatory pathways in host immune cells, such as macrophages.

The future for vaccine development against Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is the causative agent of amebiasis, one of the top three parasitic causes of mortality worldwide. In the majority of infected individuals, E. histolytica asymptomatically colonizes the large intestine, while in others, the parasite breaches the mucosal epithelial barrier to cause amebic colitis and can disseminate to soft organs to cause abscesses. Vaccinations using native and recombinant forms of the parasite Gal-lectin have been successful in protecting animals against intestinal amebiasis and amebic liver abscess. Protection against amebic liver abscesses has also been reported by targeting other E. histolytica components including the serine-rich protein and the 29-kDa-reductase antigen. To date, vaccines against the Gal-lectin hold the most promise but clinical trials will be required to validate its efficacy in humans. Here, we review the current strategies and future perspectives involved in the development of a vaccine against E. histolytica.

Toll-like receptor signaling activation by Entamoeba histolytica induces beta defensin 2 in human colonic epithelial cells: its possible role as an element of the innate immune response

Background

Entamoeba histolytica, a protozoan parasite of humans, produces dysenteric diarrhea, intestinal mucosa damage and extraintestinal infection. It has been proposed that the intestinal microbiota composition could be an important regulatory factor of amebic virulence and tissue invasion, particularly if pathogenic bacteria are present. Recent in vitro studies have shown that Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites induced human colonic CaCo2 cells to synthesize TLR-2 and TLR-4 and proinflammatory cytokines after binding to the amebic Gal/GalNac lectin carbohydrate recognition domain. The magnitude of the inflammatory response induced by trophozoites and the subsequent cell damage were synergized when cells had previously been exposed to pathogenic bacteria.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We show here that E. histolytica activation of the classic TLR pathway in CaCo2 cells is required to induce β defensin-2 (HBD2) mRNA expression and production of a 5-kDa cationic peptide with similar properties to the antimicrobial HBD2 expressed by CaCo2 cells exposed to enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. The induced peptide showed capacity to permeabilize membranes of bacteria and live trophozoites. This activity was abrogated by inhibition of TLR2/4-NFκB pathway or by neutralization with an anti-HBD2 antibody.

Conclusions/Significance

Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites bind to human intestinal cells and induce expression of HBD2; an antimicrobial molecule with capacity to destroy pathogenic bacteria and trophozoites. HDB2's possible role as a modulator of the course of intestinal infections, particularly in mixed ameba/bacteria infections, is discussed.

Entamoeba histolytica ameba/bacteria mixed intestinal infections are common in endemic regions of Amebiasis. Recent investigations support the idea that pathogen interplay in these infections may have a role in invasive disease, activating signals that increase intestinal inflammation. We have studied interactions of amebic trophozoites with human colonic CaCo2 cells, using as positive control pathogenic intestinal bacteria E. coli (ETEC). Both pathogens activated a chain of chemical reactions in the cells that led to production of the antimicrobial peptide β defensin-2 (HBD2), an element of the innate immune response. Pathogen activation of CaCo2 cell response and production of HBD2 were analyzed employing biochemical, cell, molecular biology, and immunology methods. Amebas induced HBD2 via the same classic Toll-receptor signaling pathway activated by ETEC. Amebic-induced HBD2 showed capacity to permeabilize and cause severe damage to bacteria and ameba membranes. Although this study was done in vitro, due to lack of an adequate animal model in which to monitor ameba/bacteria interactions, it provides a new insight into intestinal infections, showing that presence of amebas induces synthesis of elements of an innate immune response that could affect the equilibrium of the intestinal microbiota and modify the course of intestinal infections by other pathogens.

Modeling the interactions of bacteria and Toll-like receptor-mediated inflammation in necrotizing enterocolitis

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a severe disease of the gastrointestinal tract in premature infants, characterized by a disrupted intestinal epithelium and an exaggerated pro-inflammatory response. Since the activation of Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) blocks cell migration and proliferation and contributes to an uncontrolled inflammatory response within the intestine, this receptor has been identified as a key contributor to the development of NEC. Toll-like receptor-9 (TLR9) has been shown to sense bacterial genome components (CpG DNA) and to play an anti-inflammatory role in NEC. We present in vitro results demonstrating direct inhibition of TLR4 activation by CpG DNA, and we develop a mathematical model of bacteria-immune interactions within the intestine to investigate how such inhibition of TLR4 signaling might alter inflammation, associated bacterial invasion of tissue, and resulting outcomes. The model predicts that TLR9 can inhibit both the beneficial and detrimental effects of TLR4, and thus a proper balance of action by these two receptors is needed to promote intestinal health. The model results are also used to explore three interventions that could potentially prevent the development of NEC: reducing bacteria in the mucus layer, administering probiotic treatment, and blocking TLR4 activation. While the model shows that these interventions would be successful in most cases, the model is also used to identify situations in which the proposed treatments might be harmful.

The dynamic interdependence of amebiasis, innate immunity, and undernutrition

Entamoeba histolytica, the protozoan parasite that causes amebic dysentery, greatly contributes to disease burden in the developing world. Efforts to exhaustively characterize the pathogenesis of amebiasis have increased our understanding of the dynamic host-parasite interaction and the process by which E. histolytica trophozoites transition from gut commensals to invaders of the intestinal epithelium. Mouse models of disease continue to be instrumental in this area. At the same time, large-scale studies in human populations have identified genetic and environmental factors that influence susceptibility to amebiasis. Nutritional status has long been known to globally influence immune function. So it is not surprising that undernutrition has emerged as a critical risk factor. A better understanding of how nutritional status affects immunity to E. histolytica will have dramatic implications in the development of novel treatments. Future work should continue to characterize the fascinating host-parasite arms race that occurs at each stage of infection.

The meningococcal adhesin NhhA provokes proinflammatory responses in macrophages via toll-like receptor 4-dependent and -independent pathways

Activation of macrophages by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and functionally related proteins is essential for host defense and innate immunity. TLRs recognize a wide variety of pathogen-associated molecules. Here, we demonstrate that the meningococcal outer membrane protein NhhA has immunostimulatory functions and triggers release of proinflammatory cytokines from macrophages. NhhA-induced cytokine release was found to proceed via two distinct pathways in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) secretion was dependent on activation of TLR4 and required the TLR signaling adaptor protein MyD88. In contrast, release of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) was TLR4 and MyD88 independent. Both pathways involved NF-κB-dependent gene regulation. Using a PCR-based screen, we could identify additional targets of NhhA-dependent gene activation such as the cytokines and growth factors IL-1α, IL-1β, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). In human monocyte-derived macrophages, G-CSF, GM-CSF, and IL-6 were found to be major targets of NhhA-dependent gene regulation. NhhA induced transcription of IL-6 and G-CSF mRNA via TLR4-dependent pathways, whereas GM-CSF transcription was induced via TLR4-independent pathways. These data provide new insights into the role of NhhA in host-pathogen interaction.

Pathogenic bacteria prime the induction of Toll-like receptor signalling in human colonic cells by the Gal/GalNAc lectin Carbohydrate Recognition Domain of Entamoeba histolytica

In mixed intestinal infections with Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites and enteropathogenic bacteria, which are wide-spread in areas of endemic amoebiasis, interaction between the pathogens could be an important factor in the occurrence of invasive disease. It has been reported that exposure of human colonic cells to enteropathogenic bacteria increased trophozoite adherence to the cells and their subsequent damage. We report here that the Carbohydrate Recognition Domain (CRD) of the amoebic Gal/GalNAc lectin binds to Toll-like receptors TLR-2 and TLR-4 in human colonic cells, activating the "classic" signalling pathway of these receptors. Activation induced expression of TLR-2 and TLR-4 mRNAs and the mRNAs of pro-inflammatory cytokines, as well as an increase in the corresponding proteins. Direct correlation was observed between the increased expression of TLRs and pro-inflammatory cytokines, the enhanced adhesion of trophozoites to the cells and the inflicted cell damage. When cells were exposed to pathogenic bacteria Staphylococcus aureus (Gram⁺) or Shigella dysenteriae (Gram⁻), elements of an innate immune response were induced. CRD by itself elicited a similar cell response, while exposure to a commensal Escherichia coli had a null effect. Pre-exposure of the cells to pathogenic bacteria and then to CRD rendered an inflammatory-like microenvironment that after addition of trophozoites facilitated greater cell destruction. Our results suggest that CRD is recognised by human colonic cells as a pathogen-associated-molecular-pattern-like molecule and as such can induce the expression of elements of an innate immune response. In the human host, an exacerbated inflammatory environment, derived from pathogen interplay, may be an important factor for development of invasive disease.

Muc-2-deficient mice display a sex-specific, COX-2-related impairment of gastric mucosal repair

Mucus is known to contribute significantly to the prevention and repair of mucosal damage throughout the gastrointestinal tract. Although not normally expressed in the stomach, mucin-2 (MUC-2, encoded by the MUC2 gene) is expressed in certain disease states. The aim of this study was to determine in a mouse model whether the absence of Muc-2 would result in impaired susceptibility to and healing of gastric mucosal injury. Acute gastric damage was induced in mice deficient in Muc-2 and in wild-type controls, through oral administration of indomethacin. Chronic gastric ulcers were induced by serosal application of acetic acid. The extent of injury and the extent of healing of the damage over time were examined in both models. Indomethacin administration caused similar levels of gastric damage in Muc-2-deficient and wild-type mice, but the erosions healed more slowly in the former. Acetic acid-induced gastric ulcers were initially similar in size in Muc-2-deficient and wild-type mice of both sexes, but ulcer healing was significantly impaired in male Muc-2-deficient mice. Induction of cyclooxygenase-2 in the stomach, in response to indomethacin- or acetic acid-induced ulceration, was significantly reduced in male Muc-2-deficient mice. This phenomenon, and the sex specificity, was also apparent in bone marrow-derived macrophages stimulated with endotoxin. These results demonstrate a marked impairment of gastric mucosal repair in male Muc-2-deficient mice that may be related to an insufficient induction of cyclooxygenase-2, an enzyme known to contribute to mucosal repair.

Expression of cytokines and their regulation during amoebic liver abscess development

Amoebic liver abscess (ALA) is the most important extraintestinal complication of Entamoeba histolytica infection. Amoebic liver abscess development causes severe destruction of the liver tissue concomitant with a strong inflammatory reaction. We analyse the in situ expression of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β, 1L-8 and IL-10 at different stages of ALA development in a susceptible animal model. Results showed that after inoculation, neutrophils (PMN) and some macrophages infiltrated the liver and were positive for TNF-α and IFN-γ at the acute phase of amoeba infection. The presence of these cytokines was transient and decreased as tissue damage progressed. In contrast, IL-1β and IL-8 were detected mainly in neutrophils and macrophages from the periods of acute infection to subacute and chronic infection and decreased when granulomas were formed. The IL-10 was expressed in PMN and mononuclear cells and only during a short period at the onset of acute infection. The qRT-PCR of mRNA revealed a relationship with the expression of the cytokines in cells found in the ALA. Furthermore, our data suggest that IL-10 does not regulate local production of these cytokines. Our results indicate that an exacerbated inflammatory milieu is established and contributes to liver tissue damage and probably supports the survival of the parasites.

Interferon Alpha Characterization and Its Comparative Expression in PBM Cells of Capra hircus and Antelope cervicapra Cultured in the Presence of TLR9 Agonist

TLR9 plays pivotal role in innate immune responses through upregulation of costimulatory molecules and induction of proinflammatory cytokines like type I interferons including interferon alpha (IFNA). The present study characterized IFNA cDNA and predicted protein sequences in goat and black buck. Response of the PBM cells to TLR9 agonist CpG ODN C and Phorbol Myristate Acetate (PMA) was evaluated by realtime PCR. IFNA coding sequences were amplified from leukocyte cDNA and cloned in pGEMT-easy vector for nucleotide sequencing. Sequence analysis revealed 570 bp, IFNA ORF encoding 189 amino acids in goat and black buck. Black buck and goat IFNA has 92.1% to 94.7% and 93% to 95.6% similarity at nucleotide level, 86.3% to 89.5% and 70.9% to 91.6% identity at amino acid level with other ruminants, respectively. Nonsynonymous substitutions exceeding synonymous substitutions indicated IFNA evolved through positive selection among ruminants. In spite of lower total leukocyte count, the innate immune cells like monocytes and neutrophils were more in black buck compared to goat. In addition, CpG ODN C-stimulated PBM cells revealed raised IFNA transcript in black buck than goat. These findings indicate sturdy genetically governed immune system in wild antelope black buck compared to domestic ruminant goat.

The immunopathogenesis of Entamoeba histolytica

Amebiasis is the disease caused by the enteric dwelling protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica. The WHO considers amebiasis as one of the major health problems in developing countries; it is surpassed by only malaria and schistosomiasis for death caused by parasitic infection. E. histolytica primarily lives in the colon as a harmless commensal, but is capable of causing devastating dysentery, colitis and liver abscess. What triggers the switch to a pathogenic phenotype and the onset of disease is unknown. We are becoming increasingly aware of the complexity of the host-parasite interaction. During chronic stages of amebiasis, the host develops an immune response that is incapable of eliminating tissue resident parasites, while the parasite actively immunosuppresses the host. However, most individuals with symptomatic infections succumb only to an episode of dysentery. Why most halt invasion and a minority progress to chronic disease remains poorly understood. This review presents a current understanding of the immune processes that shape the outcome of E. histolytica infections during its different stages.

Modulation of dendritic cell responses by parasites: a common strategy to survive

Parasitic infections are one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality in our planet and the immune responses triggered by these organisms are critical to determine their outcome. Dendritic cells are key elements for the development of immunity against parasites; they control the responses required to eliminate these pathogens while maintaining host homeostasis. However, there is evidence showing that parasites can influence and regulate dendritic cell function in order to promote a more permissive environment for their survival. In this review we will focus on the strategies protozoan and helminth parasites have developed to interfere with dendritic cell activities as well as in the possible mechanisms involved.

The role of lipopeptidophosphoglycan in the immune response to Entamoeba histolytica

The sensing of Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs) by innate immune receptors, such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs), is the first step in the inflammatory response to pathogens. Entamoeba histolytica, the etiological agent of amebiasis, has a surface molecule with the characteristics of a PAMP. This molecule, which was termed lipopeptidophosphoglycan (LPPG), is recognized through TLR2 and TLR4 and leads to the release of cytokines from human monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells; LPPG-activated dendritic cells have increased expression of costimulatory molecules. LPPG activates NKT cells in a CD1d-dependent manner, and this interaction limits amebic liver abscess development. LPPG also induces antibody production, and anti-LPPG antibodies prevent disease development in animal models of amebiasis. Because LPPG is recognized by both the innate and the adaptive immune system (it is a “Pamptigen”), it may be a good candidate to develop a vaccine against E. histolytica infection and an effective adjuvant.

Infectious diarrhea: Cellular and molecular mechanisms

Diarrhea caused by enteric infections is a major factor in morbidity and mortality worldwide. An estimated 2-4 billion episodes of infectious diarrhea occur each year and are especially prevalent in infants. This review highlights the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying diarrhea associated with the three classes of infectious agents, i.e., bacteria, viruses and parasites. Several bacterial pathogens have been chosen as model organisms, including Vibrio cholerae as a classical example of secretory diarrhea, Clostridium difficile and Shigella species as agents of inflammatory diarrhea and selected strains of pathogenic Escherichia coli (E. coli) to discuss the recent advances in alteration of epithelial ion absorption. Many of the recent studies addressing epithelial ion transport and barrier function have been carried out using viruses and parasites. Here, we focus on the rapidly developing field of viral diarrhea including rotavirus, norovirus and astrovirus infections. Finally we discuss Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica as examples of parasitic diarrhea. Parasites have a greater complexity than the other pathogens and are capable of creating molecules similar to those produced by the host, such as serotonin and PGE(2). The underlying mechanisms of infectious diarrhea discussed include alterations in ion transport and tight junctions as well as the virulence factors, which alter these processes either through direct effects or indirectly through inflammation and neurotransmitters.

Recent discoveries in the pathogenesis and immune response toward Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is an enteric dwelling human protozoan parasite that causes the disease amoebiasis, which is endemic in the developing world. Over the past four decades, considerable effort has been made to understand the parasite and the disease. Improved diagnostics can now differentiate pathogenic E. histolytica from that of the related but nonpathogenic Entamoeba dispar, thus minimizing screening errors. Classically, the triad of Gal-lectin, cysteine proteinases and amoebapores of the parasite were thought to be the major proteins involved in the pathogenesis of amoebiasis. However, other amoebic molecules such as lipophosphopeptidoglycan, perioxiredoxin, arginase, and lysine and glutamic acid-rich proteins are also implicated. Recently, the genome of E. histolytica has been sequenced, which has widened our scope to study additional virulence factors. E. histolytica genome-based approaches have now confirmed the presence of Golgi apparatus-like vesicles and the machinery for glycosylation, thus improving the chances of identifying potential drug targets for chemotherapeutic intervention. Apart from Gal-lectin-based vaccines, promising vaccine targets such as serine-rich E. histolytica protein have yielded encouraging results. Considerable efforts have also been made to skew vaccination responses towards appropriate T-helper cell immunity that could augment the efficacy of vaccine candidates under study. Thus, ongoing efforts mining the information made available with the sequencing of the E. histolytica genome will no doubt identify and characterize other important potential vaccine/drug targets and lead to effective immunologic strategies for the control of amoebiasis.

Reciprocal expression and signaling of TLR4 and TLR9 in the pathogenesis and treatment of necrotizing enterocolitis

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a common and often fatal inflammatory disorder affecting preterm infants that develops upon interaction of indigenous bacteria with the premature intestine. We now demonstrate that the developing mouse intestine shows reciprocal patterns of expression of TLR4 and TLR9, the receptor for bacterial DNA (CpG-DNA). Using a novel ultrasound-guided in utero injection system, we administered LPS directly into the stomachs of early and late gestation fetuses to induce TLR4 signaling and demonstrated that TLR4-mediated signaling within the developing intestine follows its expression pattern. Murine and human NEC were associated with increased intestinal TLR4 and decreased TLR9 expression, suggesting that reciprocal TLR4 and TLR9 signaling may occur in the pathogenesis of NEC. Enteral administration of adenovirus expressing mutant TLR4 to neonatal mice reduced the severity of NEC and increased TLR9 expression within the intestine. Activation of TLR9 with CpG-DNA inhibited LPS-mediated TLR4 signaling in enterocytes in a mechanism dependent upon the inhibitory molecule IRAK-M. Strikingly, TLR9 activation with CpG-DNA significantly reduced NEC severity, whereas TLR9-deficient mice exhibited increased NEC severity. Thus, the reciprocal nature of TLR4 and TLR9 signaling within the neonatal intestine plays a role in the development of NEC and provides novel therapeutic approaches to this disease.

Functional aspects of Toll-like receptor/MyD88 signalling during protozoan infection: focus on Toxoplasma gondii

Toll-like receptor (TLR)/MyD88 signalling has emerged as a major pathway of pathogen recognition in the innate immune system. Here, we review recent data that begin to show how this pathway controls the immune response to protozoan infection, with particular emphasis on the opportunistic pathogen Toxoplasma gondii. The various ways that the parasite activates and suppresses TLR/MyD88 signalling defines several key principals that illuminate the complexities of the host-pathogen interaction. We also speculate how TLR/MyD88 signalling might be exploited to provide protection against Toxoplasma, as well as other protozoa and infection in general.

Broad early immune response of porcine epithelial jejunal IPI-2I cells to Entamoeba histolytica

Amoebiasis caused by Entamoebahistolytica triggers an acute inflammatory response at early stages of intestinal infection. The patho-physiological study of intestinal amoebiasis requires the development of powerful animal models. Swine provide robust model for human diseases and they could be used to study intestinal amoebiasis. Here, we introduce an in vitro model of swine intestinal epithelial cell (IPI-2I) co-cultured with E. histolytica. Intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) have crucial roles in sensing pathogens and initiating innate immune response, which qualitatively influence adaptive immune response against them. The contact between the two cells induces marked macroscopic lesions of IEC monolayer and striking alteration of the IPI-2I cell phenotype including blebbing, such as loss of attachment before to be phagocyte by the trophozoite. Increase in Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) levels in the culture supernatant of IECs was observed when ameba is present and could reflect the cellular cytotoxicity exerted by the parasite. Using quantitative real-time PCR, we identified the up-regulation of cytokines/chemokines implicated in neutrophil chemoattraction and inflammation, such as CCL2, CCL20, CXCL2, CXCL3, GM-CSF, IL1 alpha, IL6 and IL8, in response to the parasite that can further regulate the immunoregulatory functions of the immune cells of the host. The study points a cardinal role of these pro-inflammatory compounds as central mediators in the interaction IECs/ameba and suggests mechanisms by which they coordinate intestinal immune response. This will focus future efforts on delineating the molecular and cellular mechanisms of other cell partners by the way of in vivo infection of swine.

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase-dependent inhibition of dendritic cell interleukin-12 production by Giardia lamblia

Dendritic cell interactions with pathogenic microbes initiate and direct the development of subsequent adaptive responses. The protozoan pathogen Giardia lamblia infects the mammalian small intestine, leading to nutrient malabsorption and diarrhea but rarely causing inflammation. In order to begin to understand how the innate immune system responds to this parasite and shapes the eventual adaptive response, we examined the interaction between parasites and murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (DCs). DCs incubated with live parasites or parasite extracts displayed enhanced levels of CD40. The expression of CD80 and CD86 also increased, but less than was seen with lipopolysaccharide-activated DCs. Small amounts of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha were secreted by these DCs, whereas no IL-10 or IL-12 could be detected. Coincubation of DCs with parasite extracts along with known Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands resulted in enhanced secretion of IL-10 and reduced secretion of IL-12. The levels of major histocompatibility complex class II, CD80, and CD86 were also reduced compared to DCs stimulated with TLR ligands alone. Finally, studies with an extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 pathway inhibitor, a phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor, and anti-IL-10 receptor antibody revealed that the PI3K pathway is the dominant mechanism of inhibition in DCs incubated with both lipopolysaccharide and Giardia. These data suggest that this parasite actively interferes with host innate immunity, resulting in an immune response able to control the infection but devoid of strong inflammatory signals.

New insights into Entamoeba histolytica pathogenesis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Entamoeba histolytica is an important global pathogen and a leading cause of parasitic death worldwide. This article summarizes significant research findings over the last year.

RECENT FINDINGS

Efforts have focused primarily on identification of novel virulence determinants in E. histolytica, transcriptional profiling during tissue invasion and stage conversion, and characterization of basic cell biological processes. Additionally, new techniques for gene silencing have been identified.

SUMMARY

A comprehensive examination of the parasite lifestyle on a whole genome level has been undertaken, allowing identification of new virulence genes and signaling pathways and processes relevant to amebic biology.