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Matharoo K, Chua J, Park JR, Ingavale S, Jelacic TM, Jurkouich KM, Compton JR, Meinig JM, Chabot D, Friedlander AM, Legler PM. Engineering an Fc-Fusion of a Capsule Degrading Enzyme for the Treatment of Anthrax. ACS Infect Dis 2022; 8:2133-2148. [PMID: 36102590 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.2c00227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Polymers of d-glutamic acid (PDGA) form the capsule of the highly virulent Ames strain of B. anthracis. PDGA is antiphagocytic and weakly immunogenic; it enables the bacteria to evade the innate immune responses. CapD is an enzyme that catalyzes the covalent anchoring of PDGA. CapD is an Ntn-amido hydrolase that utilizes an internal Thr-352 as its nucleophile and general acid and base. An internal cleavage produces a free N-terminal Thr-352 and a short and long polypeptide chain. The chains were circularly permuted (CP) to move Thr-352 to the N-terminus of the polypeptide. We previously showed that a branched PEG-CapDS334C-CP could protect mice (80% survival) against a 5 LD50 challenge with B. anthracis Ames without the use of antibiotics, monoclonals, or vaccines. In attempts to improve the in vivo circulation time of CapD and enhance its avidity to its polymeric substrate, an Fc-domain of a mouse IgG1 was fused to CapDS334C-CP and the linker length and sequence were optimized. The resulting construct, Fc-CapDS334C-CP, then was pegylated with a linear 2 kDa mPEG at S334C to produce mPEG-Fc-CapDS334C-CP. Interestingly, the fusion of the Fc-domain and incorporation of the S334C mutation imparted acid stability, but slightly reduced the kcat (∼ 2-fold lower). In vivo, the measured protein concentration in sera was higher for the Fc-fusion constructs compared to the mPEG-Fc-CapDS334C-CP. However, the exposure calculated from measured sera enzymatic activity was higher for the mPEG-CapDS334C-CP. The pegylated Fc-fusion was less active than the PEG-CapDS334C-CP, but detectable in sera at 24 h by immunoblot. Here we describe the engineering of a soluble, active, pegylated Fc-fusion of B. anthracis CapD (mPEG-Fc-CapD-CP) with activity in vitro, in serum, and on encapsulated bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khushie Matharoo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, United States
| | - Jennifer Chua
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Junyoung R Park
- West Springfield High School, Springfield, Virginia 22152, United States
| | - Susham Ingavale
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Tanya M Jelacic
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Kayla M Jurkouich
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, United States
| | - Jaimee R Compton
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, U.S. Naval Research Laboratories, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
| | - J Matthew Meinig
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Donald Chabot
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Arthur M Friedlander
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Patricia M Legler
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, U.S. Naval Research Laboratories, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
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O’Brien DK, Ribot WJ, Chabot DJ, Scorpio A, Tobery SA, Jelacic TM, Wu Z, Friedlander AM. The capsule of Bacillus anthracis protects it from the bactericidal activity of human defensins and other cationic antimicrobial peptides. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010851. [PMID: 36174087 PMCID: PMC9560598 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
During infection, Bacillus anthracis bacilli encounter potent antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as defensins. We examined the role that B. anthracis capsule plays in protecting bacilli from defensins and other cationic AMPs by comparing their effects on a fully virulent encapsulated wild type (WT) strain and an isogenic capsule-deficient capA mutant strain. We identified several human defensins and non-human AMPs that were capable of killing B. anthracis. The human alpha defensins 1–6 (HNP-1-4, HD-5-6), the human beta defensins 1–4 (HBD-1-4), and the non-human AMPs, protegrin, gramicidin D, polymyxin B, nisin, and melittin were all capable of killing both encapsulated WT and non-encapsulated capA mutant B. anthracis. However, non-encapsulated capA mutant bacilli were significantly more susceptible than encapsulated WT bacilli to killing by nearly all of the AMPs tested. We demonstrated that purified capsule bound HBD-2, HBD-3, and HNP-1 in an electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Furthermore, we determined that the capsule layer enveloping WT bacilli bound and trapped HBD-3, substantially reducing the amount reaching the cell wall. To assess whether released capsule might also play a protective role, we pre-incubated HBD-2, HBD-3, or HNP-1 with purified capsule before their addition to non-encapsulated capA mutant bacilli. We found that free capsule completely rescued the capA mutant bacilli from killing by HBD-2 and -3 while killing by HNP-1 was reduced to the level observed with WT bacilli. Together, these results suggest an immune evasion mechanism by which the capsule, both that enveloping the bacilli and released fragments, contributes to virulence by binding to and inhibiting the antimicrobial activity of cationic AMPs. Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax after spores infect the skin, respiratory tract, or gastrointestinal tract. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), such as defensins, are a first line of host defense that B. anthracis encounters in all of these tissues. B. anthracis bacteria are covered by a capsule that protects them from being engulfed and destroyed by phagocytic immune cells. In this study, we found that the capsule also provides protection from AMPs. An encapsulated B. anthracis strain is resistant to killing by multiple AMPs from humans and other species compared to an otherwise identical strain that is not encapsulated. By binding defensins the capsule surrounding the bacilli reduces the amount that gets to the bacterial cell wall where it can do damage. B. anthracis bacteria release large fragments of capsule in the host during infection and during growth in culture. We found that purified released capsule can bind defensins and reduce killing of non-encapsulated B. anthracis. Thus, both capsule covering the bacteria and capsule shed by the bacteria can contribute to the pathogenicity of B. anthracis by providing protection from AMPs. Our study reveals a new mechanism by which B. anthracis capsule contributes to virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- David K. O’Brien
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Wilson J. Ribot
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Donald J. Chabot
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Angelo Scorpio
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Steven A. Tobery
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Tanya M. Jelacic
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Zhibin Wu
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Arthur M. Friedlander
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Uniformed University of Health Services, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: ,
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3
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Legler PM, Little SF, Senft J, Schokman R, Carra JH, Compton JR, Chabot D, Tobery S, Fetterer DP, Siegel JB, Baker D, Friedlander AM. Treatment of experimental anthrax with pegylated circularly permuted capsule depolymerase. Sci Transl Med 2021; 13:eabh1682. [PMID: 34878819 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abh1682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia M Legler
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, U.S. Naval Research Laboratories, Washington, DC 20375, USA
| | - Stephen F Little
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Jeffrey Senft
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Rowena Schokman
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - John H Carra
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Jaimee R Compton
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, U.S. Naval Research Laboratories, Washington, DC 20375, USA
| | - Donald Chabot
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Steven Tobery
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - David P Fetterer
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Justin B Siegel
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - David Baker
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Arthur M Friedlander
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.,Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
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Braun P, Nguyen MDT, Walter MC, Grass G. Ultrasensitive Detection of Bacillus anthracis by Real-Time PCR Targeting a Polymorphism in Multi-Copy 16S rRNA Genes and Their Transcripts. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:12224. [PMID: 34830105 PMCID: PMC8618755 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The anthrax pathogen Bacillus anthracis poses a significant threat to human health. Identification of B. anthracis is challenging because of the bacterium's close genetic relationship to other Bacillus cereus group species. Thus, molecular detection is founded on species-specific PCR targeting single-copy genes. Here, we validated a previously recognized multi-copy target, a species-specific single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) present in 2-5 copies in every B. anthracis genome analyzed. For this, a hydrolysis probe-based real-time PCR assay was developed and rigorously tested. The assay was specific as only B. anthracis DNA yielded positive results, was linear over 9 log10 units, and was sensitive with a limit of detection (LoD) of 2.9 copies/reaction. Though not exhibiting a lower LoD than established single-copy PCR targets (dhp61 or PL3), the higher copy number of the B. anthracis-specific 16S rRNA gene alleles afforded ≤2 unit lower threshold (Ct) values. To push the detection limit even further, the assay was adapted for reverse transcription PCR on 16S rRNA transcripts. This RT-PCR assay was also linear over 9 log10 units and was sensitive with an LoD of 6.3 copies/reaction. In a dilution series of experiments, the 16S RT-PCR assay achieved a thousand-fold higher sensitivity than the DNA-targeting assays. For molecular diagnostics, we recommend a real-time RT-PCR assay variant in which both DNA and RNA serve as templates (thus, no requirement for DNase treatment). This can at least provide results equaling the DNA-based implementation if no RNA is present but is superior even at the lowest residual rRNA concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Gregor Grass
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology (IMB), 80937 Munich, Germany; (P.B.); (M.D.-T.N.); (M.C.W.)
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Zorigt T, Furuta Y, Simbotwe M, Ochi A, Tsujinouchi M, Shawa M, Shimizu T, Isoda N, Enkhtuya J, Higashi H. Development of ELISA based on Bacillus anthracis capsule biosynthesis protein CapA for naturally acquired antibodies against anthrax. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0258317. [PMID: 34634075 PMCID: PMC8504768 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0258317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthrax is a zoonotic disease caused by the gram-positive spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Detecting naturally acquired antibodies against anthrax sublethal exposure in animals is essential for anthrax surveillance and effective control measures. Serological assays based on protective antigen (PA) of B. anthracis are mainly used for anthrax surveillance and vaccine evaluation. Although the assay is reliable, it is challenging to distinguish the naturally acquired antibodies from vaccine-induced immunity in animals because PA is cross-reactive to both antibodies. Although additional data on the vaccination history of animals could bypass this problem, such data are not readily accessible in many cases. In this study, we established a new enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) specific to antibodies against capsule biosynthesis protein CapA antigen of B. anthracis, which is non-cross-reactive to vaccine-induced antibodies in horses. Using in silico analyses, we screened coding sequences encoded on pXO2 plasmid, which is absent in the veterinary vaccine strain Sterne 34F2 but present in virulent strains of B. anthracis. Among the 8 selected antigen candidates, capsule biosynthesis protein CapA (GBAA_RS28240) and peptide ABC transporter substrate-binding protein (GBAA_RS28340) were detected by antibodies in infected horse sera. Of these, CapA has not yet been identified as immunoreactive in other studies to the best of our knowledge. Considering the protein solubility and specificity of B. anthracis, we prepared the C-terminus region of CapA, named CapA322, and developed CapA322-ELISA based on a horse model. Comparative analysis of the CapA322-ELISA and PAD1-ELISA (ELISA uses domain one of the PA) showed that CapA322-ELISA could detect anti-CapA antibodies in sera from infected horses but was non-reactive to sera from vaccinated horses. The CapA322-ELISA could contribute to the anthrax surveillance in endemic areas, and two immunoreactive proteins identified in this study could be additives to the improvement of current or future vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuvshinzaya Zorigt
- Division of Infection and Immunity, International Institute for Zoonosis Control (Former Research Center for Zoonosis Control), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Furuta
- Division of Infection and Immunity, International Institute for Zoonosis Control (Former Research Center for Zoonosis Control), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Manyando Simbotwe
- Division of Infection and Immunity, International Institute for Zoonosis Control (Former Research Center for Zoonosis Control), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Akihiro Ochi
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Mai Tsujinouchi
- Division of Infection and Immunity, International Institute for Zoonosis Control (Former Research Center for Zoonosis Control), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Misheck Shawa
- Division of Infection and Immunity, International Institute for Zoonosis Control (Former Research Center for Zoonosis Control), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Tomoko Shimizu
- Division of Infection and Immunity, International Institute for Zoonosis Control (Former Research Center for Zoonosis Control), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Norikazu Isoda
- Laboratory of Microbiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | | | - Hideaki Higashi
- Division of Infection and Immunity, International Institute for Zoonosis Control (Former Research Center for Zoonosis Control), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- * E-mail:
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Zaide G, Elia U, Cohen-Gihon I, Israeli M, Rotem S, Israeli O, Ehrlich S, Cohen H, Lazar S, Beth-Din A, Shafferman A, Zvi A, Cohen O, Chitlaru T. Comparative Analysis of the Global Transcriptomic Response to Oxidative Stress of Bacillus anthracis htrA-Disrupted and Parental Wild Type Strains. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8121896. [PMID: 33265965 PMCID: PMC7760947 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8121896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that the HtrA (High Temperature Requirement A) protease/chaperone active in the quality control of protein synthesis, represents an important virulence determinant of Bacillus anthracis. Virulence attenuation of htrA-disrupted Bacillus anthracis strains was attributed to susceptibility of ΔhtrA strains to stress insults, as evidenced by affected growth under various stress conditions. Here, we report a comparative RNA-seq transcriptomic study generating a database of differentially expressed genes in the B. anthracishtrA-disrupted and wild type parental strains under oxidative stress. The study demonstrates that, apart from protease and chaperone activities, HtrA exerts a regulatory role influencing expression of more than 1000 genes under stress. Functional analysis of groups or individual genes exhibiting strain-specific modulation, evidenced (i) massive downregulation in the ΔhtrA and upregulation in the WT strains of various transcriptional regulators, (ii) downregulation of translation processes in the WT strain, and (iii) downregulation of metal ion binding functions and upregulation of sporulation-associated functions in the ΔhtrA strain. These modulated functions are extensively discussed. Fifteen genes uniquely upregulated in the wild type strain were further interrogated for their modulation in response to other stress regimens. Overexpression of one of these genes, encoding for MazG (a nucleoside triphosphate pyrophosphohydrolase involved in various stress responses in other bacteria), in the ΔhtrA strain resulted in partial alleviation of the H2O2-sensitive phenotype.
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Manish M, Verma S, Kandari D, Kulshreshtha P, Singh S, Bhatnagar R. Anthrax prevention through vaccine and post-exposure therapy. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2020; 20:1405-1425. [DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2020.1801626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Manish Manish
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Shashikala Verma
- Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Divya Kandari
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Parul Kulshreshtha
- Department of Zoology, Shivaji College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Samer Singh
- Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
- Department of Microbial Biotechnology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
| | - Rakesh Bhatnagar
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
- Centre of Experimental Medicine & Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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8
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Jelacic TM, Ribot WJ, Chua J, Boyer AE, Woolfitt AR, Barr JR, Friedlander AM. Human Innate Immune Cells Respond Differentially to Poly-γ-Glutamic Acid Polymers from Bacillus anthracis and Nonpathogenic Bacillus Species. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2020; 204:1263-1273. [PMID: 31932496 PMCID: PMC7970647 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1901066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The poly-γ-glutamic acid (PGA) capsule produced by Bacillus anthracis is composed entirely of d-isomer glutamic acid, whereas nonpathogenic Bacillus species produce mixed d-, l-isomer PGAs. To determine if B. anthracis PGA confers a pathogenic advantage over other PGAs, we compared the responses of human innate immune cells to B. anthracis PGA and PGAs from nonpathogenic B. subtilis subsp. chungkookjang and B. licheniformis Monocytes and immature dendritic cells (iDCs) responded differentially to the PGAs, with B. anthracis PGA being least stimulatory and B. licheniformis PGA most stimulatory. All three elicited IL-8 and IL-6 from monocytes, but B. subtilis PGA also elicited IL-10 and TNF-α, whereas B. licheniformis PGA elicited all those plus IL-1β. Similarly, all three PGAs elicited IL-8 from iDCs, but B. subtilis PGA also elicited IL-6, and B. licheniformis PGA elicited those plus IL-12p70, IL-10, IL-1β, and TNF-α. Only B. licheniformis PGA induced dendritic cell maturation. TLR assays also yielded differential results. B. subtilis PGA and B. licheniformis PGA both elicited more TLR2 signal than B. anthracis PGA, but only responses to B. subtilis PGA were affected by a TLR6 neutralizing Ab. B. licheniformis PGA elicited more TLR4 signal than B. anthracis PGA, whereas B. subtilis PGA elicited none. B. anthracis PGA persisted longer in high m.w. form in monocyte and iDC cultures than the other PGAs. Reducing the m.w. of B. anthracis PGA reduced monocytes' cytokine responses. We conclude that B. anthracis PGA is recognized less effectively by innate immune cells than PGAs from nonpathogenic Bacillus species, resulting in failure to induce a robust host response, which may contribute to anthrax pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanya M Jelacic
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702;
| | - Wilson J Ribot
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702
| | - Jennifer Chua
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702
| | - Anne E Boyer
- National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341; and
| | - Adrian R Woolfitt
- National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341; and
| | - John R Barr
- National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341; and
| | - Arthur M Friedlander
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702;
- Department of Medicine, Uniformed University of Health Services, Bethesda, MD 20814
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9
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Ehling-Schulz M, Lereclus D, Koehler TM. The Bacillus cereus Group: Bacillus Species with Pathogenic Potential. Microbiol Spectr 2019; 7:10.1128/microbiolspec.gpp3-0032-2018. [PMID: 31111815 PMCID: PMC6530592 DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.gpp3-0032-2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The Bacillus cereus group includes several Bacillus species with closely related phylogeny. The most well-studied members of the group, B. anthracis, B. cereus, and B. thuringiensis, are known for their pathogenic potential. Here, we present the historical rationale for speciation and discuss shared and unique features of these bacteria. Aspects of cell morphology and physiology, and genome sequence similarity and gene synteny support close evolutionary relationships for these three species. For many strains, distinct differences in virulence factor synthesis provide facile means for species assignment. B. anthracis is the causative agent of anthrax. Some B. cereus strains are commonly recognized as food poisoning agents, but strains can also cause localized wound and eye infections as well as systemic disease. Certain B. thuringiensis strains are entomopathogens and have been commercialized for use as biopesticides, while some strains have been reported to cause infection in immunocompromised individuals. In this article we compare and contrast B. anthracis, B. cereus, and B. thuringiensis, including ecology, cell structure and development, virulence attributes, gene regulation and genetic exchange systems, and experimental models of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Ehling-Schulz
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Didier Lereclus
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Theresa M Koehler
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center - Houston, Houston, TX 77030
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10
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Porter NT, Canales P, Peterson DA, Martens EC. A Subset of Polysaccharide Capsules in the Human Symbiont Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron Promote Increased Competitive Fitness in the Mouse Gut. Cell Host Microbe 2017; 22:494-506.e8. [PMID: 28966055 PMCID: PMC5830307 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2017.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2017] [Revised: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Capsular polysaccharides (CPSs) play multiple roles in protecting bacteria from host and environmental factors, and many commensal bacteria can produce multiple capsule types. To better understand the roles of different CPSs in competitive intestinal colonization, we individually expressed the eight different capsules of the human gut symbiont Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron. Certain CPSs were most advantageous in vivo, and increased anti-CPS immunoglobulin A correlated with increased fitness of a strain expressing one particular capsule, CPS5, suggesting that it promotes avoidance of adaptive immunity. A strain with the ability to switch between multiple capsules was more competitive than those expressing any single capsule except CPS5. After antibiotic perturbation, only the wild-type, capsule-switching strain remained in the gut, shifting to prominent expression of CPS5 only in mice with intact adaptive immunity. These data suggest that different capsules equip mutualistic gut bacteria with the ability to thrive in various niches, including those influenced by immune responses and antibiotic perturbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan T Porter
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Pablo Canales
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Daniel A Peterson
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Eric C Martens
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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Abstract
To survive adverse conditions, some bacterial species are capable of developing into a cell type, the "spore," which exhibits minimal metabolic activity and remains viable in the presence of multiple environmental challenges. For some pathogenic bacteria, this developmental state serves as a means of survival during transmission from one host to another. Spores are the highly infectious form of these bacteria. Upon entrance into a host, specific signals facilitate germination into metabolically active replicating organisms, resulting in disease pathogenesis. In this article, we will review spore structure and function in well-studied pathogens of two genera, Bacillus and Clostridium, focusing on Bacillus anthracis and Clostridium difficile, and explore current data regarding the lifestyles of these bacteria outside the host and transmission from one host to another.
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12
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Goossens PL, Tournier JN. Crossing of the epithelial barriers by Bacillus anthracis: the Known and the Unknown. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:1122. [PMID: 26500645 PMCID: PMC4598578 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthrax, caused by Bacillus anthracis, a Gram-positive spore-forming bacterium, is initiated by the entry of spores into the host body. There are three types of human infection: cutaneous, inhalational, and gastrointestinal. For each form, B. anthracis spores need to cross the cutaneous, respiratory or digestive epithelial barriers, respectively, as a first obligate step to establish infection. Anthrax is a toxi-infection: an association of toxemia and rapidly spreading infection progressing to septicemia. The pathogenicity of Bacillus anthracis mainly depends on two toxins and a capsule. The capsule protects bacilli from the immune system, thus promoting systemic dissemination. The toxins alter host cell signaling, thereby paralyzing the immune response of the host and perturbing the endocrine and endothelial systems. In this review, we will mainly focus on the events and mechanisms leading to crossing of the respiratory epithelial barrier, as the majority of studies have addressed inhalational infection. We will discuss the critical gaps of knowledge that need to be addressed to gain a comprehensive view of the initial steps of inhalational anthrax. We will then discuss the few data available on B. anthracis crossing the cutaneous and digestive epithelia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre L Goossens
- Pathogénie des Toxi-Infections Bactériennes, Institut Pasteur , Paris, France
| | - Jean-Nicolas Tournier
- Pathogénie des Toxi-Infections Bactériennes, Institut Pasteur , Paris, France ; Unité Interactions Hôte-Agents Pathogènes, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées , Brétigny-sur-Orge, France ; Ecole du Val-de-Grâce , Paris, France
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Kempsell KE, Kidd SP, Lewandowski K, Elmore MJ, Charlton S, Yeates A, Cuthbertson H, Hallis B, Altmann DM, Rogers M, Wattiau P, Ingram RJ, Brooks T, Vipond R. Whole genome protein microarrays for serum profiling of immunodominant antigens of Bacillus anthracis. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:747. [PMID: 26322022 PMCID: PMC4534840 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
A commercial Bacillus anthracis (Anthrax) whole genome protein microarray has been used to identify immunogenic Anthrax proteins (IAP) using sera from groups of donors with (a) confirmed B. anthracis naturally acquired cutaneous infection, (b) confirmed B. anthracis intravenous drug use-acquired infection, (c) occupational exposure in a wool-sorters factory, (d) humans and rabbits vaccinated with the UK Anthrax protein vaccine and compared to naïve unexposed controls. Anti-IAP responses were observed for both IgG and IgA in the challenged groups; however the anti-IAP IgG response was more evident in the vaccinated group and the anti-IAP IgA response more evident in the B. anthracis-infected groups. Infected individuals appeared somewhat suppressed for their general IgG response, compared with other challenged groups. Immunogenic protein antigens were identified in all groups, some of which were shared between groups whilst others were specific for individual groups. The toxin proteins were immunodominant in all vaccinated, infected or other challenged groups. However, a number of other chromosomally-located and plasmid encoded open reading frame proteins were also recognized by infected or exposed groups in comparison to controls. Some of these antigens e.g., BA4182 are not recognized by vaccinated individuals, suggesting that there are proteins more specifically expressed by live Anthrax spores in vivo that are not currently found in the UK licensed Anthrax Vaccine (AVP). These may perhaps be preferentially expressed during infection and represent expression of alternative pathways in the B. anthracis “infectome.” These may make highly attractive candidates for diagnostic and vaccine biomarker development as they may be more specifically associated with the infectious phase of the pathogen. A number of B. anthracis small hypothetical protein targets have been synthesized, tested in mouse immunogenicity studies and validated in parallel using human sera from the same study.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Sue Charlton
- Public Health England Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
| | | | | | | | - Daniel M Altmann
- Department of Medicine, University College London, Hammersmith Hospital London, UK
| | - Mitch Rogers
- Public Health England Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
| | - Pierre Wattiau
- Department of Bacterial Diseases, CODA-CERVA (Veterinary and Agrochemical Research Centre) Brussels, Belgium
| | - Rebecca J Ingram
- Centre for Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast Belfast, UK
| | - Tim Brooks
- Public Health England Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
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14
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Abstract
Anthrax is caused by the spore-forming, gram-positive bacterium Bacillus anthracis. The bacterium's major virulence factors are (a) the anthrax toxins and (b) an antiphagocytic polyglutamic capsule. These are encoded by two large plasmids, the former by pXO1 and the latter by pXO2. The expression of both is controlled by the bicarbonate-responsive transcriptional regulator, AtxA. The anthrax toxins are three polypeptides-protective antigen (PA), lethal factor (LF), and edema factor (EF)-that come together in binary combinations to form lethal toxin and edema toxin. PA binds to cellular receptors to translocate LF (a protease) and EF (an adenylate cyclase) into cells. The toxins alter cell signaling pathways in the host to interfere with innate immune responses in early stages of infection and to induce vascular collapse at late stages. This review focuses on the role of anthrax toxins in pathogenesis. Other virulence determinants, as well as vaccines and therapeutics, are briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahtab Moayeri
- Microbial Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; , , , ,
| | - Stephen H Leppla
- Microbial Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; , , , ,
| | - Catherine Vrentas
- Microbial Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; , , , ,
| | - Andrei P Pomerantsev
- Microbial Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; , , , ,
| | - Shihui Liu
- Microbial Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; , , , ,
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