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Cavaillon JM. Historical links between toxinology and immunology. Pathog Dis 2018; 76:4923027. [PMID: 29718183 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/fty019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Research on bacterial toxins is closely linked to the birth of immunology. Our understanding of the interaction of bacterial protein toxins with immune cells has helped to decipher immunopathology, develop preventive and curative treatments for infections, and propose anti-cancer immunotherapies. The link started when Behring and Kitasato demonstrated that serotherapy was effective against 'the strangling angel', namely diphtheria, and its dreadful toxin discovered by Roux and Yersin. The antitoxin treatment helped to save thousands of children. Glenny demonstrated the efficacy of the secondary immune response compared to the primary one. Ramon described anatoxins that allowed the elaboration of effective vaccines and discovered the use of adjuvant to boost the antibody response. Similar approaches were later made for the tetanus toxin. Studying antitoxin antibodies Ehrlich demonstrated, for the first time, the transfer of immunity from mother to newborns. In 1989 Marrack and Kappler coined the concept of 'superantigens' to characterize protein toxins that induce T-lymphocyte proliferation, and cytokine release by both T-lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells. More recently, immunotoxins have been designed to kill cancer cells targeted by either specific antibodies or cytokines. Finally, the action of IgE antibodies against toxins may explain their persistence through evolution despite their side effect in allergy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Cavaillon
- Unit Cytokines and Inflammation, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue Dr. Roux, 75015 Paris, France
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Cavaillon JM. Exotoxins and endotoxins: Inducers of inflammatory cytokines. Toxicon 2017; 149:45-53. [PMID: 29056305 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Revised: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Endotoxins and exotoxins are among the most potent bacterial inducers of cytokines. During infectious processes, the production of inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), gamma interferon (IFNγ) and chemokines orchestrates the anti-infectious innate immune response. However, an overzealous production, leading up to a cytokine storm, can be deleterious and contributes to mortality consecutive to sepsis or toxic shock syndrome. Endotoxins of Gram-negative bacteria (lipopolysaccharide, LPS) are particularly inflammatory because they generate auto-amplificatory loops after activation of monocytes/macrophages. LPS and numerous pore-forming exotoxins also activate the inflammasome, the molecular platform that allows the release of mature IL-1β and IL-18. Among exotoxins, some behave as superantigens, and as such activate the release of cytokines by T-lymphocytes. In most cases, pre-exposure to exotoxins enhances the cytokine production induced by LPS and its lethality, whereas pre-exposure to endotoxin usually results in tolerance. In this review we recall the various steps, which, from the very early discovery of pyrogenicity induced by bacterial products, ended to the discovery of the endogenous pyrogen. Furthermore, we compare the specific characteristics of endotoxins and exotoxins in their capacity to induce inflammatory cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Cavaillon
- Unit Cytokines & Inflammation, Institut Pasteur, 28 Rue Dr. Roux, 75015, Paris, France.
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Barnett TC, Cole JN, Rivera-Hernandez T, Henningham A, Paton JC, Nizet V, Walker MJ. Streptococcal toxins: role in pathogenesis and disease. Cell Microbiol 2015; 17:1721-41. [PMID: 26433203 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Revised: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Group A Streptococcus (Streptococcus pyogenes), group B Streptococcus (Streptococcus agalactiae) and Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) are host-adapted bacterial pathogens among the leading infectious causes of human morbidity and mortality. These microbes and related members of the genus Streptococcus produce an array of toxins that act against human cells or tissues, resulting in impaired immune responses and subversion of host physiological processes to benefit the invading microorganism. This toxin repertoire includes haemolysins, proteases, superantigens and other agents that ultimately enhance colonization and survival within the host and promote dissemination of the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy C Barnett
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre and School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jason N Cole
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre and School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Tania Rivera-Hernandez
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre and School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Anna Henningham
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre and School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - James C Paton
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Victor Nizet
- Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Mark J Walker
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre and School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
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Selective excretion of anti-inflammatory cytokine Interleukin-10 in a superantigen-inducing neonatal infectious disease. Cytokine 2009; 45:39-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2008.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2008] [Revised: 10/18/2008] [Accepted: 10/23/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Norgren M, Eriksson A. Streptococcal Superantigens and Their Role in the Pathogenesis of Severe Infections. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.3109/15569549709064091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Proft T, Schrage B, Fraser JD. The Cytokine Response to Streptococcal Superantigens Varies Between Individual Toxins and Between Individuals: Implications for the Pathogenesis of Group A Streptococcal Diseases. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2007; 27:553-7. [PMID: 17651016 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2006.0173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The complete set of currently known streptococcal superantigens (SAgs) was tested for efficacy to induce in vitro cytokine responses from 5 different blood donors using the Luminex 100 system. Cytokine responses varied significantly between individual SAgs and between donors with a mixed Th1/Th2 response in 3 donors and a predominantly Th1 or Th2 response in the other 2 donors. Our results suggest that streptococcal SAgs might be involved not only in acute streptococcal diseases but also in chronic inflammation and autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Proft
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Lemaire LCJM, van Lanschot JJB, Stoutenbeek CP, van Deventer SJH, Wells CL, Gouma DJ. Bacterial translocation in multiple organ failure: Cause or epiphenomenon still unproven. Br J Surg 2005. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2168.1997.00520.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Sigmundsdóttir H, Johnston A, Gudjónsson JE, Valdimarsson H. Differential effects of interleukin 12 and interleukin 10 on superantigen-induced expression of cutaneous lymphocyte-associated antigen (CLA) and αEβ7 integrin (CD103) by CD8+ T cells. Clin Immunol 2004; 111:119-25. [PMID: 15093560 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2004.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2003] [Accepted: 01/14/2004] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
At both cutaneous and mucosal sites, interleukin (IL)-10, IL-12 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta are important regulators of chronic inflammatory disease, where cutaneous lymphocyte-associated antigen (CLA) and alphaE integrin (CD103) may be expressed. Stimulation with streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin C (SpeC) increased the expression of CD103 by CD8+ but not CD4+ T cells. While adding IL-12 augmented the expression of CLA, superantigen-induced expression of CD103 was markedly suppressed by IL-12, which could be reversed by TGF-beta. Antibodies against TGF-beta inhibited, and a combination of anti-TGF-beta and IL-12 completely abrogated the induced CD103 expression. IL-10 strongly decreased the frequency of CLA+ and although not increasing the frequency of CD103+CD8+ T cells, the amount of CD103 expressed per cell was markedly increased. Thus, the expression of CLA and CD103 may be antagonistically regulated by IL-10 and IL-12 and the balance between these cytokines could influence the T cell migration of inflammatory cells into epithelial tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hekla Sigmundsdóttir
- Department of Immunology, Landspitali University Hospital, 101 Reykjavik, Iceland
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Alouf JE, Müller-Alouf H. Staphylococcal and streptococcal superantigens: molecular, biological and clinical aspects. Int J Med Microbiol 2003; 292:429-40. [PMID: 12635926 DOI: 10.1078/1438-4221-00232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Superantigens (SAgs) include a class of certain bacterial and viral proteins exhibiting highly potent lymphocyte-transforming (mitogenic) activity towards human and or other mammalian T lymphocytes. Unlike conventional antigens, SAgs bind to certain regions of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) outside the classical antigen-binding groove and concomitantly bind in their native form to T cells at specific motifs of the variable region of the beta chain (Vbeta) of the T cell receptor (TcR). This interaction triggers the activation (proliferation) of the targeted T lymphocytes and leads to the in vivo or in vitro release of high amounts of various cytokines and other effectors by immune cells. Each SAg interacts specifically with a characteristic set of Vbeta motifs. The review summarizes our current knowledge on S. aureus and S. pyogenes superantigen proteins. The repertoire of the staphylococcal and streptococcal SAgs comprises 24 and 8 proteins, respectively. The staphylococcal SAgs include (i) the classical enterotoxins A, B, C (and antigenic variants), D, E, and the recently discovered enterotoxins G to Q, (ii) toxic shock syndrome toxin-1, (iii) exfoliatins A and B. The streptococcal SAgs include the classical pyrogenic exotoxins A and C and the newly identified pyrogenic toxins, G, H, I, J, SMEZ, and SSA. The structural and genomic aspects of these toxins and their molecular relatedness are described as well as the available 3-D crystal structure of some of them and that of certain of their complexes with MHC class II molecules and the TcR, respectively. The pathophysiological properties and clinical disorders related to these SAgs are reviewed.
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Abstract
Superantigens (SAgs) are viral and bacterial proteins exhibiting a highly potent polyclonal lymphocyte-proliferating activity for CD4(+), CD8(+) and sometimes gammadelta(+) T cells of human and (or) various animal species. Unlike conventional antigens, SAgs bind as unprocessed proteins to invariant regions of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and to particular motifs of the variable region of the beta chain (Vbeta) of T-cell receptor (TcR) outside the antigen-binding groove. As a consequence, SAgs stimulate at nano-to picogram concentrations up to 10 to 30% of host T-cell repertoire while only one in 10(5)-10(6) T cells (0.01-0.0001%) are activated upon conventional antigenic peptide binding to TcR. SAg activation of an unusually high percentage of T lymphocytes initiates massive release of pro-inflammatory and other cytokines which play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of the diseases provoked by SAg-producing microorganisms. We briefly describe in this review the molecular and biological properties of the bacterial superantigen toxins and mitogens identified in the past decade.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Müller-Alouf
- Département de Microbiologie des Ecosystèmes, Institut Pasteur de Lille, Lille, France
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Abstract
Many newly described or "re-emerging" infectious diseases may present to the dermatologist, often with potentially life-threatening implications. Prompt recognition and early intervention can greatly diminish the morbidity and mortality associated with these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Manders
- Division of Dermatology, University of Medicine and Dentistry, New Jersey-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School at Camden, Camden, New Jersey, USA.
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Plitnick LM, Jordan RA, Banas JA, Jelley-Gibbs DM, Walsh MC, Preissler MT, Gosselin EJ. Lipoteichoic acid inhibits interleukin-2 (IL-2) function by direct binding to IL-2. CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY IMMUNOLOGY 2001; 8:972-9. [PMID: 11527813 PMCID: PMC96181 DOI: 10.1128/cdli.8.5.972-979.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is associated with the cell envelope of most gram-positive bacteria. Although previously thought to act mainly as a virulence factor by virtue of its adhesive nature, evidence is now provided that LTA can also suppress the function of interleukin-2 (IL-2), an autocrine growth factor for T cells. LTA from four separate bacterial strains lowered the levels of detectable IL-2 during a peripheral blood mononuclear cell response to the antigen tetanus toxoid (TT). T-cell proliferation in response to TT was similarly inhibited by LTA. In contrast, levels of detectable gamma interferon increased. In addition, LTA inhibited IL-2 detection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and blocked the proliferative response of an IL-2-dependent T-cell line to soluble IL-2. Further studies using ELISA demonstrated that LTA blocks IL-2 detection and function by binding directly to IL-2. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that IL-2 binding to T cells is inhibited in the presence of purified LTA but not LTA plus anti-LTA monoclonal antibody. In summary, these studies demonstrate a novel effect of LTA on the immune response through direct binding to IL-2 and inhibition of IL-2 function. Importantly, gram-positive organisms from which LTA is obtained not only play an important role in the pathology of diseases such as bacterial endocarditis, septic shock, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and multiple organ failure but also comprise a significant portion of commensal populations within the human host. Inhibition of IL-2 function by LTA may represent yet another mechanism by which gram-positive bacteria dampen the host immune response and facilitate survival. Thus, LTA provides a potential target for therapeutic intervention when gram-positive organisms are involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Plitnick
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ERC, MD-92, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, USA
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Müller-Alouf H, Proft T, Zollner TM, Gerlach D, Champagne E, Desreumaux P, Fitting C, Geoffroy-Fauvet C, Alouf JE, Cavaillon JM. Pyrogenicity and cytokine-inducing properties of Streptococcus pyogenes superantigens: comparative study of streptococcal mitogenic exotoxin Z and pyrogenic exotoxin A. Infect Immun 2001; 69:4141-5. [PMID: 11349089 PMCID: PMC98482 DOI: 10.1128/iai.69.6.4141-4145.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2000] [Accepted: 03/05/2001] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcal mitogenic exotoxin Z (SMEZ), a superantigen derived from Streptococcus pyogenes, provoked expansion of human lymphocytes expressing the Vbeta 2, 4, 7 and 8 motifs of T-cell receptor. SMEZ was pyrogenic in rabbits and stimulated the expression of the T-cell activation markers CD69 and cutaneous lymphocyte-associated antigen. A variety of cytokines was released by human mononuclear leukocytes stimulated with SMEZ, which was 10-fold more active than streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A. Th2-derived cytokines were elicited only by superantigens and not by streptococcal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Müller-Alouf
- Département de Microbiologie des Ecosystèmes, Institut Pasteur de Lille, France
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Bannan J, Visvanathan K, Zabriskie JB. Structure and function of streptococcal and staphylococcal superantigens in septic shock. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1999; 13:387-96, ix. [PMID: 10340173 DOI: 10.1016/s0891-5520(05)70081-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The pyrogenic exotoxins of Group A Streptococci and enterotoxins of Staphylococcus aureus constitute a family of related toxins that acts as "superantigens" because of their ability to stimulate large numbers of T-cell subsets. These toxins have been implicated in gastrointestinal food poisoning, toxic shock syndromes, Gram-positive sepsis, and, possibly, septic shock. There is increasing evidence that Gram-positive infections frequently coexist in septic shock and that bacterial superantigens play a major role.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Bannan
- Department of Pathology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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Plitnick LM, Banas JA, Jelley-Gibbs DM, O'neil J, Christian T, Mudzinski SP, Gosselin EJ. Inhibition of interleukin-2 by a Gram-positive bacterium, Streptococcus mutans. Immunology 1998; 95:522-8. [PMID: 9893040 PMCID: PMC1364347 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.1998.00631.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Generation of an effective cellular immune response is key to the successful development of both humoral and cellular immune defences against most pathogens. However, while the type of cellular immune response elicited by any given pathogen is dictated by the entire array of antigens and molecules which comprise that pathogen, most studies of human immune responses to bacterial pathogens tend to focus on selected antigens. This is a result, in part, of a desire to find those antigens that will generate a desired immune response, as well as limited technology for monitoring the complex array of responses generated by an intact organism. Utilizing Streptococcus mutans as a model Gram-positive organism, a novel flow cytometric assay that permits the identification of individual cells within a responding population, and highly sensitive cytokine assays, we show for the first time that CD8 T cells and natural killer (NK) cells comprise a significant component of the response to this organism in humans. This is despite the fact that CD8 T cells are traditionally thought to respond to endogenously derived antigens only. In addition, we provide the first evidence that a Gram-positive organism can actively inhibit interleukin-2 (IL-2), an important autocrine growth factor for T cells. The latter observation could represent an additional mechanism by which Gram-positive organisms evade host defences.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Plitnick
- Department of Microbiology, Cellular Immunology Laboratory, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208, USA
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Abstract
After several decades of seemingly decreasing virulence, streptococcal and staphylococcal infections have reemerged as a major source of morbidity and mortality. Within the past 2 decades, not only have well-established diseases such as rheumatic fever begun to reappear. but also many new entities, such as toxic shock syndrome, streptococcal toxic shock syndrome, recurrent toxin-mediated perineal erythema, and recalcitrant erythematous desquamating disorder have been described. Central to the renewed importance of these bacteria has been the production of circulating toxins, which often function as superantigens in causing the clinical manifestations, morbidity and mortality associated with these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Manders
- Department of Medicine, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey--Robert Wood Johnson Medical School at Camden, USA
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Müller-Alouf H, Gerlach D, Desreumaux P, Leportier C, Alouf JE, Capron M. Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A (SPE A) superantigen induced production of hematopoietic cytokines, IL-12 and IL-13 by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Microb Pathog 1997; 23:265-72. [PMID: 9405204 DOI: 10.1006/mpat.1997.0155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
A quantitative and kinetic study of the release of the hematopoietic cytokines IL-3, IL-5 and GM-CSF, the immunoregulatory cytokine IL-12 heterodimer (and its p40 subunit) and IL-13 by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) stimulated in vitro with the superantigen streptococcal pyrogenic (erythrogenic) exotoxin A (SPE A) from Streptococcus pyogenes is reported. PBMC were stimulated in parallel with heat-killed group A streptococcal cells, E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and with concanavalin A (Con A) in certain experiments for comparative purposes. The cytokines were assayed in the supernatant fluids by ELISA. IL-13 expression was also determined by a quantitative competitive PCR. IL-3, IL-5, GM-CSF, IL-12 p40, IL-12 heterodimer and IL-13 expression was induced by SPE A in a time- and dose-dependent manner in rather substantial amounts except the IL-12 heterodimer, which was released in small quantities. In contrast to SPE A, IL-3, IL-5 and IL-13 were not or poorly elicited by streptococcal cells or LPS whereas these two stimulants induced relatively high amounts of GM-CSF. Interestingly, both IL-12 p40 and IL-12 heterodimer were released in much higher amounts by streptococcal cells. Con A induced IL-3, IL-5, GM-CSF and IL-13 production in amounts comparable to those elicited by SPE A. The possible pathophysiological relevance of the elicitation by SPE A and streptococcal cells of these cytokines is discussed.
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Alouf JE, Horaud T. Streptococcal research at Pasteur Institute from Louis Pasteur's time to date. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1997; 418:7-14. [PMID: 9331588 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-1825-3_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Müller-Alouf H, Capron M, Alouf JE, Geoffroy C, Gerlach D, Ozegowski JH, Fitting C, Cavaillon JM. Cytokine profile of human peripheral blood mononucleated cells stimulated with a novel streptococcal superantigen, SPEA, SPEC and group A streptococcal cells. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1997; 418:929-31. [PMID: 9331802 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-1825-3_218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Cavaillon JM, Müller-Alouf H, Alouf JE. Cytokines in streptococcal infections. An opening lecture. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1997; 418:869-79. [PMID: 9331790 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-1825-3_206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J M Cavaillon
- Unité d'Immuno-Allergie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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Müller-Alouf H, Geoffroy C, Geslin P, Bouvet A, Felten A, Günther E, Ozegowski JH, Alouf J. Streptococcal Pyrogenic Exotoxin A, Streptolysin O, Exoenzymes, Serotype and Biotype Profiles of Streptococcus pyogenes Isolates from Patients with Toxic Shock Syndrome and other Severe Infections. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0934-8840(97)80102-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Lemaire LCJM, van Lanschot JJB, Stoutenbeek CP, van Deventer SJH, Wells CL, Gouma DJ. Bacterial translocation in multiple organ failure: Cause or epiphenomenon still unproven. Br J Surg 1997. [DOI: 10.1002/bjs.1800841005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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