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Heggi MT, Nour El-Din HT, Morsy DI, Abdelaziz NI, Attia AS. Microbial evasion of the complement system: a continuous and evolving story. Front Immunol 2024; 14:1281096. [PMID: 38239357 PMCID: PMC10794618 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1281096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The complement system is a fundamental part of the innate immune system that plays a key role in the battle of the human body against invading pathogens. Through its three pathways, represented by the classical, alternative, and lectin pathways, the complement system forms a tightly regulated network of soluble proteins, membrane-expressed receptors, and regulators with versatile protective and killing mechanisms. However, ingenious pathogens have developed strategies over the years to protect themselves from this complex part of the immune system. This review briefly discusses the sequence of the complement activation pathways. Then, we present a comprehensive updated overview of how the major four pathogenic groups, namely, bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, control, modulate, and block the complement attacks at different steps of the complement cascade. We shed more light on the ability of those pathogens to deploy more than one mechanism to tackle the complement system in their path to establish infection within the human host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam T. Heggi
- Clinical Pharmacy Undergraduate Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Hanzada T. Nour El-Din
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | | | | | - Ahmed S. Attia
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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Rossi IV, Nunes MAF, Sabatke B, Ribas HT, Winnischofer SMB, Ramos ASP, Inal JM, Ramirez MI. An induced population of Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes more resistant to complement lysis promotes a phenotype with greater differentiation, invasiveness, and release of extracellular vesicles. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1046681. [PMID: 36590580 PMCID: PMC9795005 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1046681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Chagas disease is a neglected tropical disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, which uses blood-feeding triatomine bugs as a vector to finally infect mammalian hosts. Upon entering the host, the parasite needs to effectively evade the attack of the complement system and quickly invade cells to guarantee an infection. In order to accomplish this, T. cruzi expresses different molecules on its surface and releases extracellular vesicles (EVs). Methods Here, we have selected a population of epimastigotes (a replicative form) from T. cruzi through two rounds of exposure to normal human serum (NHS), to reach 30% survival (2R population). This 2R population was characterized in several aspects and compared to Wild type population. Results The 2R population had a favored metacyclogenesis compared with wild-type (WT) parasites. 2R metacyclic trypomastigotes had a two-fold increase in resistance to complementmediated lysis and were at least three times more infective to eukaryotic cells, probably due to a higher GP82 expression in the resistant population. Moreover, we have shown that EVs from resistant parasites can transfer the invasive phenotype to the WT population. In addition, we showed that the virulence phenotype of the selected population remains in the trypomastigote form derived from cell culture, which is more infective and also has a higher rate of release of trypomastigotes from infected cells. Conclusions Altogether, these data indicate that it is possible to select parasites after exposure to a particular stress factor and that the phenotype of epimastigotes remained in the infective stage. Importantly, EVs seem to be an important virulence fator increasing mechanism in this context of survival and persistence in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izadora Volpato Rossi
- Graduate Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil,Carlos Chagas Institute, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ-PR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | | | - Bruna Sabatke
- Carlos Chagas Institute, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ-PR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil,Graduate Program in Microbiology, Pathology and Parasitology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Hennrique Taborda Ribas
- Graduate Program in Biochemistry Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Sheila Maria Brochado Winnischofer
- Graduate Program in Biochemistry Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | | | - Jameel Malhador Inal
- School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, London, United Kingdom,School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marcel Ivan Ramirez
- Carlos Chagas Institute, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ-PR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil,*Correspondence: Marcel Ivan Ramirez,
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Ramírez-Toloza G, Aguilar-Guzmán L, Valck C, Menon SS, Ferreira VP, Ferreira A. Is It Possible to Intervene in the Capacity of Trypanosoma cruzi to Elicit and Evade the Complement System? Front Immunol 2021; 12:789145. [PMID: 34975884 PMCID: PMC8716602 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.789145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas' disease is a zoonotic parasitic ailment now affecting more than 6 million people, mainly in Latin America. Its agent, the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is primarily transmitted by endemic hematophagous triatomine insects. Transplacental transmission is also important and a main source for the emerging global expansion of this disease. In the host, the parasite undergoes intra (amastigotes) and extracellular infective (trypomastigotes) stages, both eliciting complex immune responses that, in about 70% of the cases, culminate in permanent immunity, concomitant with the asymptomatic presence of the parasite. The remaining 30% of those infected individuals will develop a syndrome, with variable pathological effects on the circulatory, nervous, and digestive systems. Herein, we review an important number of T. cruzi molecules, mainly located on its surface, that have been characterized as immunogenic and protective in various experimental setups. We also discuss a variety of parasite strategies to evade the complement system - mediated immune responses. Within this context, we also discuss the capacity of the T. cruzi infective trypomastigote to translocate the ER-resident chaperone calreticulin to its surface as a key evasive strategy. Herein, it is described that T. cruzi calreticulin inhibits the initial stages of activation of the host complement system, with obvious benefits for the parasite. Finally, we speculate on the possibility to experimentally intervene in the interaction of calreticulin and other T. cruzi molecules that interact with the complement system; thus resulting in significant inhibition of T. cruzi infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galia Ramírez-Toloza
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Livestock Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Lorena Aguilar-Guzmán
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Livestock Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carolina Valck
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Smrithi S. Menon
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States
| | - Viviana P. Ferreira
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States
| | - Arturo Ferreira
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
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4
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D'Avila H, de Souza NP, Albertoni ALDS, Campos LC, Rampinelli PG, Correa JR, de Almeida PE. Impact of the Extracellular Vesicles Derived From Trypanosoma cruzi: A Paradox in Host Response and Lipid Metabolism Modulation. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:768124. [PMID: 34778110 PMCID: PMC8581656 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.768124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease is a major public health problem, especially in the South and Central America region. Its incidence is related to poverty and presents a high rate of morbidity and mortality. The pathogenesis of Chagas disease is complex and involves many interactive pathways between the hosts and the Trypanosoma cruzi. Several factors have been implicated in parasite-host interactions, including molecules secreted by infected cells, lipid mediators and most recent, extracellular vesicles (EVs). The EVs of T. cruzi (EVsT) were reported for the first time in the epimastigote forms about 42 years ago. The EVsT are involved in paracrine communication during the infection and can have an important role in the inflammatory modulation and parasite escape mechanism. However, the mechanisms by which EVs employ their pathological effects are not yet understood. The EVsT seem to participate in the activation of macrophages via TLR2 triggering the production of cytokines and a range of other molecules, thus modulating the host immune response which promotes the parasite survival. Moreover, new insights have demonstrated that EVsT induce lipid body formation and PGE2 synthesis in macrophages. This phenomenon is followed by the inhibition of the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines and antigen presentation, causing decreased parasitic molecules and allowing intracellular parasite survival. Therefore, this mini review aims to discuss the role of the EVs from T. cruzi as well as its involvement in the mechanisms that regulate the host immune response in the lipid metabolism and its significance for the Chagas disease pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heloisa D'Avila
- Laboratory of Cellular Biology, Department of Biology, Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Núbia Pereira de Souza
- Laboratory of Microscopy and Microanalysis, Department of Cell Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil
| | - Ana Luíza da Silva Albertoni
- Laboratory of Cellular Biology, Department of Biology, Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Laíris Cunha Campos
- Laboratory of Cellular Biology, Department of Biology, Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Pollianne Garbero Rampinelli
- Laboratory of Cellular Biology, Department of Biology, Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - José Raimundo Correa
- Laboratory of Microscopy and Microanalysis, Department of Cell Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Elaine de Almeida
- Laboratory of Cellular Biology, Department of Biology, Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Deletion of a Golgi protein in Trypanosoma cruzi reveals a critical role for Mn2+ in protein glycosylation needed for host cell invasion and intracellular replication. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009399. [PMID: 33720977 PMCID: PMC7993795 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is a protist parasite and the causative agent of American trypanosomiasis or Chagas disease. The parasite life cycle in its mammalian host includes an intracellular stage, and glycosylated proteins play a key role in host-parasite interaction facilitating adhesion, invasion and immune evasion. Here, we report that a Golgi-localized Mn2+-Ca2+/H+ exchanger of T. cruzi (TcGDT1) is required for efficient protein glycosylation, host cell invasion, and intracellular replication. The Golgi localization was determined by immunofluorescence and electron microscopy assays. TcGDT1 was able to complement the growth defect of Saccharomyces cerevisiae null mutants of its ortholog ScGDT1 but ablation of TcGDT1 by CRISPR/Cas9 did not affect the growth of the insect stage of the parasite. The defect in protein glycosylation was rescued by Mn2+ supplementation to the growth medium, underscoring the importance of this transition metal for Golgi glycosylation of proteins. Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiologic agent of Chagas disease, which is endemic from North to South America and the most important cause of heart disease in Latin America. T. cruzi can infect most mammalian nucleated cells and its glycoproteins are needed for its adhesion to cells, and for host cell invasion. Efficient glycosylation of proteins in the Golgi complex requires cations as cofactors. In this work, we found that ablation of a Golgi localized cation transporter prevents normal protein glycosylation, host cell invasion, and intracellular replication, and that protein glycosylation can be rescued by Mn2+ but not by Ca2+, Mg2+, or Zn2+, revealing the importance of Mn2+ for host parasite interaction.
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Ramírez-Toloza G, Aguilar-Guzmán L, Valck C, Ferreira VP, Ferreira A. The Interactions of Parasite Calreticulin With Initial Complement Components: Consequences in Immunity and Virulence. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1561. [PMID: 32793217 PMCID: PMC7391170 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Because of its capacity to increase a physiologic inflammatory response, to stimulate phagocytosis, to promote cell lysis and to enhance pathogen immunogenicity, the complement system is a crucial component of both the innate and adaptive immune responses. However, many infectious agents resist the activation of this system by expressing or secreting proteins with a role as complement regulatory, mainly inhibitory, proteins. Trypanosoma cruzi, the causal agent of Chagas disease, a reemerging microbial ailment, possesses several virulence factors with capacity to inhibit complement at different stages of activation. T. cruzi calreticulin (TcCalr) is a highly-conserved, endoplasmic reticulum-resident chaperone that the parasite translocates to the extracellular environment, where it exerts a variety of functions. Among these functions, TcCalr binds C1, MBL and ficolins, thus inhibiting the classical and lectin pathways of complement at their earliest stages of activation. Moreover, the TcCalr/C1 interaction also mediates infectivity by mimicking a strategy used by apoptotic cells for their removal. More recently, it has been determined that these Calr strategies are also used by a variety of other parasites. In addition, as reviewed elsewhere, TcCalr inhibits angiogenesis, promotes wound healing and reduces tumor growth. Complement C1 is also involved in some of these properties. Knowledge on the role of virulence factors, such as TcCalr, and their interactions with complement components in host-parasite interactions, may lead toward the description of new anti-parasite therapies and prophylaxis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galia Ramírez-Toloza
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Livestock Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Lorena Aguilar-Guzmán
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Livestock Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carolina Valck
- Department of Immunology, ICBM, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Viviana P Ferreira
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States
| | - Arturo Ferreira
- Department of Immunology, ICBM, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Induction of Effective Immunity against Trypanosoma cruzi. Infect Immun 2020; 88:IAI.00908-19. [PMID: 31907197 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00908-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is a major public health issue. Limitations in immune responses to natural T. cruzi infection usually result in parasite persistence with significant complications. A safe, effective, and reliable vaccine would reduce the threat of T. cruzi infections; however, no suitable vaccine is currently available due to a lack of understanding of the requirements for induction of fully protective immunity. We established a T. cruzi strain expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of dihydrofolate reductase degradation domain (DDD) with a hemagglutinin (HA) tag, GFP-DDDHA, which was induced by trimethoprim-lactate (TMP-lactate), which results in the death of intracellular parasites. This attenuated strain induces very strong protection against reinfection. Using this GFP-DDDHA strain, we investigated the mechanisms underlying the protective immune response in mice. Immunization with this strain led to a response that included high levels of gamma interferon (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), as well as a rapid expansion of effector and memory T cells in the spleen. More CD8+ T cells differentiate to memory cells following GFP-DDDHA infection than after infection with a wild-type (WT) strain. The GFP-DDDHA strain also provides cross-protection against another T. cruzi isolate. IFN-γ is important in mediating the protection, as IFN-γ knockout (KO) mice failed to acquire protection when infected with the GFP-DDDHA strain. Immune cells demonstrated earlier and stronger protective responses in immunized mice after reinfection with T. cruzi than those in naive mice. Adoptive transfers with several types of immune cells or with serum revealed that several branches of the immune system mediated protection. A combination of serum and natural killer cells provided the most effective protection against infection in these transfer experiments.
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8
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Shao S, Sun X, Chen Y, Zhan B, Zhu X. Complement Evasion: An Effective Strategy That Parasites Utilize to Survive in the Host. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:532. [PMID: 30949145 PMCID: PMC6435963 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasitic infections induce host immune responses that eliminate the invading parasites. However, parasites have evolved to develop many strategies to evade host immune attacks and survive in a hostile environment. The complement system acts as the first line of immune defense to eliminate the invading parasites by forming the membrane attack complex (MAC) and promoting an inflammatory reaction on the surface of invading parasites. To date, the complement activation pathway has been precisely delineated; however, the manner in which parasites escape complement attack, as a survival strategy in the host, is not well understood. Increasing evidence has shown that parasites develop sophisticated strategies to escape complement-mediated killing, including (i) recruitment of host complement regulatory proteins on the surface of the parasites to inhibit complement activation; (ii) expression of orthologs of host RCA to inhibit complement activation; and (iii) expression of parasite-encoded proteins, specifically targeting different complement components, to inhibit complement function and formation of the MAC. In this review, we compiled information regarding parasitic abilities to escape host complement attack as a survival strategy in the hostile environment of the host and the mechanisms underlying complement evasion. Effective escape of host complement attack is a crucial step for the survival of parasites within the host. Therefore, those proteins expressed by parasites and involved in the regulation of the complement system have become important targets for the development of drugs and vaccines against parasitic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Shao
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ximeng Sun
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yi Chen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Bin Zhan
- Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Xinping Zhu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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Wyllie MP, Ramirez MI. Microvesicles released during the interaction between Trypanosoma cruzi TcI and TcII strains and host blood cells inhibit complement system and increase the infectivity of metacyclic forms of host cells in a strain-independent process. Pathog Dis 2018; 75:3943644. [PMID: 28859399 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftx077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles, whether microvesicles (MVs) or exosomes, shed by pathogens transfer virulence factors and biomolecules to host cells, thereby altering the host's susceptibility to infection. We have previously demonstrated that MV release is increased during the interaction between the infective forms of Trypanosoma cruzi and host cells. MVs confer parasite resistance to complement-mediated lysis and enhance parasite invasion. In this study, we show that differences exist in the levels of MVs released during the interaction between metacyclic trypomastigotes of different T. cruzi strains (with varied sensitivity to complement-mediated lysis, namely sensitive G strain TcI and resistant Y strain TcII) and host cells. MVs produced during the interaction between TcII parasites and host cells increased parasite resistance to complement lysis from 50% to 80% and parasite invasion was increased to over 50%. MVs purified during the interaction between TcI parasites and host cells have a stronger effect, doubling complement resistance and parasite invasion. The complement-mediated lysis assays showed that all MVs inhibit mainly the lectin pathway. Interestingly, MVs derived from parasites of one class did not alter complement resistance and the invasion process of parasites from the other class. This is the first description of MVs from T. cruzi with strain-dependent phenotypic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Wyllie
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia molecular, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - M I Ramirez
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia molecular, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil.,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz - Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Arroyo-Olarte RD, Martínez I, Cruz-Rivera M, Mendlovic F, Espinoza B. Complement system contributes to modulate the infectivity of susceptible TcI strains of Trypanosoma cruzi. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2018. [PMID: 29513875 PMCID: PMC5851054 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760170332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trypanosoma cruzi is a protozoan parasite and an etiological agent of Chagas disease. There is a wide variability in the clinical outcome of its infection, ranging from asymptomatic individuals to those with chronic fatal mega syndromes. Both parasite and host factors, as well as their interplay, are thought to be involved in the process. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the resistance to complement-mediated killing in two T. cruzi TcI strains with differential virulence and the subsequent effect on their infectivity in mammalian cells. METHODS Tissue-culture derived trypomastigotes of both strains were incubated in guinea pig serum and subjected to flow cytometry in order to determine their viability and complement activations. Trypomastigotes were also incubated on host cells monolayers in the presence of serum, and infectivity was evaluated under different conditions of complement pathway inhibition. Relative expression of the main parasite-specific complement receptors between the two strains was assessed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. FINDINGS In this work, we showed that two TcI strains, one with lower virulence (Ninoa) compared to the other (Qro), differ in their resistance to the lytic activity of complement system, hence causing a compromised ability of Ninoa strain to invade mammalian cells. These results correlate with the three-fold lower messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of complement regulatory protein (CRP), trypomastigote-decay acceleration factor (T-DAF), and complement C2 receptor inhibitor trispanning (CRIT) in Ninoa compared to those in Qro. On the other hand, calreticulin (CRT) mRNA and surface protein levels were higher in Ninoa strain and promoted its infectivity when the lectin pathway of the complement system was inhibited. MAIN CONCLUSIONS This work suggests the complex interplay of CRP, T-DAF, CRIT, and CRT, and the diagnostic value of mRNA levels in the assessment of virulence potential of T. cruzi strains, particularly when dealing with isolates with similar genetic background.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben D Arroyo-Olarte
- Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomedicas, Departamento de Immunología, Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico
| | - Ignacio Martínez
- Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomedicas, Departamento de Immunología, Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico
| | - Mayra Cruz-Rivera
- Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico
| | - Fela Mendlovic
- Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico.,Universidad Anahuac, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Mexico Norte, Estado de Mexico, Mexico
| | - Bertha Espinoza
- Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomedicas, Departamento de Immunología, Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico
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Verma S, Mandal A, Ansari MY, Kumar A, Abhishek K, Ghosh AK, Kumar A, Kumar V, Das S, Das P. Leishmania donovani Inhibitor of Serine Peptidases 2 Mediated Inhibition of Lectin Pathway and Upregulation of C5aR Signaling Promote Parasite Survival inside Host. Front Immunol 2018; 9:63. [PMID: 29434593 PMCID: PMC5796892 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania donovani, the causative agent of Indian visceral leishmaniasis has to face several barriers of the immune system inside the mammalian host for its survival. The complement system is one of the first barriers and consists of a well-balanced network of proteases including S1A family serine proteases (SPs). Inhibitor of serine peptidases (ISPs) is considered as inhibitor of S1A family serine peptidases and is reported to be present in trypanosomes, including Leishmania. In our previous study, we have deciphered the role of ISPs [LdISP1 and L. donovani inhibitor of serine peptidases 2 (LdISP2)] in the survival of L. donovani inside the sandfly midgut. However, the role of theses ISPs in the survival of L. donovani inside mammalian host still remains elusive. In the present study, we have deciphered the inhibitory effect of LdISPs on the host complement S1A serine peptidases, such as C1r/C1s and MASP1/MASP2. Our study suggested that although both rLdISP1 and rLdISP2 inferred strong interaction with C1complex and MBL-associated serine proteases (MASPs) but rLdISP2 showed the stronger inhibitory effect on MASP2 than rLdISP1. Moreover, we found that rLdISP2 significantly reduces the formation of C3, C5 convertase, and membrane attacking complex (MAC) by lectin pathway (LP) resulting in significant reduction in serum mediated lysis of the parasites. The role of LdISP2 on neutrophil elastase-mediated C5aR signaling was also evaluated. Notably, our results showed that infection of macrophages with ISP2-overexpressed Leishmania parasites significantly induces the expression of C5aR both at the transcript and translational level. Simultaneously, infection with ISP2KD parasites results in downregulation of host PI3K/AKT phosphorylation and increased in IL-12 production. Taken together, our findings clearly suggest that LdISP2 promotes parasite survival inside host by inhibiting MAC formation and complement-mediated lysis via LP and by upregulation of C5aR signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudha Verma
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Abhishek Mandal
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Md Yousuf Ansari
- MM College of Pharmacy, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Ambala, India
| | - Ajay Kumar
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Kumar Abhishek
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Ayan Kumar Ghosh
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Ashish Kumar
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Vinod Kumar
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
| | - Sushmita Das
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, India
| | - Pradeep Das
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (ICMR), Patna, India
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Ramírez-Toloza G, Ferreira A. Trypanosoma cruzi Evades the Complement System as an Efficient Strategy to Survive in the Mammalian Host: The Specific Roles of Host/Parasite Molecules and Trypanosoma cruzi Calreticulin. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1667. [PMID: 28919885 PMCID: PMC5585158 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
American Trypanosomiasis is an important neglected reemerging tropical parasitism, infecting about 8 million people worldwide. Its agent, Trypanosoma cruzi, exhibits multiple mechanisms to evade the host immune response and infect host cells. An important immune evasion strategy of T. cruzi infective stages is its capacity to inhibit the complement system activation on the parasite surface, avoiding opsonizing, immune stimulating and lytic effects. Epimastigotes, the non-infective form of the parasite, present in triatomine arthropod vectors, are highly susceptible to complement-mediated lysis while trypomastigotes, the infective form, present in host bloodstream, are resistant. Thus T. cruzi susceptibility to complement varies depending on the parasite stage (amastigote, trypomastigotes or epimastigote) and on the T. cruzi strain. To avoid complement-mediated lysis, T. cruzi trypomastigotes express on the parasite surface a variety of complement regulatory proteins, such as glycoprotein 58/68 (gp58/68), T. cruzi complement regulatory protein (TcCRP), trypomastigote decay-accelerating factor (T-DAF), C2 receptor inhibitor trispanning (CRIT) and T. cruzi calreticulin (TcCRT). Alternatively, or concomitantly, the parasite captures components with complement regulatory activity from the host bloodstream, such as factor H (FH) and plasma membrane-derived vesicles (PMVs). All these proteins inhibit different steps of the classical (CP), alternative (AP) or lectin pathways (LP). Thus, TcCRP inhibits the CP C3 convertase assembling, gp58/68 inhibits the AP C3 convertase, T-DAF interferes with the CP and AP convertases assembling, TcCRT inhibits the CP and LP, CRIT confers ability to resist the CP and LP, FH is used by trypomastigotes to inhibit the AP convertases and PMVs inhibit the CP and LP C3 convertases. Many of these proteins have similar molecular inhibitory mechanisms. Our laboratory has contributed to elucidate the role of TcCRT in the host-parasite interplay. Thus, we have proposed that TcCRT is a pleiotropic molecule, present not only in the parasite endoplasmic reticulum, but also on the trypomastigote surface, participating in key processes to establish T. cruzi infection, such as inhibition of the complement system and serving as an important virulence factor. Additionally, TcCRT interaction with key complement components, participates as an anti-angiogenic and anti-tumor molecule, inhibiting at least in important part, tumor growth in infected animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galia Ramírez-Toloza
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Animal Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Livestock Sciences, University of ChileSantiago, Chile
| | - Arturo Ferreira
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of ChileSantiago, Chile
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Lidani KCF, Bavia L, Ambrosio AR, de Messias-Reason IJ. The Complement System: A Prey of Trypanosoma cruzi. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:607. [PMID: 28473804 PMCID: PMC5397499 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is a protozoan parasite known to cause Chagas disease (CD), a neglected sickness that affects around 6-8 million people worldwide. Originally, CD was mainly found in Latin America but more recently, it has been spread to countries in North America, Asia, and Europe due the international migration from endemic areas. Thus, at present CD represents an important concern of global public health. Most of individuals that are infected by T. cruzi may remain in asymptomatic form all lifelong, but up to 40% of them will develop cardiomyopathy, digestive mega syndromes, or both. The interaction between the T. cruzi infective forms and host-related immune factors represents a key point for a better understanding of the physiopathology of CD. In this context, the complement, as one of the first line of host defense against infection was shown to play an important role in recognizing T. cruzi metacyclic trypomastigotes and in controlling parasite invasion. The complement consists of at least 35 or more plasma proteins and cell surface receptors/regulators, which can be activated by three pathways: classical (CP), lectin (LP), and alternative (AP). The CP and LP are mainly initiated by immune complexes or pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), respectively, whereas AP is spontaneously activated by hydrolysis of C3. Once activated, several relevant complement functions are generated which include opsonization and phagocytosis of particles or microorganisms and cell lysis. An important step during T. cruzi infection is when intracellular trypomastigotes are release to bloodstream where they may be target by complement. Nevertheless, the parasite uses a sequence of events in order to escape from complement-mediated lysis. In fact, several T. cruzi molecules are known to interfere in the initiation of all three pathways and in the assembly of C3 convertase, a key step in the activation of complement. Moreover, T. cruzi promotes secretion of plasma membrane-derived vesicles from host cells, which prevent the activity of C3 convertase C4b2a and thereby may hinder complement. In this review, we aim to present an overview on the strategies used by T. cruzi in order to circumvent the activation of complement and, consequently, its biological effects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Iara J. de Messias-Reason
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopathology, Clinical Hospital, Federal University of ParanáCuritiba, Brazil
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Berná L, Chiribao ML, Greif G, Rodriguez M, Alvarez-Valin F, Robello C. Transcriptomic analysis reveals metabolic switches and surface remodeling as key processes for stage transition in Trypanosoma cruzi. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3017. [PMID: 28286708 PMCID: PMC5345387 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
American trypanosomiasis is a chronic and endemic disease which affects millions of people. Trypanosoma cruzi, its causative agent, has a life cycle that involves complex morphological and functional transitions, as well as a variety of environmental conditions. This requires a tight regulation of gene expression, which is achieved mainly by post-transcriptional regulation. In this work we conducted an RNAseq analysis of the three major life cycle stages of T. cruzi: amastigotes, epimastigotes and trypomastigotes. This analysis allowed us to delineate specific transcriptomic profiling for each stage, and also to identify those biological processes of major relevance in each state. Stage specific expression profiling evidenced the plasticity of T. cruzi to adapt quickly to different conditions, with particular focus on membrane remodeling and metabolic shifts along the life cycle. Epimastigotes, which replicate in the gut of insect vectors, showed higher expression of genes related to energy metabolism, mainly Krebs cycle, respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation related genes, and anabolism related genes associated to nucleotide and steroid biosynthesis; also, a general down-regulation of surface glycoprotein coding genes was seen at this stage. Trypomastigotes, living extracellularly in the bloodstream of mammals, express a plethora of surface proteins and signaling genes involved in invasion and evasion of immune response. Amastigotes mostly express membrane transporters and genes involved in regulation of cell cycle, and also express a specific subset of surface glycoprotein coding genes. In addition, these results allowed us to improve the annotation of the Dm28c genome, identifying new ORFs and set the stage for construction of networks of co-expression, which can give clues about coded proteins of unknown functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Berná
- Unidad de Biología Molecular, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Maria Laura Chiribao
- Unidad de Biología Molecular, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay.,Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Gonzalo Greif
- Unidad de Biología Molecular, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Matias Rodriguez
- Sección Biomatemática, Unidad de Genómica Evolutiva, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Fernando Alvarez-Valin
- Sección Biomatemática, Unidad de Genómica Evolutiva, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Carlos Robello
- Unidad de Biología Molecular, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay.,Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
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Henrique PM, Marques T, da Silva MV, Nascentes GAN, de Oliveira CF, Rodrigues V, Gómez-Hernández C, Norris KA, Ramirez LE, Meira WSF. Correlation between the virulence of T. cruzi strains, complement regulatory protein expression levels, and the ability to elicit lytic antibody production. Exp Parasitol 2016; 170:66-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2016.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Nardy AFFR, Freire-de-Lima CG, Pérez AR, Morrot A. Role of Trypanosoma cruzi Trans-sialidase on the Escape from Host Immune Surveillance. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:348. [PMID: 27047464 PMCID: PMC4804232 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease is caused by the flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, affecting millions of people throughout Latin America. The parasite dampens host immune response causing modifications in diverse lymphoid compartments, including the thymus. T. cruzi trans-sialidase (TS) seems to play a fundamental role in such immunopathological events. This unusual enzyme catalyses the transference of sialic acid molecules from host glycoconjugates to acceptor molecules placed on the parasite surface. TS activity mediates several biological effects leading to the subversion of host immune system, hence favoring both parasite survival and the establishment of chronic infection. This review summarizes current findings on the roles of TS in the immune response during T. cruzi infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana F F R Nardy
- Institute of Microbiology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Celio G Freire-de-Lima
- Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Ana R Pérez
- Institute of Clinical and Experimental Immunology of Rosario, CONICET, National University of Rosario Rosario, Argentina
| | - Alexandre Morrot
- Institute of Microbiology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Cardoso MS, Reis-Cunha JL, Bartholomeu DC. Evasion of the Immune Response by Trypanosoma cruzi during Acute Infection. Front Immunol 2016; 6:659. [PMID: 26834737 PMCID: PMC4716143 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 12/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiologic agent of Chagas disease, a neglected tropical disease that affects millions of people mainly in Latin America. To establish a life-long infection, T. cruzi must subvert the vertebrate host's immune system, using strategies that can be traced to the parasite's life cycle. Once inside the vertebrate host, metacyclic trypomastigotes rapidly invade a wide variety of nucleated host cells in a membrane-bound compartment known as the parasitophorous vacuole, which fuses to lysosomes, originating the phagolysosome. In this compartment, the parasite relies on a complex network of antioxidant enzymes to shield itself from lysosomal oxygen and nitrogen reactive species. Lysosomal acidification of the parasitophorous vacuole is an important factor that allows trypomastigote escape from the extremely oxidative environment of the phagolysosome to the cytoplasm, where it differentiates into amastigote forms. In the cytosol of infected macrophages, oxidative stress instead of being detrimental to the parasite, favors amastigote burden, which then differentiates into bloodstream trypomastigotes. Trypomastigotes released in the bloodstream upon the rupture of the host cell membrane express surface molecules, such as calreticulin and GP160 proteins, which disrupt initial and key components of the complement pathway, while others such as glycosylphosphatidylinositol-mucins stimulate immunoregulatory receptors, delaying the progression of a protective immune response. After an immunologically silent entry at the early phase of infection, T. cruzi elicits polyclonal B cell activation, hypergammaglobulinemia, and unspecific anti-T. cruzi antibodies, which are inefficient in controlling the infection. Additionally, the coexpression of several related, but not identical, epitopes derived from trypomastigote surface proteins delays the generation of T. cruzi-specific neutralizing antibodies. Later in the infection, the establishment of an anti-T. cruzi CD8(+) immune response focused on the parasite's immunodominant epitopes controls parasitemia and tissue infection, but fails to completely eliminate the parasite. This outcome is not detrimental to the parasite, as it reduces host mortality and maintains the parasite infectivity toward the insect vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana S Cardoso
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Genômica de Parasitos, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais , Belo Horizonte , Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - João Luís Reis-Cunha
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Genômica de Parasitos, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais , Belo Horizonte , Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Daniella C Bartholomeu
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Genômica de Parasitos, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais , Belo Horizonte , Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Beltrame MH, Boldt ABW, Catarino SJ, Mendes HC, Boschmann SE, Goeldner I, Messias-Reason I. MBL-associated serine proteases (MASPs) and infectious diseases. Mol Immunol 2015; 67:85-100. [PMID: 25862418 PMCID: PMC7112674 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2015.03.245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2015] [Revised: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
MASP-1 and MASP-2 are central players of the lectin pathway of complement. MASP1 and MASP2 gene polymorphisms regulate protein serum levels and activity. MASP deficiencies are associated with increased infection susceptibility. MASP polymorphisms and serum levels are associated with disease progression.
The lectin pathway of the complement system has a pivotal role in the defense against infectious organisms. After binding of mannan-binding lectin (MBL), ficolins or collectin 11 to carbohydrates or acetylated residues on pathogen surfaces, dimers of MBL-associated serine proteases 1 and 2 (MASP-1 and MASP-2) activate a proteolytic cascade, which culminates in the formation of the membrane attack complex and pathogen lysis. Alternative splicing of the pre-mRNA encoding MASP-1 results in two other products, MASP-3 and MAp44, which regulate activation of the cascade. A similar mechanism allows the gene encoding MASP-2 to produce the truncated MAp19 protein. Polymorphisms in MASP1 and MASP2 genes are associated with protein serum levels and functional activity. Since the first report of a MASP deficiency in 2003, deficiencies in lectin pathway proteins have been associated with recurrent infections and several polymorphisms were associated with the susceptibility or protection to infectious diseases. In this review, we summarize the findings on the role of MASP polymorphisms and serum levels in bacterial, viral and protozoan infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia H Beltrame
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Angelica B W Boldt
- Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Sandra J Catarino
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Hellen C Mendes
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Stefanie E Boschmann
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Isabela Goeldner
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Iara Messias-Reason
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Hospital de Clínicas, Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
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Evans-Osses I, Mojoli A, Beltrame MH, da Costa DE, DaRocha WD, Velavan TP, de Messias-Reason I, Ramirez MI. Differential ability to resist to complement lysis and invade host cells mediated by MBL in R4 and 860 strains of Trypanosoma cruzi. FEBS Lett 2014; 588:956-61. [PMID: 24560788 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2014.01.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Revised: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
To produce an infection Trypanosoma cruzi must evade lysis by the complement system. During early stages of infection, the lectin pathway plays an important role in host defense and can be activated by binding of mannan-binding lectin (MBL) to carbohydrates on the surface of pathogens. We hypothesized that MBL has a dual role during parasite-host cell interaction as lectin complement pathway activator and as binding molecule to invade the host cell. We used two polarized strains of T. cruzi, R4 (susceptible) and 860 (resistant) strains, to investigate the role of MBL in complement-mediated lysis. Interestingly R4, but not 860 metacyclic strain, markedly increases the invasion of host cells, suggesting that MBL drives the invasion process while the parasite deactivates the Lectin complement pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Evans-Osses
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Parasitas e Vetores, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz - Fiocruz., Av Brasil, 4550. Manguinhos-Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Andres Mojoli
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Parasitas e Vetores, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz - Fiocruz., Av Brasil, 4550. Manguinhos-Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcia Holsbach Beltrame
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia Molecular, Departamento de Patologia Médica, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Denise Endo da Costa
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia Molecular, Departamento de Patologia Médica, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Wanderson Duarte DaRocha
- Laboratório de Genômica Funcional de Parasitos, Departamento de Bioquimica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Parana, Curitiba, Brazil
| | | | - Iara de Messias-Reason
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia Molecular, Departamento de Patologia Médica, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Marcel Ivan Ramirez
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Parasitas e Vetores, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz - Fiocruz., Av Brasil, 4550. Manguinhos-Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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Cestari I, Evans-Osses I, Schlapbach LJ, de Messias-Reason I, Ramirez MI. Mechanisms of complement lectin pathway activation and resistance by trypanosomatid parasites. Mol Immunol 2013; 53:328-34. [PMID: 23063472 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2012.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2012] [Accepted: 08/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Studies in the past decade have demonstrated a crucial role for the complement lectin pathway in host defence against protozoan microbes. Recognition of pathogen surface molecules by mannan-binding lectin and ficolins revealed new mechanisms of innate immune defence and a diversity of parasite strategies of immune evasion. In the present review, we will discuss the current knowledge of: (1) the molecular mechanism of lectin pathway activation by trypanosomes; (2) the mechanisms of complement evasion by trypanosomes; and (3) host genetic deficiencies of complement lectin pathway factors that contribute to infection susceptibility and disease progression. This review will focus on trypanosomatids, the parasites that cause Chagas disease, leishmaniasis and sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis).
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Cestari
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
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The emerging role of complement lectin pathway in trypanosomatids: molecular bases in activation, genetic deficiencies, susceptibility to infection, and complement system-based therapeutics. ScientificWorldJournal 2013; 2013:675898. [PMID: 23533355 PMCID: PMC3595680 DOI: 10.1155/2013/675898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 01/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The innate immune system is evolutionary and ancient and is the pivotal line of the host defense system to protect against invading pathogens and abnormal self-derived components. Cellular and molecular components are involved in recognition and effector mechanisms for a successful innate immune response. The complement lectin pathway (CLP) was discovered in 1990. These new components at the complement world are very efficient. Mannan-binding lectin (MBL) and ficolin not only recognize many molecular patterns of pathogens rapidly to activate complement but also display several strategies to evade innate immunity. Many studies have shown a relation between the deficit of complement factors and susceptibility to infection. The recently discovered CLP was shown to be important in host defense against protozoan microbes. Although the recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns by MBL and Ficolins reveal efficient complement activations, an increase in deficiency of complement factors and diversity of parasite strategies of immune evasion demonstrate the unsuccessful effort to control the infection. In the present paper, we will discuss basic aspects of complement activation, the structure of the lectin pathway components, genetic deficiency of complement factors, and new therapeutic opportunities to target the complement system to control infection.
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Virulence factors of Trypanosoma cruzi: who is who? Microbes Infect 2012; 14:1390-402. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2012.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2012] [Revised: 07/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Sánchez Valdéz FJ, Pérez Brandán C, Zago MP, Labriola C, Ferreira A, Basombrío MÁ. Trypanosoma cruzi carrying a monoallelic deletion of the calreticulin (TcCRT) gene are susceptible to complement mediated killing and defective in their metacyclogenesis. Mol Immunol 2012; 53:198-205. [PMID: 22954747 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2012.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2012] [Revised: 06/25/2012] [Accepted: 08/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi calreticulin (TcCRT) can hijack complement C1, mannan-binding lectin and ficolins from serum thus inhibiting the classical and lectin complement pathway activation respectively. To understand the in vivo biological functions of TcCRT in T. cruzi we generated a clonal cell line lacking one TcCRT allele (TcCRT+/-) and another clone overexpressing it (TcCRT+). Both clones were derived from the TCC T. cruzi strain. As expected, TcCRT+/- epimastigotes showed impairment on TcCRT synthesis, whereas TcCRT+ ones showed increased protein levels. In correlation to this, monoallelic mutant parasites were significantly susceptible to killing by the complement machinery. On the contrary, TcCRT+ parasites showed higher levels of resistance to killing mediate by the classical and lectin but not the alternative pathway. The involvement of surface TcCRT in depleting C1 was demonstrated through restoration of serum killing activity by addition of exogenous C1. In axenic cultures, a reduced propagation rate of TcCRT+/- parasites was observed. Moreover, TcCRT+/- parasites presented a reduced rate of differentiation in in vitro assays. As shown by down- or upregulation of TcCRT expression this gene seems to play a major role in providing T. cruzi with the ability to resist complement system.
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Oladiran A, Belosevic M. Immune evasion strategies of trypanosomes: a review. J Parasitol 2011; 98:284-92. [PMID: 22007969 DOI: 10.1645/ge-2925.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosomes are digenetic protozoans that infect domestic and wild animals, as well as humans. They cause important medical and veterinary diseases, making them a major public health concern. There are many species of trypanosomes that infect virtually all vertebrate taxa. They typically cycle between insect or leech vectors and vertebrate hosts, and they undergo biochemical and morphological changes in the process. Trypanosomes have received much attention in the last 4 decades because of the diseases they cause and their remarkable armamentarium of immune evasion mechanisms. The completed genome sequences of trypanosomes have revealed an extensive array of molecules that contribute to various immune evasion mechanisms. The different species interact uniquely with their vertebrate hosts with a wide range of evasion strategies and some of the most fascinating immune evasion mechanisms, including antigenic variation that was first described in the trypanosomes. This review focuses on the variety of strategies that these parasites have evolved to evade or modulate immunity of endothermic and ectothermic vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayoola Oladiran
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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Díaz M, Solari A, González C. Differential expression of Trypanosoma cruzi I associated with clinical forms of Chagas disease: Overexpression of oxidative stress proteins in acute patient isolate. J Proteomics 2011; 74:1673-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2011.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2010] [Revised: 04/30/2011] [Accepted: 05/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Cestari I, Ramirez MI. Inefficient complement system clearance of Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclic trypomastigotes enables resistant strains to invade eukaryotic cells. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9721. [PMID: 20300530 PMCID: PMC2838796 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2009] [Accepted: 02/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The complement system is the main arm of the vertebrate innate immune system against pathogen infection. For the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, subverting the complement system and invading the host cells is crucial to succeed in infection. However, little attention has focused on whether the complement system can effectively control T. cruzi infection. To address this question, we decided to analyse: 1) which complement pathways are activated by T. cruzi using strains isolated from different hosts, 2) the capacity of these strains to resist the complement-mediated killing at nearly physiological conditions, and 3) whether the complement system could limit or control T. cruzi invasion of eukaryotic cells. The complement activating molecules C1q, C3, mannan-binding lectin and ficolins bound to all strains analysed; however, C3b and C4b deposition assays revealed that T. cruzi activates mainly the lectin and alternative complement pathways in non-immune human serum. Strikingly, we detected that metacyclic trypomastigotes of some T. cruzi strains were highly susceptible to complement-mediated killing in non-immune serum, while other strains were resistant. Furthermore, the rate of parasite invasion in eukaryotic cells was decreased by non-immune serum. Altogether, these results establish that the complement system recognizes T. cruzi metacyclic trypomastigotes, resulting in killing of susceptible strains. The complement system, therefore, acts as a physiological barrier which resistant strains have to evade for successful host infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Cestari
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Parasitas e Vetores, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz - Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcel I. Ramirez
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Parasitas e Vetores, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz - Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Gutierrez FRS, Guedes PMM, Gazzinelli RT, Silva JS. The role of parasite persistence in pathogenesis of Chagas heart disease. Parasite Immunol 2010; 31:673-85. [PMID: 19825107 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2009.01108.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Chagas disease (CD) is caused by the infection with the protozoan haemoflagellate Trypanosoma cruzi. This disease is still a great menace to public health, and is largely neglected as it affects mostly the poorest populations of Latin America. Nonetheless, there are neither effective diagnostic markers nor therapeutic options to accurately detect and efficiently cure this chronic infection. In spite of the great advances in the knowledge of the biology of natural transmission, as well as the immunobiology of the host-parasite interaction, the understanding of the pathogenesis of CD remains largely elusive. In the recent decades, a controversy in the research community has developed about the relevance of parasite persistence or autoimmune phenomena in the development of chronic cardiac pathology. One of the most notable aspects of chronic CD is the progressive deterioration of cardiac function, derived mostly from structural derangement, as a consequence of the intense inflammatory process. Here we review the evidence supporting the multifactorial nature of Chagas heart disease comprising pathogen persistence and altered host immunoregulatory mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- F R S Gutierrez
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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28
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Cestari IDS, Krarup A, Sim RB, Inal JM, Ramirez MI. Role of early lectin pathway activation in the complement-mediated killing of Trypanosoma cruzi. Mol Immunol 2009; 47:426-37. [PMID: 19783051 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2009.08.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2009] [Revised: 08/21/2009] [Accepted: 08/28/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The complement system is the first line of defence against pathogen infection and can be activated by the classic, alternative and lectin pathways. Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, has to evade complement system killing and invade the host cells to progress in infection. T. cruzi infectious stages resist complement-mediated killing by expressing surface receptors, which dissociate or prevent C3 convertase formation. Here, we present the first evidence that T. cruzi activates the complement lectin pathway. We detected rapid binding of mannan-binding lectin, H-ficolin, and L-ficolin to the surface of T. cruzi, and found that serum depleted of these molecules failed to kill parasites. Furthermore, lectin pathway activation by T. cruzi required the MBL-associated serine protease 2 (MASP2) activity resulting in C2 factor cleavage. In addition, we demonstrate that the infectious stage of T. cruzi inhibits the lectin pathway activation and complement killing expressing the complement C2 receptor inhibitor trispanning (CRIT) protein. Transgenic parasites overexpressing CRIT were highly resistant to complement-mediated killing. CRIT-derived peptides inhibited both C2 binding to the surface of T. cruzi and parasite killing. Biochemical studies revealed that the CRIT extracellular domain 1 inhibits MASP2 cleavage of C2 factor and thereby impairs C3 convertase formation. Our findings establish that the complement lectin pathway recognizes T. cruzi and provide molecular insights into how the infectious stage inhibits this activation to resist complement system killing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor dos S Cestari
- Instituto Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Parasitas e Vetores, Rio de Janeiro, 21040-900, Brazil
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29
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Singh M, Mukherjee P, Narayanasamy K, Arora R, Sen SD, Gupta S, Natarajan K, Malhotra P. Proteome analysis of Plasmodium falciparum extracellular secretory antigens at asexual blood stages reveals a cohort of proteins with possible roles in immune modulation and signaling. Mol Cell Proteomics 2009; 8:2102-18. [PMID: 19494339 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m900029-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The highly co-evolved relationship of parasites and their hosts appears to include modulation of host immune signals, although the molecular mechanisms involved in the host-parasite interplay remain poorly understood. Characterization of these key genes and their cognate proteins related to the host-parasite interplay should lead to a better understanding of this intriguing biological phenomenon. The malaria agent Plasmodium falciparum is predicted to export a cohort of several hundred proteins to remodel the host erythrocyte. However, proteins actively exported by the asexual intracellular parasite beyond the host red blood cell membrane (before merozoite egress) have been poorly investigated so far. Here we used two complementary methodologies, two-dimensional gel electrophoresis/MS and LC-MS/MS, to examine the extracellular secreted antigens at asexual blood stages of P. falciparum. We identified 27 novel antigens exported by P. falciparum in the culture medium of which some showed clustering with highly polymorphic genes on chromosomes, suggesting that they may encode putative antigenic determinants of the parasite. Immunolocalization of four novel secreted proteins confirmed their export beyond the infected red blood cell membrane. Of these, preliminary functional characterization of two novel (Sel1 repeat-containing) parasite proteins, PfSEL1 and PfSEL2 revealed that they down-regulate expression of cell surface Notch signaling molecules in host cells. Also a novel protein kinase (PfEK) and a novel protein phosphatase (PfEP) were found to, respectively, phosphorylate/dephosphorylate parasite-specific proteins in the extracellular culture supernatant. Our study thus sheds new light on malaria parasite extracellular secreted antigens of which some may be essential for parasite development and could constitute promising new drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meha Singh
- Malaria Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
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30
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Cestari IDS, Evans-Osses I, Freitas JC, Inal JM, Ramirez MI. Complement C2 receptor inhibitor trispanning confers an increased ability to resist complement-mediated lysis in Trypanosoma cruzi. J Infect Dis 2008; 198:1276-83. [PMID: 18781865 DOI: 10.1086/592167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to resist complement differs between the Y and Colombiana Trypanosoma cruzi strains. We found that the Y strain of T. cruzi was more able to resist the classical and lectin pathways of complement activation than the Colombiana strain. The complement C2 receptor inhibitor trispanning gene (CRIT) is highly conserved in both strains. At the protein level, CRIT is expressed only in stationary-phase epimastigotes of the Y but not the Colombiana strain and is expressed in infectious metacyclic trypomastigotes of both strains. Y strain epimastigotes with an overexpressed CRIT gene (pTEX-CRIT) had higher survival in normal human serum (NHS). Overexpression of the Y strain CRIT gene in Colombiana epimastigote forms increased the parasite's resistance to lysis mediated by the classical and lectin pathways but not to lysis mediated by alternative pathways. CRIT involvement on the parasite surface was confirmed by showing that the lytic activity of NHS against epimastigotes could be restored by adding excess C2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Dos S Cestari
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Lefèvre T, Thomas F. Behind the scene, something else is pulling the strings: Emphasizing parasitic manipulation in vector-borne diseases. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2008; 8:504-19. [PMID: 17588825 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2007.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2007] [Revised: 05/13/2007] [Accepted: 05/17/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Merging the field of epidemiology with those of evolutionary and behavioural ecology can generate considerable fundamental knowledge, as well as help to guide public health policies. An attempt is made here to integrate these disciplines by focusing on parasitic manipulation in vector-borne diseases. Parasitic manipulation is a fascinating strategy of transmission which occurs when a parasite alters phenotypic trait(s) of its host in a way that enhances its probability of transmission. Vector-borne parasites are responsible for many of the most harmful diseases affecting humans, and thus represent public health priority. It has been shown for several decades that viruses, bacteria and protozoa can alter important features of their arthropod vector and vertebrate host in a way that increases their probability of transmission. Here, we review these changes, including, the feeding behaviour, survival and immune system of the vector, as well as attraction, defensive behaviour, blood characteristics and immune system of the vertebrate host. Based on the classic measure of vector-borne disease transmission R(0), additional changes, such as, vertebrate host choice by infected vectors or parasite development duration in the vector are expected. Reported or expected phenotypic changes are discussed in terms of costs and benefits to the parasite, its vector, and the vertebrate host. Introducing the parasitic manipulation concept into vector-borne diseases clearly highlights fruitful avenues not only for fundamental research, but also for developing strategies for disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Lefèvre
- GEMI, UMR CNRS-IRD 2724, IRD, 911, av. Agropolis BP 64501, 34394 Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
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Mathieu-Daudé F, Lafay B, Touzet O, Lelièvre J, Parrado F, Bosseno MF, Rojas AM, Fatha S, Ouaissi A, Brenière SF. Exploring the FL-160-CRP gene family through sequence variability of the complement regulatory protein (CRP) expressed by the trypomastigote stage of Trypanosoma cruzi. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2008; 8:258-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2007.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2007] [Revised: 12/14/2007] [Accepted: 12/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Franco-Paredes C, Rouphael N, Méndez J, Folch E, Rodríguez-Morales AJ, Santos JI, Hurst JW. Cardiac manifestations of parasitic infections part 1: overview and immunopathogenesis. Clin Cardiol 2007; 30:195-9. [PMID: 17443654 PMCID: PMC6653029 DOI: 10.1002/clc.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasitic infections produce a wide spectrum of cardiac manifestations. They may involve various anatomic structures of the heart and are manifested clinically as myocarditis, cardiomyopathies, pericarditis, or pulmonary hypertension in many resource-constrained settings. However, many parasitic infections involving the heart may also be currently diagnosed in developed countries due to growing worldwide travel, blood transfusions, and increasing numbers of immunosuppression states such as organ transplantation, use of immunosuppressive agents, or HIV/AIDS. Clinicians anywhere in the globe need to be aware of the potential cardiac manifestations of parasitic diseases. This is part one of a three-part series discussing parasites of the heart. In this section, we provide a general overview and immunopathogenesis of parasitic infections of the heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Franco-Paredes
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
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34
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Garg N, Bhatia V. Current status and future prospects for a vaccine against American trypanosomiasis. Expert Rev Vaccines 2007; 4:867-80. [PMID: 16372882 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.4.6.867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The clinically relevant pathognomonic consequences of human infection by Trypanosoma cruzi are dilation and hypertrophy of the left ventricle walls and thinning of the apex. The major complications and debilitating evolutionary outcomes of chronic infection include ventricular fibrillation, thromboembolism and congestive heart failure. American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease) poses serious public healthcare and budgetary concerns. The currently available drugs, although effective against acute infection, are highly toxic and ineffective in arresting or attenuating clinical disease symptoms in chronic patients. The development of an efficacious prophylactic vaccine faces many challenges, and progress is slow, despite several years of effort. Studies in animal models and human patients have revealed the pathogenic mechanisms during disease progression, pathology of disease and features of protective immunity. Accordingly, several antigens, antigen-delivery vehicles and adjuvants have been tested in animal models, and some efforts have been successful in controlling infection and disease. This review will summarize the accumulated knowledge about the parasite and disease, as well as pathogenesis and protective immunity. The authors will discuss the efforts to date, and the challenges faced in achieving an efficient prophylactic vaccine against human American trypanosomiasis, and present the future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha Garg
- Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston TX 77555, USA.
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35
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Barrio AB, Van Voorhis WC, Basombrío MA. Trypanosoma cruzi: attenuation of virulence and protective immunogenicity after monoallelic disruption of the cub gene. Exp Parasitol 2007; 117:382-9. [PMID: 17624327 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2007.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2006] [Revised: 04/24/2007] [Accepted: 05/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Calmodulin-ubiquitin (cub) is a single-copy gene of Trypanosoma cruzi, which encodes a 208 aminoacid polypeptide of unknown function, containing putative calcium-binding domains. After targeted deletion, a clone (TulCub8) was derived where one of the two alleles was disrupted. This clone displayed a sharp and stable loss of virulence for mice. Parasitemias after inoculation of 10(6) trypomastigotes of the mutant, as compared to wild-type parasites were 68-fold lower (p=0.018) in adult Swiss mice and 27-fold lower (p=0.002) in newborn Balb/c mice. Epimastigote inocula of the mutant were strongly protective against infection by wild-type parasites. Virulence was not restored by serial passage in mice, showing that the attenuated phenotype is stable and gene-conversion from the intact cub allele does not occur at an appreciable rate. Retransfection of the missing cub allele restored virulence. Complementation experiments showed that the intact cub gene is necessary for full expression of virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra B Barrio
- Instituto de Patología Experimental, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Calle Buenos Aires 177, 4400 Salta, Argentina
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36
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Buscaglia CA, Campo VA, Frasch ACC, Di Noia JM. Trypanosoma cruzi surface mucins: host-dependent coat diversity. Nat Rev Microbiol 2006; 4:229-36. [PMID: 16489349 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro1351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The surface of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi is covered in mucins, which contribute to parasite protection and to the establishment of a persistent infection. Their importance is highlighted by the fact that the approximately 850 mucin-encoding genes comprise approximately 1% of the parasite genome and approximately 6% of all predicted T. cruzi genes. The coordinate expression of a large repertoire of mucins containing variable regions in the mammal-dwelling stages of the T. cruzi life cycle suggests a possible strategy to thwart the host immune response. Here, we discuss the expression profiling of T. cruzi mucins, the mechanisms leading to the acquisition of mucin diversity and the possible consequences of a mosaic surface coat in the interplay between parasite and host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Buscaglia
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas-Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH), Universidad Nacional de General San Martn-CONICET, San Martín (1650), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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37
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Chamekh M, Vercruysse V, Habib M, Lorent M, Goldman M, Allaoui A, Vray B. Transfection of Trypanosoma cruzi with host CD40 ligand results in improved control of parasite infection. Infect Immun 2005; 73:6552-61. [PMID: 16177330 PMCID: PMC1230987 DOI: 10.1128/iai.73.10.6552-6561.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2005] [Revised: 03/09/2005] [Accepted: 07/04/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously shown that infection by Trypanosoma cruzi, a parasitic protozoan, is reduced by injection of CD40 ligand (CD40L)-transfected 3T3 fibroblasts (D. Chaussabel, F. Jacobs, J. de Jonge, M. de Veerman, Y. Carlier, K. Thielemans, M. Goldman, and B. Vray, Infect. Immun. 67:1929-1934, 1999). This prompted us to transfect T. cruzi with the murine CD40L gene and to study the consequences of this transfection on the course of infection. For this, epimastigotes (Y strain) were electroporated with the pTEX vector alone or the pTEX-CD40L construct, and transfected cells were selected for their resistance to Geneticin G418. Then strain Y-, pTEX-, and pTEX-CD40L-transfected epimastigotes were transformed by metacyclogenesis into mammalian infective forms called Y, YpTEX, and YpTEX-CD40L trypomastigotes. Transfection of the CD40L gene and expression of the CD40L protein were assessed by reverse transcription-PCR and Western blot analysis. The three strains of parasites were infective in vitro for mouse peritoneal macrophages. When organisms were inoculated into mice, a very low level of parasitemia and no mortality were seen with the YpTEX-CD40L strain compared to the Y and YpTEX strains. Furthermore, the proliferative capacity and the secretion of gamma interferon were both preserved in spleen cells (SCs) from YpTEX-CD40L-infected mice but not with SCs from Y- and YpTEX-infected mice. These results suggest that the CD40L produced by transfected T. cruzi is involved in the modulation of an antiparasite immune response. Moreover, mice surviving YpTEX-CD40L infection resisted a challenge infection with the wild-type strain. Taken together, our data demonstrate the feasibility of generating a T. cruzi strain expressing a bioactive host costimulatory molecule that counteracts the immunodeficiency induced by the parasite during infection and enhances protective immunity against a challenge infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustapha Chamekh
- Laboratoire de Bactériologie Moléculaire, Faculté de Médecine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
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38
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Ferreira V, Valck C, Sánchez G, Gingras A, Tzima S, Molina MC, Sim R, Schwaeble W, Ferreira A. The classical activation pathway of the human complement system is specifically inhibited by calreticulin from Trypanosoma cruzi. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 172:3042-50. [PMID: 14978109 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.172.5.3042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The high resistance of Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes, the causal agent of Chagas' disease, to complement involves several parasite strategies. In these in vitro studies, we show that T. cruzi calreticulin (TcCRT) and two subfragments thereof (TcCRT S and TcCRT R domains) bind specifically to recognition subcomponents of the classical and lectin activation pathways (i.e., to collagenous tails of C1q and to mannan-binding lectin) of the human complement system. As a consequence of this binding, specific functional inhibition of the classical pathway and impaired mannan-binding lectin to mannose were observed. By flow cytometry, TcCRT was detected on the surface of viable trypomastigotes and, by confocal microscopy, colocalization of human C1q with surface TcCRT of infective trypomastigotes was visualized. Taken together, these findings imply that TcCRT may be a critical factor contributing to the ability of trypomastigotes to interfere at the earliest stages of complement activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana Ferreira
- Immunology and Molecular Biology Disciplinary Programs, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
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39
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Pereira-Chioccola VL, Fragata-Filho AA, Levy AMDA, Rodrigues MM, Schenkman S. Enzyme-linked immunoassay using recombinant trans-sialidase of Trypanosoma cruzi can be employed for monitoring of patients with Chagas' disease after drug treatment. CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY IMMUNOLOGY 2003; 10:826-30. [PMID: 12965912 PMCID: PMC193901 DOI: 10.1128/cdli.10.5.826-830.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
trans-Sialidase is an enzyme present on the surface of Trypanosoma cruzi and is an important antigen recognized by sera from patients with Chagas' disease. In the present study we investigated whether the benznidazole treatment of patients with Chagas' disease induced changes in the reactivity of serum toward a recombinant form of trans-sialidase in order to develop an assay for monitoring of patients after treatment for Chagas' disease, which is needed at Chagas' disease control centers. By using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay containing a recombinant protein corresponding to the catalytic domain of trans-sialidase, we found that the antigen had a high specificity for sera from untreated patients with Chagas' disease. Sera from healthy individuals or patients with active visceral leishmaniasis minimally cross-reacted with the antigen. Anti-trans-sialidase immunoglobulin was detected in 98% of 151 untreated patients with Chagas' disease. Of these, 124 patients were treated for 60 days with benznidazole (5 mg/kg of body weight/day), and their sera were assayed for reactivity with the recombinant trans-sialidase. By using this methodology, three groups of patients could be established. The first group (60 patients), which was considered to have been successfully treated, showed no reactivity after treatment. The second group (46 patients) still showed signs of infection, and after treatment their sera recognized trans-sialidase, but with reduced titers. The third group (18 patients) was considered to be resistant to drug treatment, and their sera presented identical reactivities before and after treatment. These results suggest that determination of the absence of antibodies to recombinant trans-sialidase in treated patients by the present assay is indicative of treatment success, while the presence of antibodies may indicate the persistence of infection. Therefore, this method may be useful for the diagnosis and monitoring of patients undergoing benznidazole treatment.
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40
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Manque PM, Neira I, Atayde VD, Cordero E, Ferreira AT, da Silveira JF, Ramirez M, Yoshida N. Cell adhesion and Ca2+ signaling activity in stably transfected Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes expressing the metacyclic stage-specific surface molecule gp82. Infect Immun 2003; 71:1561-5. [PMID: 12595477 PMCID: PMC148855 DOI: 10.1128/iai.71.3.1561-1565.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Metacyclic trypomastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi express a developmentally regulated 82-kDa surface glycoprotein (gp82) that has been implicated in host cell invasion. gp82-mediated interaction of metacyclic forms with target cells induces in both cells activation of the signal transduction pathways, leading to intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization, which is required for parasite internalization. Noninfective epimastigotes do not express detectable levels of gp82 and are unable to induce a Ca(2+) response. We stably transfected epimastigotes with a T. cruzi expression vector carrying the metacyclic stage gp82 cDNA. These transfectants produced a functional gp82, which bound to and triggered a Ca(2+) response in HeLa cells, in the same manner as the metacyclic trypomastigote gp82. Such properties were not found in epimastigotes transfected with the plasmid vector alone. Epimastigotes expressing gp82 on the surface adhered to HeLa cells but were not internalized. Treatment of gp82-expressing epimastigotes with forskolin, an activator of adenylyl cyclase that increases the metacyclic trypomastigote entry into target cells, did not promote parasite internalization. P175, an intracellular tyrosine phosphorylated protein, which appears to play a role in gp82-dependent signaling cascade in metacyclic forms, was undetectable in epimastigotes, either transfected or not with pTEX-gp82. Overall, our results indicate that gp82 is required but not sufficient for target cell invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricio M Manque
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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41
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Abstract
Parasitic protozoa are a major cause of global infectious disease. These eukaryotic pathogens have evolved with the vertebrate immune system and typically produce long-lasting chronic infections. A critical step in their host interaction is the evasion of innate immune defenses. The ability to avoid attack by humoral effector mechanisms, such as complement lysis, is of particular importance to extracellular parasites, whereas intracellular protozoa must resist killing by lysosomal enzymes and toxic metabolites. They do so by remodeling the phagosomal compartments in which they reside and by interfering with signaling pathways that lead to cellular activation. In addition, there is growing evidence that protozoan pathogens modify the antigen-presenting and immunoregulatory functions of dendritic cells, a process that facilitates their evasion of both innate and adaptive immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Sacks
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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42
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Sepulveda P, Hontebeyrie M, Liegeard P, Mascilli A, Norris KA. DNA-Based immunization with Trypanosoma cruzi complement regulatory protein elicits complement lytic antibodies and confers protection against Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Infect Immun 2000; 68:4986-91. [PMID: 10948115 PMCID: PMC101717 DOI: 10.1128/iai.68.9.4986-4991.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A complement regulatory protein (CRP) of Trypanosoma cruzi was evaluated as a vaccine candidate in a murine model of experimental T. cruzi infection. Recombinant CRP derived from an Escherichia coli expression system and a plasmid encoding the full-length crp structural gene under the control of a eukaryotic promoter were used to immunize BALB/c mice. Immunization with both protein and DNA vaccines resulted in a Th1-type T-cell response, comparable antibody titers, and similar immunoglobulin G isotype profiles. Only mice immunized with the crp DNA plasmid produced antibodies capable of lysing the parasites in the presence of complement and were protected against a lethal challenge with T. cruzi trypomastigotes. These results demonstrate the superiority of DNA immunization over protein immunization with the recombinant CRP. The work also supports the further investigation of CRP as a component of a multigene, anti-T. cruzi DNA vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Sepulveda
- Department of Immunology, Pasteur Institute, Paris 15, France
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43
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Frasch AC. Functional diversity in the trans-sialidase and mucin families in Trypanosoma cruzi. PARASITOLOGY TODAY (PERSONAL ED.) 2000; 16:282-6. [PMID: 10858646 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-4758(00)01698-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 231] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosomes are unable to synthesize the monosaccharide sialic acid, but some African trypanosomes and the American Trypanosoma cruzi can incorporate sialic acid derived from the host. To do so, T. cruzi expresses a trans-sialidase, an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of sialic acid from host glycoconjugates to mucin-like molecules located on the parasite surface membrane. The importance of the process is indicated by the fact that T. cruzi has hundreds of genes encoding trans-sialidase, trans-sialidase-like proteins and mucin core proteins. Sequence divergence of members of these families has resulted in some molecules having functions unrelated to the acquisition of sialic acid. In this article, Alberto Frasch reviews the structure and possible function of the proteins making up these families.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Frasch
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnologicas, Universidad Nacional de General San Martin, CC30, San Martin, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Umekita LF, Mota I. How are antibodies involved in the protective mechanism of susceptible mice infected with T. cruzi? Braz J Med Biol Res 2000; 33:253-8. [PMID: 10719375 DOI: 10.1590/s0100-879x2000000300001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Host resistance to Trypanosoma cruzi is dependent on both natural and acquired immune responses. During the acute phase of the infection the presence of IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, IL-12 and GM-CSF has been closely associated with resistance, whereas TGF-ss and IL-10 have been associated with susceptibility. Several investigators have demonstrated that antibodies are responsible for the survival of susceptible animals in the initial phase of infection and for the maintenance of low levels of parasitemia in the chronic phase. However, how this occurs is not yet understood. Our results and other data in the literature support the hypothesis that the protective role of antibodies in the acute phase of infection is dependent mostly on their ability to induce removal of bloodstream trypomastigotes from the circulation in addition to other concomitant cell-mediated events.
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Affiliation(s)
- L F Umekita
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brasil.
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Krautz GM, Kissinger JC, Krettli AU. The targets of the lytic antibody response against Trypanosoma cruzi. PARASITOLOGY TODAY (PERSONAL ED.) 2000; 16:31-4. [PMID: 10637586 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-4758(99)01581-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes, but not epimastigotes, are normally resistant to the lytic effects of complement from vertebrate hosts susceptible to infection. This resistance facilitates parasite survival and infectivity. During the course of chronic infections, however, the vertebrate hosts produce antibodies that render the trypomastigotes sensitive to lysis, primarily via the alternative complement cascade and amplified by the classical pathway. Here, Greice Krautz, Jessica Kissinger and Antoniana Krettli summarize research on lytic antibodies, and on their respective target(s) on the T. cruzi surface. These targets are useful in tests aimed at the diagnosis of chronic Chagas disease for control of cure after specific treatment and for vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- G M Krautz
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
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