Nonpolar inactivation of the hypervariable streptococcal inhibitor of complement gene (sic) in serotype M1 Streptococcus pyogenes significantly decreases mouse mucosal colonization

Association of CovRS two-component regulatory system with NADase induction by Clindamycin treatment in Streptococcus pyogenes

The administration of high-dose clindamycin (CLI) along with penicillin is recommended for the treatment of streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS). However, CLI-resistant strains have been identified worldwide. Firstly, in this study, some CLI-resistant strains showed increased extracellular activities of the NAD- glycohydrolase (NADase) exotoxin after CLI treatment. This result supported our previous conclusion that not only CLI-susceptible but also CLI-resistant S. pyogenes strains show the CLI-dependent NADase induction. Secondary, using the 13 types of two- component-sensor knockout strains derived from a CLI-susceptible strain 1529 that has the CLI-dependent NADase induction phenotype, we investigated the mechanism of action. Among the knockout strains, only 1529ΔcovS lost the phenotype. In addition, 1529ΔspeB, 1529Δmga, and 1529Δrgg retained the CLI-dependent NADase induction phenotype. These results suggest that CovS is related to the phenotype in SpeB independent manner.

Identification of distinct impacts of CovS inactivation on the transcriptome of acapsular group A streptococci

Group A streptococcal (GAS) strains causing severe, invasive infections often have mutations in the control of virulence two-component regulatory system (CovRS) which represses capsule production, and high-level capsule production is considered critical to the GAS hypervirulent phenotype. Additionally, based on studies in emm1 GAS, hyperencapsulation is thought to limit transmission of CovRS-mutated strains by reducing GAS adherence to mucosal surfaces. It has recently been identified that about 30% of invasive GAS strains lacks capsule, but there are limited data regarding the impact of CovS inactivation in such acapsular strains. Using publicly available complete genomes (n = 2,455) of invasive GAS strains, we identified similar rates of CovRS inactivation and limited evidence for transmission of CovRS-mutated isolates for both encapsulated and acapsular emm types. Relative to encapsulated GAS, CovS transcriptomes of the prevalent acapsular emm types emm28, emm87, and emm89 revealed unique impacts such as increased transcript levels of genes in the emm/mga region along with decreased transcript levels of pilus operon-encoding genes and the streptokinase-encoding gene ska. CovS inactivation in emm87 and emm89 strains, but not emm28, increased GAS survival in human blood. Moreover, CovS inactivation in acapsular GAS reduced adherence to host epithelial cells. These data suggest that the hypervirulence induced by CovS inactivation in acapsular GAS follows distinct pathways from the better studied encapsulated strains and that factors other than hyperencapsulation may account for the lack of transmission of CovRS-mutated strains. IMPORTANCE Devastating infections due to group A streptococci (GAS) tend to occur sporadically and are often caused by strains that contain mutations in the control of virulence regulatory system (CovRS). In well-studied emm1 GAS, the increased production of capsule induced by CovRS mutation is considered key to both hypervirulence and limited transmissibility by interfering with proteins that mediate attachment to eukaryotic cells. Herein, we show that the rates of covRS mutations and genetic clustering of CovRS-mutated isolates are independent of capsule status. Moreover, we found that CovS inactivation in multiple acapsular GAS emm types results in dramatically altered transcript levels of a diverse array of cell-surface protein-encoding genes and a unique transcriptome relative to encapsulated GAS. These data provide new insights into how a major human pathogen achieves hypervirulence and indicate that factors other than hyperencapsulation likely account for the sporadic nature of the severe GAS disease.

Studies of Streptococcus anginosus Virulence in Dictyostelium discoideum and Galleria mellonella Models

For many years, Streptococcus anginosus has been considered a commensal colonizing the oral cavity, as well as the gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts. However, recent epidemiological and clinical data designate this bacterium as an emerging opportunistic pathogen. Despite the reported pathogenicity of S. anginosus, the molecular mechanism underpinning its virulence is poorly described. Therefore, our goal was to develop and optimize efficient and simple infection models that can be applied to examine the virulence of S. anginosus and to study host-pathogen interactions. Using 23 S. anginosus isolates collected from different infections, including severe and superficial infections, as well as an attenuated strain devoid of CppA, we demonstrate for the first time that Dictyostelium discoideum is a suitable model for initial, fast, and large-scale screening of virulence. Furthermore, we found that another nonvertebrate animal model, Galleria mellonella, can be used to study the pathogenesis of S. anginosus infection, with an emphasis on the interactions between the pathogen and host innate immunity. Examining the profile of immune defense genes, including antimicrobial peptides, opsonins, regulators of nodulation, and inhibitors of proteases, by quantitative PCR (qPCR) we identified different immune response profiles depending on the S. anginosus strain. Using these models, we show that S. anginosus is resistant to the bactericidal activity of phagocytes, a phenomenon confirmed using human neutrophils. Notably, since we found that the data from these models corresponded to the clinical severity of infection, we propose their further application to studies of the virulence of S. anginosus.

The serotype a-EmaA adhesin of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans does not require O-PS synthesis for collagen binding activity

Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, a causative agent of periodontitis and non-oral diseases, synthesizes a trimeric extracellular matrix protein adhesin A (EmaA) that mediates collagen binding and biofilm formation. EmaA is found as two molecular forms, which correlate with the serotype of the bacterium. The canonical protein (b-EmaA), associated with serotypes b and c, has a monomeric molecular mass of 202 kDa. The collagen binding activity of b-EmaA is dependent on the presence of O-polysaccharide (O-PS), whereas biofilm activity is independent of O-PS synthesis. The EmaA associated with serotype a strains (a-EmaA) has a monomeric molecular mass of 173 kDa and differs in the amino acid sequence of the functional domain of the protein. In this study, a-emaA was confirmed to encode a protein that forms antenna-like appendages on the surface of the bacterium, which were found to be important for both collagen binding and biofilm formation. In an O-PS-deficient talose biosynthetic (tld) mutant strain, the electrophoretic mobility of the a-EmaA monomers was altered and the amount of membrane-associated EmaA was decreased when compared to the parent strain. The mass of biofilm formed remained unchanged. Interestingly, the collagen binding activity of the mutant strain was similar to the activity associated with the parent strain, which differs from that observed with the canonical b-EmaA isoform. These data suggest that the properties of the a-EmaA isoform are like those of b-EmaA, with the exception that collagen binding activity is independent of the presence or absence of the O-PS.

PRD-Containing Virulence Regulators (PCVRs) in Pathogenic Bacteria

Bacterial pathogens rely on a complex network of regulatory proteins to adapt to hostile and nutrient-limiting host environments. The phosphoenolpyruvate phosphotransferase system (PTS) is a conserved pathway in bacteria that couples transport of sugars with phosphorylation to monitor host carbohydrate availability. A family of structurally homologous PTS-regulatory-domain-containing virulence regulators (PCVRs) has been recognized in divergent bacterial pathogens, including Streptococcus pyogenes Mga and Bacillus anthracis AtxA. These paradigm PCVRs undergo phosphorylation, potentially via the PTS, which impacts their dimerization and their activity. Recent work with predicted PCVRs from Streptococcus pneumoniae (MgaSpn) and Enterococcus faecalis (MafR) suggest they interact with DNA like nucleoid-associating proteins. Yet, Mga binds to promoter sequences as a homo-dimeric transcription factor, suggesting a bi-modal interaction with DNA. High-resolution crystal structures of 3 PCVRs have validated the domain structure, but also raised additional questions such as how ubiquitous are PCVRs, is PTS-mediated histidine phosphorylation via potential PCVRs widespread, do specific sugars signal through PCVRs, and do PCVRs interact with DNA both as transcription factors and nucleoid-associating proteins? Here, we will review known and putative PCVRs based on key domain and functional characteristics and consider their roles as both transcription factors and possibly chromatin-structuring proteins.

Streptococcus pyogenes TrxSR Two-Component System Regulates Biofilm Production in Acidic Environments

Bacteria form biofilms for their protection against environmental stress and produce virulence factors within the biofilm. Biofilm formation in acidified environments is regulated by a two-component system, as shown by studies on isogenic mutants of the sensor protein of the two-component regulatory system in Streptococcus pyogenes. In this study, we found that the LiaS histidine kinase sensor mediates biofilm production and pilus expression in an acidified environment through glucose fermentation. The liaS isogenic mutant produced biofilms in a culture acidified by hydrochloric acid but not glucose, suggesting that the acidified environment is sensed by another protein. In addition, the trxS isogenic mutant could not produce biofilms or activate the mga promoter in an acidified environment. Mass spectrometry analysis showed that TrxS regulates M protein, consistent with the transcriptional regulation of emm, which encodes M protein. Our results demonstrate that biofilm production during environmental acidification is directly under the control of TrxS.

The RD2 Pathogenicity Island Modifies the Disease Potential of the Group A Streptococcus

Serotype M28 isolates of the group A Streptococcus (GAS; Streptococcus pyogenes) are nonrandomly associated with cases of puerperal sepsis, a potentially life-threatening infection that can occur in women following childbirth. Previously, we discovered that the 36.3-kb RD2 pathogenicity island, which is present in serotype M28 isolates but lacking from most other isolates, promotes the ability of M28 GAS to colonize the female reproductive tract. Here, we performed a gain-of-function study in which we introduced RD2 into representative serotype M1, M49, and M59 isolates and assessed the phenotypic consequences of RD2 acquisition. All RD2-containing derivatives colonized a higher percentage of mice, and at higher CFU levels, than did the parental isolates in a mouse vaginal colonization model. However, for two additional phenotypes, survival in heparinized whole human blood and adherence to two human vaginal epithelial cell lines, there were serotype-specific differences from RD2 acquisition. Using transcriptomic comparisons, we identified that such differences may be a consequence of RD2 altering the abundance of transcripts from select core genome genes along serotype-specific lines. Our study is the first that interrogates RD2 function in GAS serotypes other than M28 isolates, shedding light on variability in the phenotypic consequences of RD2 acquisition and informing on why this mobile genetic element is not ubiquitous in the GAS population.

Playing With Fire: Proinflammatory Virulence Mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus

Group A Streptococcus is an obligate human pathogen that is a major cause of infectious morbidity and mortality. It has a natural tropism for the oropharynx and skin, where it causes infections with excessive inflammation due to its expression of proinflammatory toxins and other virulence factors. Inflammation directly contributes to the severity of invasive infections, toxic shock syndrome, and the induction of severe post-infection autoimmune disease caused by autoreactive antibodies. This review discusses what is known about how the virulence factors of Group A Streptococcus induce inflammation and how this inflammation can promote disease. Understanding of streptococcal pathogenesis and the role of hyper-immune activation during infection may provide new therapeutic targets to treat the often-fatal outcome of severe disease.

Contribution of adhesion proteins to Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans biofilm formation

Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans is a Gram-negative bacterium associated with periodontal disease and multiple disseminated extra-oral infections. Colonization of these distinct physiological niches is contingent on the expression of specific surface proteins during the initiation of developing biofilms. In this investigation, we studied fimbriae and three well-characterized nonfimbrial surface proteins (EmaA, Aae, and ApiA/Omp100) for their contribution to biofilm formation. Mutations of these proteins in multiple strains covering four different serotypes demonstrated variance in biofilm development that was strain dependent but independent of serotype. In a fimbriated background, only inactivation of emaA impacted biofilm mass. In contrast, inactivation of emaA and/or aae affected biofilm formation in nonfimbriated A. actinomycetemcomitans strains, whereas inactivation of apiA/omp100 had little effect on biofilm formation. When these genes were expressed individually in Escherichia coli, all transformed strains demonstrated an increase in biofilm mass compared to the parent strain. The strain expressing emaA generated the greatest mass of biofilm, whereas the strains expressing either aae or apiA/omp100 were greatly reduced and similar in mass. These data suggest a redundancy in function of these nonfimbrial adhesins, which is dependent on the genetic background of the strain investigated.

Streptococcal protein SIC activates monocytes and induces inflammation

Streptococcus pyogenes is a major bacterial pathogen in the human population and isolates of the clinically important M1 serotype secrete protein Streptococcal inhibitor of complement (SIC) known to interfere with human innate immunity. Here we find that SIC from M1 bacteria interacts with TLR2 and CD14 on monocytes leading to the activation of the NF-κB and p38 MAPK pathways and the release of several pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g. TNFα and INFγ). In human plasma, SIC binds clusterin and histidine-rich glycoprotein, and whole plasma, and these two purified plasma proteins enhanced the activation of monocytes by SIC. Isolates of the M55 serotype secrete an SIC homolog, but this protein did not activate monocytes. M1 isolates are common in cases of invasive S. pyogenes infections characterized by massive inflammation, and the results of this study indicate that the pro-inflammatory property of SIC contributes to the pathology of these severe clinical conditions.

A Mobile Genetic Element Promotes the Association Between Serotype M28 Group A Streptococcus Isolates and Cases of Puerperal Sepsis

BACKGROUND

Bacterial infections following childbirth-so-called puerperal infections-cause morbidity in 5%-10% of all new mothers. At low frequency, the infection can spread to the blood, resulting in life-threatening sepsis known as puerperal sepsis. Pathogens causing puerperal sepsis include group A Streptococcus (GAS), and epidemiological analyses have identified isolates of a single serotype, M28, as being nonrandomly associated with cases of puerperal sepsis. The genomes of serotype M28 GAS isolates harbor a 36.3-kb mobile genetic element of apparent group B Streptococcus origin, termed region of difference 2 (RD2).

METHODS

The phenotypic (determined via tissue culture and a vaginal colonization model) and regulatory (determined via RNA sequencing analysis) contributions of RD2 were assessed by comparing parental, RD2 deletion mutant, and complemented mutant serotype M28 GAS strains.

RESULTS

RD2 affords serotype M28 isolates an enhanced ability to adhere to human vaginal epithelial cells and to colonize the female reproductive tract in a mouse model of infection. In addition, RD2 influences the abundance of messenger RNAs from >100 core chromosomal GAS genes.

CONCLUSIONS

The data are consistent with RD2 directly, via encoded virulence factors, and indirectly, via encoded regulatory proteins, modifying the virulence potential of GAS and contributing to the decades-old association of serotype M28 isolates with cases of puerperal sepsis.

Metal sensing and regulation of adaptive responses to manganese limitation by MtsR is critical for group A streptococcus virulence

Pathogenic bacteria encounter host-imposed manganese (Mn) limitation during infection. Herein we report that in the human pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes, the adaptive response to Mn limitation is controlled by a DtxR family metalloregulator, MtsR. Genes upregulated by MtsR during Mn limitation include Mn (mtsABC) and Fe acquisition systems (sia operon), and a metal-independent DNA synthesis enzyme (nrdFEI.2). To elucidate the mechanism of metal sensing and gene regulation by MtsR, we determined the crystal structure of MtsR. MtsR employs two Mn-sensing sites to monitor metal availability, and metal occupancy at each site influences MtsR regulatory activity. The site 1 acts as the primary Mn sensing site, and loss of metal at site 1 causes robust upregulation of mtsABC. The vacant site 2 causes partial induction of mtsABC, indicating that site 2 functions as secondary Mn sensing site. Furthermore, we show that the C-terminal FeoA domains of adjacent dimers participate in the oligomerization of MtsR on DNA, and multimerization is critical for MtsR regulatory activity. Finally, the mtsR mutant strains defective in metal sensing and oligomerization are attenuated for virulence in a mouse model of invasive infection, indicating that Mn sensing and gene regulation by MtsR are critical processes during S. pyogenes infection.

The group A Streptococcus accessory protein RocA: regulatory activity, interacting partners and influence on disease potential

The group A Streptococcus (GAS) causes diseases that range from mild (e.g. pharyngitis) to severely invasive (e.g. necrotizing fasciitis). Strain‐ and serotype‐specific differences influence the ability of isolates to cause individual diseases. At the center of this variability is the CovR/S two‐component system and the accessory protein RocA. Through incompletely defined mechanisms, CovR/S and RocA repress the expression of more than a dozen immunomodulatory virulence factors. Alleviation of this repression is selected for during invasive infections, leading to the recovery of covR, covS or rocA mutant strains. Here, we investigated how RocA promotes CovR/S activity, identifying that RocA is a pseudokinase that interacts with CovS. Disruption of CovS kinase or phosphatase activities abolishes RocA function, consistent with RocA acting through the modulation of CovS activity. We also identified, in conflict with a previous study, that the RocA regulon includes the secreted protease‐encoding gene speB. Finally, we discovered an inverse correlation between the virulence of wild‐type, rocA mutant, covS mutant and covR mutant strains during invasive infection and their fitness in an ex vivo upper respiratory tract model. Our data inform on mechanisms that control GAS disease potential and provide an explanation for observed strain‐ and serotype‐specific variability in RocA function.

Toxins and Superantigens of Group A Streptococci

Streptococcus pyogenes (i.e., the group A Streptococcus ) is a human-restricted and versatile bacterial pathogen that produces an impressive arsenal of both surface-expressed and secreted virulence factors. Although surface-expressed virulence factors are clearly vital for colonization, establishing infection, and the development of disease, the secreted virulence factors are likely the major mediators of tissue damage and toxicity seen during active infection. The collective exotoxin arsenal of S. pyogenes is rivaled by few bacterial pathogens and includes extracellular enzymes, membrane active proteins, and a variety of toxins that specifically target both the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system, including the superantigens; however, despite their role in S. pyogenes disease, each of these virulence factors has likely evolved with humans in the context of asymptomatic colonization and transmission. In this article, we focus on the biology of the true secreted exotoxins of the group A Streptococcus , as well as their roles in the pathogenesis of human disease.

A Nonfimbrial Adhesin of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans Mediates Biofilm Biogenesis

Periodontitis is an inflammatory disease caused by polymicrobial biofilms. The periodontal pathogen Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans displays two proteinaceous surface structures, the fimbriae and the nonfimbrial extracellular matrix binding protein A (EmaA), as observed by electron microscopy. Fimbriae participate in biofilm biogenesis and the EmaA adhesins mediate collagen binding. However, in the absence of fimbriae, A. actinomycetemcomitans still retains the potential to form robust biofilms, suggesting that other surface macromolecules participate in biofilm development. Here, isogenic mutant strains lacking EmaA structures, but still expressing fimbriae, were observed to have reduced biofilm potential. In strains lacking both EmaA and fimbriae, biofilm mass was reduced by 80%. EmaA enhanced biofilm formation in different strains, independent of the fimbriation state or serotype. Confocal microscopy revealed differences in cell density within microcolonies between the EmaA positive and mutant strains. EmaA-mediated biofilm formation was found to be independent of the glycosylation state and the precise three-dimensional conformation of the protein, and thus this function is uncorrelated with collagen binding activity. The data suggest that EmaA is a multifunctional adhesin that utilizes different mechanisms to enhance bacterial binding to collagen and to enhance biofilm formation, both of which are important for A. actinomycetemcomitans colonization and subsequent infection.

Efficient construction of Streptococcus anginosus mutants in strains of clinical origin

Streptococcus anginosus group (SAG) is Gram-positive bacteria responsible for a number of purulent human infections such as brain and liver abscesses, which have been on the rise for last few decades. Although some virulence factors of SAG are described, they are mostly undefined and there are almost no methods for genetic manipulations of clinical SAG. Therefore, we presented various approaches to produce engineered strains of this poorly known group of streptococci. We developed a procedure of transformation characterized by transformation efficiency at the level of 10⁴ per 1 μg DNA for certain strains. Moreover, mutagenesis for many SAG strain is possible based on the process of natural transformation. However, the usefulness of methods and their effectiveness are strain dependent.

Streptococcal inhibitor of complement (SIC) modulates fibrinolysis and enhances bacterial survival within fibrin clots

Some strains of the bacterial pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes secrete protein SIC (streptococcal inhibitor of complement), including strains of the clinically relevant M1 serotype. SIC neutralizes the effect of a number of antimicrobial proteins/peptides and interferes with the function of the host complement system. Previous studies have shown that some S. pyogenes proteins bind and modulate coagulation and fibrinolysis factors, raising the possibility that SIC also may interfere with the activity of these factors. Here we show that SIC interacts with both human thrombin and plasminogen, key components of coagulation and fibrinolysis. We found that during clot formation, SIC binds fibrin through its central region and that SIC inhibits fibrinolysis by interacting with plasminogen. Flow cytometry results indicated that SIC and plasminogen bind simultaneously to S. pyogenes bacteria, and fluorescence microscopy revealed co-localization of the two proteins at the bacterial surface. As a consequence, SIC-expressing bacteria entrapped in clots inhibit fibrinolysis, leading to delayed bacterial escape from the clots as compared with mutant bacteria lacking SIC. Moreover, within the clots SIC-expressing bacteria were protected against killing. In an animal model of subcutaneous infection, SIC-expressing bacteria exhibited a delayed systemic spread. These results demonstrate that the bacterial protein SIC interferes with coagulation and fibrinolysis and thereby enhances bacterial survival, a finding that has significant implications for S. pyogenes virulence.

Deletion of from Streptococcus pyogenes. Results in Hypervirulence in a Mouse Model of Sepsis and is LuxS Independent

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a Gram-positive human pathogen that causes a variety of diseases ranging from pharyngitis to life-threatening streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Recently, several global gene expression analyses have yielded extensive new information regarding the regulation of genes encoding known and putative virulence factors in GAS. A microarray analysis found that transcription of the GAS gene M5005_Spy_1343 was significantly increased in response to interaction with human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. M5005_Spy_1343 is predicted to encode a member of the LysR family of transcriptional regulators and is located upstream of a putative operon containing six genes. Five of these genes have sequence similarity to genes involved in short-chain fatty acid metabolism, whereas the sixth gene (luxS) is found in many bacterial species and is involved in quorum sensing. Unexpectedly, inactivation of the M5005_Spy_1343 gene resulted in hypervirulence in an intraperitoneal mouse model of infection. Increased virulence was not due to changes in luxS gene expression. We postulate that short-chain fatty acid metabolism is involved in GAS pathogenesis.

Isogenic mutations in the Moraxella catarrhalis CydDC system display pleiotropic phenotypes and reveal the role of a palindrome sequence in its transcriptional regulation

Moraxella catarrhalis is becoming an important human respiratory tract pathogen affecting significant proportions from the population. However, still little is known about its physiology and molecular regulation. To this end, the CydDC, which is a heterodimeric ATP binding cassette transporter that has been shown to contribute to the maintenance of the redox homeostasis across the periplasm in other Gram-negative bacteria, is studied here. Amino acids multiple sequence alignments indicated that M. catarrhalis CydC is different from the CydC proteins of the bacterial species in which this system has been previously studied. These findings prompted further interest in studying this system in M. catarrhalis. Isogenic mutant in the CydDC system showed suppression in growth rate, hypersensitivity to oxidative and reductive stress and increased accumulation of intracellular cysteine levels. In addition, the growth of cydC^- mutant exhibited hypersensitivity to exogenous cysteine; however, it did not display a significant difference from its wild-type counterpart in the murine pulmonary clearance model. Moreover, a palindrome was detected 94bp upstream of the cydD ORF suggesting it might act as a potential regulatory element. Real-time reverse transcription-PCR analysis showed that deletion/change in the palindrome resulted into alterations in the transcription levels of cydC. A better understanding of such system and its regulation helps in developing better ways to combat M. catarrhalis infections.

Iron Efflux by PmtA Is Critical for Oxidative Stress Resistance and Contributes Significantly to Group A Streptococcus Virulence

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a human-only pathogen that causes a spectrum of disease conditions. Given its survival in inflamed lesions, the ability to sense and overcome oxidative stress is critical for GAS pathogenesis. PerR senses oxidative stress and coordinates the regulation of genes involved in GAS antioxidant defenses. In this study, we investigated the role of PerR-controlled metal transporter A (PmtA) in GAS pathogenesis. Previously, PmtA was implicated in GAS antioxidant defenses and suggested to protect against zinc toxicity. Here, we report that PmtA is a P_1B4-type ATPase that functions as an Fe(II) exporter and aids GAS defenses against iron intoxication and oxidative stress. The expression of pmtA is specifically induced by excess iron, and this induction requires PerR. Furthermore, a pmtA mutant exhibited increased sensitivity to iron toxicity and oxidative stress due to an elevated intracellular accumulation of iron. RNA-sequencing analysis revealed that GAS undergoes significant alterations in gene expression to adapt to iron toxicity. Finally, using two mouse models of invasive infection, we demonstrated that iron efflux by PmtA is critical for bacterial survival during infection and GAS virulence. Together, these data demonstrate that PmtA is a key component of GAS antioxidant defenses and contributes significantly to GAS virulence.

Increased Pilus Production Conferred by a Naturally Occurring Mutation Alters Host-Pathogen Interaction in Favor of Carriage in Streptococcus pyogenes

Studies of the human pathogen group A Streptococcus (GAS) define the carrier phenotype to be an increased ability to adhere to and persist on epithelial surfaces and a decreased ability to cause disease. We tested the hypothesis that a single amino acid change (Arg135Gly) in a highly conserved sensor kinase (LiaS) of a poorly defined GAS regulatory system contributes to a carrier phenotype through increased pilus production. When introduced into an emm serotype-matched invasive strain, the carrier allele (the gene encoding the LiaS protein with an arginine-to-glycine change at position 135 [liaS^R135G]) recapitulated a carrier phenotype defined by an increased ability to adhere to mucosal surfaces and a decreased ability to cause disease. Gene transcript analyses revealed that the liaS mutation significantly altered transcription of the genes encoding pilus in the presence of bacitracin. Elimination of pilus production in the isogenic carrier mutant decreased its ability to colonize the mouse nasopharynx and to adhere to and be internalized by cultured human epithelial cells and restored the virulence phenotype in a mouse model of necrotizing fasciitis. We also observed significantly reduced survival of the isogenic carrier mutant compared to that of the parental invasive strain after exposure to human neutrophils. Elimination of pilus in the isogenic carrier mutant increased the level of survival after exposure to human neutrophils to that for the parental invasive strain. Together, our data demonstrate that the carrier mutation (liaS^R135G) affects pilus expression. Our data suggest new mechanisms of pilus gene regulation in GAS and that the invasiveness associated with pilus gene regulation in GAS differs from the enhanced invasiveness associated with increased pilus production in other bacterial pathogens.

Two-Component Systems Involved in Susceptibility to Nisin A in Streptococcus pyogenes

Two-component systems (TCSs) are regulatory systems in bacteria that play important roles in sensing and adapting to the environment. In this study, we systematically evaluated the roles of TCSs in the susceptibility of the group A Streptococcus (GAS; Streptococcus pyogenes) SF370 strain to several types of lantibiotics. Using individual TCS deletion mutants, we found that the deletion of srtRK (spy_1081-spy_1082) in SF370 increased the susceptibility to nisin A, which is produced by Lactococcus lactis ATCC 11454, but susceptibility to other types of lantibiotics (nukacin ISK-1, produced by Staphylococcus warneri, and staphylococcin C55, produced by Staphylococcus aureus) was not altered in the TCS mutants tested. The expression of srtFEG (spy_1085 to spy_1087), which is located downstream of srtRK and is homologous to ABC transporters, was increased in response to nisin A. However, srtEFG expression was not induced by nisin A in the srtRK mutant. The inactivation of srtFEG increased the susceptibility to nisin A. These results suggest that SrtRK controls SrtFEG expression to alter the susceptibility to nisin A. Further experiments showed that SrtRK is required for coexistence with L. lactis ATCC 11454, which produces nisin A. Our results elucidate the important roles of S. pyogenes TCSs in the interactions between different bacterial species, including bacteriocin-producing bacteria.

IMPORTANCE

In this study, we focused on the association of TCSs with susceptibility to bacteriocins in S. pyogenes SF370, which has no ability to produce bacteriocins, and reported two major new findings. We demonstrated that the SrtRK TCS is related to susceptibility to nisin A by controlling the ABC transporter SrtFEG. We also showed that S. pyogenes SrtRK is important for survival when the bacteria are cocultured with nisin A-producing Lactococcus lactis This report highlights the roles of TCSs in the colocalization of bacteriocin-producing bacteria and non-bacteriocin-producing bacteria. Our findings provide new insights into the function of TCSs in S. pyogenes.

Inner-membrane protein MorC is involved in fimbriae production and biofilm formation in Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans

Fimbrial subunit synthesis, secretion and assembly on the surface of the periodontal pathogen Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans are essential for biofilm formation. A recent quantitative proteomics study employing an afimbriated strain and a developed mutant isogenic for the inner-membrane protein morphogenesis protein C (MorC) revealed that the abundance of the proteins of the fimbrial secretion apparatus in the membrane is dependent on MorC. To investigate further the relationship between MorC and fimbriation, we identified and complemented the defect in fimbriae production in the afimbriated laboratory strain. The transformed strain expressing a plasmid containing genes encoding the WT fimbrial subunit and the prepilin peptidase displayed all of the hallmarks of a fimbriated bacterium including the distinct star-like colony morphology, robust biofilm formation, biofilm architecture composed of discrete microcolonies and the presence of fimbriae. When the identical plasmid was transformed into a morC mutant strain, the bacterium did not display any of the phenotypes of fimbriated strains. Extension of these studies to a naturally fimbriated clinical strain showed that the resulting morC mutant maintained the characteristic colony morphology of fimbriated strains. There was, however, a reduction in the secretion of fimbrial subunits, and fewer fimbriae were observed on the surface of the mutant strain. Furthermore, the morC mutant of the fimbriated strain displayed a significantly altered biofilm microcolony architecture, while maintaining a similar biofilm mass to the parent strain. These results suggest that MorC influences fimbrial secretion and microcolony formation in A. actinomycetemcomitans.

The conserved carboxyl domain of MorC, an inner membrane protein of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, is essential for membrane function

Morphogenesis protein C (MorC) of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans is important for maintaining the membrane morphology and integrity of the cell envelope of this oral pathogen. The MorC sequence and operon organization were found to be conserved in Gammaproteobacteria, based on a bioinformatic analysis of 435 sequences from representative organisms. Functional conservation of MorC was investigated using an A. actinomycetemcomitans morC mutant as a model system to express MorC homologs from four phylogenetically diverse representatives of the Gammaproteobacteria: Haemophilus influenzae, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Moraxella catarrhalis. The A. actinomycetemcomitans strains expressing the homologous proteins were assessed for sensitivity to bile salts, leukotoxin secretion, autoaggregation and membrane morphology. MorC from the most closely related organism (H. influenzae) was functionally identical to MorC from A. actinomycetemcomitans. However, the genes from more distantly related organisms restored some but not all A. actinomycetemcomitans mutant phenotypes. In addition, deletion mutagenesis indicated that the most conserved portion of the protein, the C-terminus DUF490 domain, was necessary to maintain the integrity of the membrane. Deletion of the last 10 amino acids of this domain of the A. actinomycetemcomitans MorC protein was sufficient to disrupt membrane stability and leukotoxin secretion. The data suggest that the MorC sequence is functionally conserved across Gammaproteobacteria and the C-terminus of the protein is essential for maintaining membrane physiology.

Regulatory rewiring confers serotype-specific hyper-virulence in the human pathogen group A Streptococcus

Phenotypic heterogeneity is commonly observed between isolates of a given pathogen. Epidemiological analyses have identified that some serotypes of the group A Streptococcus (GAS) are non-randomly associated with particular disease manifestations. Here, we present evidence that a contributing factor to the association of serotype M3 GAS isolates with severe invasive infections is the presence of a null mutant allele for the orphan kinase RocA. Through use of RNAseq analysis, we identified that the natural rocA mutation present within M3 isolates leads to the enhanced expression of more than a dozen immunomodulatory virulence factors, enhancing phenotypes such as hemolysis and NAD(+) hydrolysis. Consequently, an M3 GAS isolate survived human phagocytic killing at a level 13-fold higher than a rocA complemented derivative, and was significantly more virulent in a murine bacteremia model of infection. Finally, we identified that RocA functions through the CovR/S two-component system as levels of phosphorylated CovR increase in the presence of functional RocA, and RocA has no regulatory activity following covR or covS mutation. Our data are consistent with RocA interfacing with the CovR/S two-component system, and that the absence of this activity in M3 GAS potentiates the severity of invasive infections caused by isolates of this serotype.

The small regulatory RNA FasX enhances group A Streptococcus virulence and inhibits pilus expression via serotype-specific targets

Bacterial pathogens commonly show intra-species variation in virulence factor expression and often this correlates with pathogenic potential. The group A Streptococcus (GAS) produces a small regulatory RNA (sRNA), FasX, which regulates the expression of pili and the thrombolytic agent streptokinase. As GAS serotypes are polymorphic regarding (a) FasX abundance, (b) the fibronectin, collagen, T-antigen (FCT) region of the genome, which contains the pilus genes (nine different FCT-types), and (c) the streptokinase-encoding gene (ska) sequence (two different alleles), we sought to test whether FasX regulates pilus and streptokinase expression in a serotype-specific manner. Parental, fasX mutant and complemented derivatives of serotype M1 (ska-2, FCT-2), M2 (ska-1, FCT-6), M6 (ska-2, FCT-1) and M28 (ska-1, FCT-4) isolates were compared. While FasX reduced pilus expression in each serotype, the molecular basis differed, as FasX bound, and inhibited the translation of, different FCT-region mRNAs. FasX enhanced streptokinase expression in each serotype, although the degree of regulation varied. Finally, we established that the regulation afforded by FasX enhances GAS virulence, assessed by a model of bacteremia using human plasminogen-expressing mice. Our data are the first to identify and characterize serotype-specific regulation by an sRNA in GAS, and to show an sRNA directly contributes to GAS virulence.

Natural variant of collagen-like protein a in serotype M3 group a Streptococcus increases adherence and decreases invasive potential

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) predominantly exists as a colonizer of the human oropharynx that occasionally breaches epithelial barriers to cause invasive diseases. Despite the frequency of GAS carriage, few investigations into the contributory molecular mechanisms exist. To this end, we identified a naturally occurring polymorphism in the gene encoding the streptococcal collagen-like protein A (SclA) in GAS carrier strains. All previously sequenced invasive serotype M3 GAS possess a premature stop codon in the sclA gene truncating the protein. The carrier polymorphism is predicted to restore SclA function and was infrequently identified by targeted DNA sequencing in invasive strains of the same serotype. We demonstrate that a strain with the carrier sclA allele expressed a full-length SclA protein, while the strain with the invasive sclA allele expressed a truncated variant. An isoallelic mutant invasive strain with the carrier sclA allele exhibited decreased virulence in a mouse model of invasive disease and decreased multiplication in human blood. Further, the isoallelic invasive strain with the carrier sclA allele persisted in the mouse nasopharynx and had increased adherence to cultured epithelial cells. Repair of the premature stop codon in the invasive sclA allele restored the ability to bind the extracellular matrix proteins laminin and cellular fibronectin. These data demonstrate that a mutation in GAS carrier strains increases adherence and decreases virulence and suggest selection against increased adherence in GAS invasive isolates.

Analysis of the roles of NrdR and DnaB from Streptococcus pyogenes in response to host defense

Toxic shock syndrome caused by Streptococcus pyogenes (S. pyogenes) is a re-emerging infectious disease. Many virulence-associated proteins play important roles in its pathogenesis and the production of these proteins is controlled by many regulatory factors. CovS is one of the most important two-component sensor proteins in S. pyogenes, and it has been analyzed extensively. Our recent analyses revealed the existence of a transposon between covS and nrdR in several strains, and we speculated that this insertion has some importance. Hence, we examined the significances of the NrdR stand-alone regulator and DnaB, which is encoded by the gene located immediately downstream of nrdR in S. pyogenes infection. We established an nrdR-only knockout strain, and both nrdR and partial dnaB knockout strain. These established knockout strains exhibited a deteriorated response to H2 O2 exposure. nrdR and partial dnaB knockout strain was more easily killed by human polynuclear blood cells, but the nrdR-only knockout strain had no significant difference compared to wild type in contrast to the combined knockout strain. In addition, the mouse infection model experiment illustrated that nrdR and partial dnaB knockout strain, but not the nrdR-only knockout strain, was less virulent compared with the parental strain. These results suggest that DnaB is involved in response to host defense.

Disease manifestations and pathogenic mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus

Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), causes mild human infections such as pharyngitis and impetigo and serious infections such as necrotizing fasciitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Furthermore, repeated GAS infections may trigger autoimmune diseases, including acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, acute rheumatic fever, and rheumatic heart disease. Combined, these diseases account for over half a million deaths per year globally. Genomic and molecular analyses have now characterized a large number of GAS virulence determinants, many of which exhibit overlap and redundancy in the processes of adhesion and colonization, innate immune resistance, and the capacity to facilitate tissue barrier degradation and spread within the human host. This improved understanding of the contribution of individual virulence determinants to the disease process has led to the formulation of models of GAS disease progression, which may lead to better treatment and intervention strategies. While GAS remains sensitive to all penicillins and cephalosporins, rising resistance to other antibiotics used in disease treatment is an increasing worldwide concern. Several GAS vaccine formulations that elicit protective immunity in animal models have shown promise in nonhuman primate and early-stage human trials. The development of a safe and efficacious commercial human vaccine for the prophylaxis of GAS disease remains a high priority.

Disease manifestations and pathogenic mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus

Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), causes mild human infections such as pharyngitis and impetigo and serious infections such as necrotizing fasciitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Furthermore, repeated GAS infections may trigger autoimmune diseases, including acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, acute rheumatic fever, and rheumatic heart disease. Combined, these diseases account for over half a million deaths per year globally. Genomic and molecular analyses have now characterized a large number of GAS virulence determinants, many of which exhibit overlap and redundancy in the processes of adhesion and colonization, innate immune resistance, and the capacity to facilitate tissue barrier degradation and spread within the human host. This improved understanding of the contribution of individual virulence determinants to the disease process has led to the formulation of models of GAS disease progression, which may lead to better treatment and intervention strategies. While GAS remains sensitive to all penicillins and cephalosporins, rising resistance to other antibiotics used in disease treatment is an increasing worldwide concern. Several GAS vaccine formulations that elicit protective immunity in animal models have shown promise in nonhuman primate and early-stage human trials. The development of a safe and efficacious commercial human vaccine for the prophylaxis of GAS disease remains a high priority.

The phosphoenolpyruvate phosphotransferase system in group A Streptococcus acts to reduce streptolysin S activity and lesion severity during soft tissue infection

Obtaining essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, is an important process for bacterial pathogens to successfully colonize host tissues. The phosphoenolpyruvate phosphotransferase system (PTS) is the primary mechanism by which bacteria transport sugars and sense the carbon state of the cell. The group A streptococcus (GAS) is a fastidious microorganism that has adapted to a variety of niches in the human body to elicit a wide array of diseases. A ΔptsI mutant (enzyme I [EI] deficient) generated in three different strains of M1T1 GAS was unable to grow on multiple carbon sources (PTS and non-PTS). Complementation with ptsI expressed under its native promoter in single copy was able to rescue the growth defect of the mutant. In a mouse model of GAS soft tissue infection, all ΔptsI mutants exhibited a significantly larger and more severe ulcerative lesion than mice infected with the wild type. Increased transcript levels of sagA and streptolysin S (SLS) activity during exponential-phase growth was observed. We hypothesized that early onset of SLS activity would correlate with the severity of the lesions induced by the ΔptsI mutant. In fact, infection of mice with a ΔptsI sagB double mutant resulted in a lesion comparable to that of either the wild type or a sagB mutant alone. Therefore, a functional PTS is not required for subcutaneous skin infection in mice; however, it does play a role in coordinating virulence factor expression and disease progression.

Analysis of the Staphylococcus aureus abscess proteome identifies antimicrobial host proteins and bacterial stress responses at the host-pathogen interface

Abscesses are a hallmark of invasive staphylococcal infections and the site of a dynamic struggle between pathogen and host. However, the precise host and bacterial factors that contribute to abscess formation and maintenance have not been completely described. In this work, we define the Staphylococcus aureus abscess proteome from both wild-type and neutropenic mice to elucidate the host response to staphylococcal infection and uncover novel S. aureus virulence factors. Among the proteins identified, the mouse protein histone H4 was enriched in the abscesses of wild-type compared with neutropenic animals. Histone H4 inhibits staphylococcal growth in vitro demonstrating a role for this protein in the innate immune response to staphylococcal infection. These analyses also identified staphylococcal proteins within the abscess, including known virulence factors and proteins with previously unrecognized roles in pathogenesis. Within the latter group was the universal stress protein Usp2, which was enriched in kidney lesions from neutropenic mice and required for the S. aureus response to stringent stress. Taken together, these data describe the S. aureus abscess proteome and lay the foundation for the identification of contributors to innate immunity and bacterial pathogenesis.

Sequence diversity of sicG among group C and G Streptococcus dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis isolates associated with human infections in western Norway

Streptococcal inhibitor of complement (SIC) and distantly related to SIC (DRS) are well-characterized extracellular virulence factors produced by only a few emm types among group A streptococci. The prevalence and sequence variations of the sic-like gene (sicG) in clinical samples of group C and G Streptococcus dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis (SDSE), however, have not been widely investigated. We constructed primers targeting sicG and screened 129 geographically matched and previously emm-typed non-invasive (n = 64) and invasive (n = 65) SDSE isolates for the presence of this gene. sicG was detected in seven non-invasive and eight invasive isolates belonging to eight different emm types. Within five of these emm types, sicG-negative isolates were also detected. All three isolates of stG2078.0 possessed sicG and were associated with severe soft tissue infections. Altogether, six sicG alleles (sicG1-6) were identified, and sequence variations were mainly caused by single nucleotide polymorphisms and deletion/insertion mutations. sicG1-6 were predicted to encode SICG proteins of varying length, composition, and homology with SIC and DRS proteins of group A streptococci. Our findings indicate an unpredictable association between sicG and emm type, a limited distribution and substantial sequence diversity of sicG, and no obvious relation between its presence and disease severity.

Natural variation in the promoter of the gene encoding the Mga regulator alters host-pathogen interactions in group a Streptococcus carrier strains

Humans commonly carry pathogenic bacteria asymptomatically, but the molecular factors underlying microbial asymptomatic carriage are poorly understood. We previously reported that two epidemiologically unassociated serotype M3 group A Streptococcus (GAS) carrier strains had an identical 12-bp deletion in the promoter of the gene encoding Mga, a global positive gene regulator. Herein, we report on studies designed to test the hypothesis that the identified 12-bp deletion in the mga promoter alters GAS virulence, thereby potentially contributing to the asymptomatic carrier phenotype. Using allelic exchange, we introduced the variant promoter into a serotype M3 invasive strain and the wild-type promoter into an asymptomatic carrier strain. Compared to strains with the wild-type mga promoter, we discovered that strains containing the promoter with the 12-bp deletion produced significantly fewer mga and Mga-regulated gene transcripts. Consistent with decreased mga transcripts, strains containing the variant mga promoter were also significantly less virulent in in vivo and ex vivo models of GAS disease. Further, we provide evidence that the pleiotropic regulator protein CodY binds to the mga promoter and that the 12-bp deletion in the mga promoter reduces CodY-mediated mga transcription. We conclude that the naturally occurring 12-bp deletion in the mga promoter significantly alters the pathogen-host interaction of these asymptomatic carrier strains. Our findings provide new insight into the molecular basis of the carrier state of an important human pathogen.

PTS phosphorylation of Mga modulates regulon expression and virulence in the group A streptococcus

The ability of a bacterial pathogen to monitor available carbon sources in host tissues provides a clear fitness advantage. In the group A streptococcus (GAS), the virulence regulator Mga contains homology to phosphotransferase system (PTS) regulatory domains (PRDs) found in sugar operon regulators. Here we show that Mga was phosphorylated in vitro by the PTS components EI/HPr at conserved PRD histidines. A ΔptsI (EI-deficient) GAS mutant exhibited decreased Mga activity. However, PTS-mediated phosphorylation inhibited Mga-dependent transcription of emm in vitro. Using alanine (unphosphorylated) and aspartate (phosphomimetic) mutations of PRD histidines, we establish that a doubly phosphorylated PRD1 phosphomimetic (D/DMga4) is completely inactive in vivo, shutting down expression of the Mga regulon. Although D/DMga4 is still able to bind DNA in vitro, homo-multimerization of Mga is disrupted and the protein is unable to activate transcription. PTS-mediated regulation of Mga activity appears to be important for pathogenesis, as bacteria expressing either non-phosphorylated (A/A) or phosphomimetic (D/D) PRD1 Mga mutants were attenuated in a model of GAS invasive skin disease. Thus, PTS-mediated phosphorylation of Mga may allow the bacteria to modulate virulence gene expression in response to carbohydrate status. Furthermore, PRD-containing virulence regulators (PCVRs) appear to be widespread in Gram-positive pathogens.

Crystal structure of peroxide stress regulator from Streptococcus pyogenes provides functional insights into the mechanism of oxidative stress sensing

Regulation of oxidative stress responses by the peroxide stress regulator (PerR) is critical for the in vivo fitness and virulence of group A Streptococcus. To elucidate the molecular mechanism of DNA binding, peroxide sensing, and gene regulation by PerR, we performed biochemical and structural characterization of PerR. Sequence-specific DNA binding by PerR does not require regulatory metal occupancy. However, metal binding promotes higher affinity PerR-DNA interactions. PerR metallated with iron directly senses peroxide stress and dissociates from operator sequences. The crystal structure revealed that PerR exists as a homodimer with two metal-binding sites per subunit as follows: a structural zinc site and a regulatory metal site that is occupied in the crystals by nickel. The regulatory metal-binding site in PerR involves a previously unobserved HXH motif located in its unique N-terminal extension. Mutational analysis of the regulatory site showed that the PerR metal ligands are involved in regulatory metal binding, and integrity of this site is critical for group A Streptococcus virulence. Interestingly, the metal-binding HXH motif is not present in the structurally characterized members of ferric uptake regulator (Fur) family but is fully conserved among PerR from the genus Streptococcus. Thus, it is likely that the PerR orthologs from streptococci share a common mechanism of metal binding, peroxide sensing, and gene regulation that is different from that of well characterized PerR from Bacillus subtilis. Together, our findings provide key insights into the peroxide sensing and regulation of the oxidative stress-adaptive responses by the streptococcal subfamily of PerR.

Partial loss of CovS function in Streptococcus pyogenes causes severe invasive disease

BACKGROUND

CovRS (or CsrRS) is a two-component regulatory system that regulates the production of multiple virulence factors in Streptococcus pyogenes. covS mutations are often found in isolates recovered from mice that have been experimentally infected with S. pyogenes and covS mutations enhance bacterial virulence in an invasive infection mouse model. In addition, covS mutations were detected more frequently in a panel of clinical isolates from severe invasive streptococcal infections than those from non-severe infections. Thus, covS mutations may be associated with the onset of severe invasive infections.

RESULTS

Known covS mutations were divided into two groups: (i) frameshift mutations that caused a deletion of functional regions and (ii) point mutations that caused single (or double) amino acid(s) substitutions. Frameshift mutations are frequent in mouse-passaged isolates, whereas point mutations are frequent in clinical isolates. The functions of CovS proteins with a single amino acid substitution in clinical isolates were estimated based on the streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B (SpeB) production and NAD+-glycohydrolase (NADase) activity, which are known to be regulated by the CovRS system. Point mutations partially, but not completely, impaired the function of the covS alleles. We also investigated some of the benefits that a partial loss of function in covS alleles with point mutations might confer on clinical isolates. We found that covS knockout mutants (ΔcovS strains) had an impaired growth ability in a normal atmosphere in Todd Hewitt broth compared with parental isolates having wild-type or point-mutated covS.

CONCLUSIONS

The loss of CovS proteins in S. pyogenes may confer greater virulence, but bacteria may also lose the ability to respond to certain external signals recognized by CovS. Therefore, point mutations that retain the function of CovS and confer hypervirulence may have natural selective advantages.

The group A streptococcal collagen-like protein-1, Scl1, mediates biofilm formation by targeting the extra domain A-containing variant of cellular fibronectin expressed in wounded tissue

Wounds are known to serve as portals of entry for group A Streptococcus (GAS). Subsequent tissue colonization is mediated by interactions between GAS surface proteins and host extracellular matrix components. We recently reported that the streptococcal collagen-like protein-1, Scl1, selectively binds the cellular form of fibronectin (cFn) and also contributes to GAS biofilm formation on abiotic surfaces. One structural feature of cFn, which is predominantly expressed in response to tissue injury, is the presence of a spliced variant containing extra domain A (EDA/EIIIA). We now report that GAS biofilm formation is mediated by the Scl1 interaction with EDA-containing cFn. Recombinant Scl1 proteins that bound cFn also bound recombinant EDA within the C-C' loop region recognized by the α(9)β(1) integrin. The extracellular 2-D matrix derived from human dermal fibroblasts supports GAS adherence and biofilm formation. Altogether, this work identifies and characterizes a novel molecular mechanism by which GAS utilizes Scl1 to specifically target an extracellular matrix component that is predominantly expressed at the site of injury in order to secure host tissue colonization.

Genome-wide gene deletions in Streptococcus sanguinis by high throughput PCR

Transposon mutagenesis and single-gene deletion are two methods applied in genome-wide gene knockout in bacteria (1,2). Although transposon mutagenesis is less time consuming, less costly, and does not require completed genome information, there are two weaknesses in this method: (1) the possibility of a disparate mutants in the mixed mutant library that counter-selects mutants with decreased competition; and (2) the possibility of partial gene inactivation whereby genes do not entirely lose their function following the insertion of a transposon. Single-gene deletion analysis may compensate for the drawbacks associated with transposon mutagenesis. To improve the efficiency of genome-wide single gene deletion, we attempt to establish a high-throughput technique for genome-wide single gene deletion using Streptococcus sanguinis as a model organism. Each gene deletion construct in S. sanguinis genome is designed to comprise 1-kb upstream of the targeted gene, the aphA-3 gene, encoding kanamycin resistance protein, and 1-kb downstream of the targeted gene. Three sets of primers F1/R1, F2/R2, and F3/R3, respectively, are designed and synthesized in a 96-well plate format for PCR-amplifications of those three components of each deletion construct. Primers R1 and F3 contain 25-bp sequences that are complementary to regions of the aphA-3 gene at their 5' end. A large scale PCR amplification of the aphA-3 gene is performed once for creating all single-gene deletion constructs. The promoter of aphA-3 gene is initially excluded to minimize the potential polar effect of kanamycin cassette. To create the gene deletion constructs, high-throughput PCR amplification and purification are performed in a 96-well plate format. A linear recombinant PCR amplicon for each gene deletion will be made up through four PCR reactions using high-fidelity DNA polymerase. The initial exponential growth phase of S. sanguinis cultured in Todd Hewitt broth supplemented with 2.5% inactivated horse serum is used to increase competence for the transformation of PCR-recombinant constructs. Under this condition, up to 20% of S. sanguinis cells can be transformed using ~50 ng of DNA. Based on this approach, 2,048 mutants with single-gene deletion were ultimately obtained from the 2,270 genes in S. sanguinis excluding four gene ORFs contained entirely within other ORFs in S. sanguinis SK36 and 218 potential essential genes. The technique on creating gene deletion constructs is high throughput and could be easy to use in genome-wide single gene deletions for any transformable bacteria.

Human disease isolates of serotype m4 and m22 group a streptococcus lack genes required for hyaluronic acid capsule biosynthesis

Group A streptococcus (GAS) causes human pharyngitis and invasive infections and frequently colonizes individuals asymptomatically. Many lines of evidence generated over decades have shown that the hyaluronic acid capsule is a major virulence factor contributing to these infections. While conducting a whole-genome analysis of the in vivo molecular genetic changes that occur in GAS during longitudinal human pharyngeal interaction, we discovered that serotypes M4 and M22 GAS strains lack the hasABC genes necessary for hyaluronic acid capsule biosynthesis. Using targeted PCR, we found that all 491 temporally and geographically diverse disease isolates of these two serotypes studied lack the hasABC genes. Consistent with the lack of capsule synthesis genes, none of the strains produced detectable hyaluronic acid. Despite the lack of a hyaluronic acid capsule, all strains tested multiplied extensively ex vivo in human blood. Thus, counter to the prevailing concept in GAS pathogenesis research, strains of these two serotypes do not require hyaluronic acid to colonize the upper respiratory tract or cause abundant mucosal or invasive human infections. We speculate that serotype M4 and M22 GAS have alternative, compensatory mechanisms that promote virulence.

A century of study of the antiphagocytic hyaluronic acid capsule made by group A streptococcus has led to the concept that it is a major virulence factor contributing to human pharyngeal and invasive infections. However, the discovery that some strains that cause abundant human infections lack hyaluronic acid biosynthetic genes and fail to produce this capsule provides a new stimulus for research designed to understand the group A streptococcus factors contributing to pharyngeal infection and invasive disease episodes.

Menaquinone biosynthesis potentiates haem toxicity in Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is a pathogen that infects multiple anatomical sites leading to a diverse array of diseases. Although vertebrates can restrict the growth of invading pathogens by sequestering iron within haem, S. aureus surmounts this challenge by employing high-affinity haem uptake systems. However, the presence of excess haem is highly toxic, necessitating tight regulation of haem levels. To overcome haem stress, S. aureus expresses the detoxification system HrtAB. In this work, a transposon screen was performed in the background of a haem-susceptible, HrtAB-deficient S. aureus strain to identify the substrate transported by this putative pump and the source of haem toxicity. While a recent report indicates that HrtAB exports haem itself, the haem-resistant mutants uncovered by the transposon selection enabled us to elucidate the cellular factors contributing to haem toxicity. All mutants identified in this screen inactivated the menaquinone (MK) biosynthesis pathway. Deletion of the final steps of this pathway revealed that quinone molecules localizing to the cell membrane potentiate haem-associated superoxide production and subsequent oxidative damage. These data suggest a model in which membrane-associated haem and quinone molecules form a redox cycle that continuously generates semiquinones and reduced haem, both of which react with atmospheric oxygen to produce superoxide.

Streptococcus pyogenes infection of tonsil explants is associated with a human β-defensin 1 response from control but not recurrent acute tonsillitis patients

Host defence peptides (HDP), including the defensins and hCAP-18, function as part of the innate immune defences, protecting the host epithelia from microbial attachment and invasion. Recurrent acute tonsillitis (RAT), in which patients suffer repeated symptomatic tonsil infections, is linked to Streptococcus pyogenes, a group A streptococcus, and may reflect the impaired expression of such peptides. To address this, the defensin and hCAP-18 messenger RNA expression profiles of 54 tonsils excised from control and RAT patients undergoing tonsillectomy were quantified and compared. Marked variation in expression was observed between individuals from the two groups, but statistically no significant differences were identified, suggesting that at the time of surgery the tonsil epithelial HDP barrier was not compromised in RAT subjects. Surgical removal of the tonsils occurs in a quiescent phase of disease, and so to assess the effects of an active bacterial infection, HaCaT cells an in vitro model of the tonsil epithelium, and explants of patient tonsils maintained in vitro were challenged with S. pyogenes. The HaCaT data supported the reduced expression of hCAP-18/LL-37, human β-defensin 1 (HBD1;P < 0.01) and HBD2 (P < 0.05), consistent with decreased protection of the epithelial barrier. The tonsil explant data, although not as definitive, showed similar trends apart from HBD1 expression, which in the control tonsils but not the RAT patient tonsils was characterized by increased expression (P < 0.01). These data suggest that in vivo HBD1 may play a critical role in protecting the tonsil epithelia from S. pyogenes.

The streptococcal collagen-like protein-1 (Scl1) is a significant determinant for biofilm formation by group A Streptococcus

Background

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a human-specific pathogen responsible for a number of diseases characterized by a wide range of clinical manifestations. During host colonization GAS-cell aggregates or microcolonies are observed in tissues. GAS biofilm, which is an in vitro equivalent of tissue microcolony, has only recently been studied and little is known about the specific surface determinants that aid biofilm formation. In this study, we demonstrate that surface-associated streptococcal collagen-like protein-1 (Scl1) plays an important role in GAS biofilm formation.

Results

Biofilm formation by M1-, M3-, M28-, and M41-type GAS strains, representing an intraspecies breadth, were analyzed spectrophotometrically following crystal violet staining, and characterized using confocal and field emission scanning electron microscopy. The M41-type strain formed the most robust biofilm under static conditions, followed by M28- and M1-type strains, while the M3-type strains analyzed here did not form biofilm under the same experimental conditions. Differences in architecture and cell-surface morphology were observed in biofilms formed by the M1- and M41-wild-type strains, accompanied by varying amounts of deposited extracellular matrix and differences in cell-to-cell junctions within each biofilm. Importantly, all Scl1-negative mutants examined showed significantly decreased ability to form biofilm in vitro. Furthermore, the Scl1 protein expressed on the surface of a heterologous host, Lactococcus lactis, was sufficient to induce biofilm formation by this organism.

Conclusions

Overall, this work (i) identifies variations in biofilm formation capacity among pathogenically different GAS strains, (ii) identifies GAS surface properties that may aid in biofilm stability and, (iii) establishes that the Scl1 surface protein is an important determinant of GAS biofilm, which is sufficient to enable biofilm formation in the heterologous host Lactococcus. In summary, the GAS surface adhesin Scl1 may have an important role in biofilm-associated pathogenicity.

The cell envelope-associated protein, LytR, regulates the cysteine protease SpeB in Streptococcus pyogenes

The LytR family of cell envelope-associated transcriptional attenuators in bacteria has been brought into focus of scientific interest on the expression of various virulence factors, as well as bacterial cell envelope maintenance. However, this protein of Streptococcus pyogenes has been only described as cell surface-associated protein, and its function is completely unknown. We created lytR mutant strains from two independent S. pyogenes strains to analyze the function of LytR. The protease assay in culture supernatant showed that lytR mutant had the higher cysteine protease activity than wild-type. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and western blotting analysis revealed that the amount of cysteine protease, SpeB in lytR mutant was more compared with that in wild-type. The level of speB mRNA in lytR mutant also increased compared with that of wild-type. The membrane integrity and potential in lytR mutant also were decreased compared with that of wild-type. Murine infection model showed that less survival was detected in mice inoculated with lytR mutant than that with wild-type, and the size of wound lesion of mice with lytR mutant was larger than that with wild-type. Our data suggest that the lytR regulates the expression of SpeB in S. pyogenes with relation to membrane integrity.

Srv mediated dispersal of streptococcal biofilms through SpeB is observed in CovRS+ strains

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a human specific pathogen capable of causing both mild infections and severe invasive disease. We and others have shown that GAS is able to form biofilms during infection. That is to say, they form a three-dimensional, surface attached structure consisting of bacteria and a multi-component extracellular matrix. The mechanisms involved in regulation and dispersal of these GAS structures are still unclear. Recently we have reported that in the absence of the transcriptional regulator Srv in the MGAS5005 background, the cysteine protease SpeB is constitutively produced, leading to increased tissue damage and decreased biofilm formation during a subcutaneous infection in a mouse model. This was interesting because MGAS5005 has a naturally occurring mutation that inactivates the sensor kinase domain of the two component regulatory system CovRS. Others have previously shown that strains lacking covS are associated with decreased SpeB production due to CovR repression of speB expression. Thus, our results suggest the inactivation of srv can bypass CovR repression and lead to constitutive SpeB production. We hypothesized that Srv control of SpeB production may be a mechanism to regulate biofilm dispersal and provide a mechanism by which mild infection can transition to severe disease through biofilm dispersal. The question remained however, is this mechanism conserved among GAS strains or restricted to the unique genetic makeup of MGAS5005. Here we show that Srv mediated control of SpeB and biofilm dispersal is conserved in the invasive clinical isolates RGAS053 (serotype M1) and MGAS315 (serotype M3), both of which have covS intact. This work provides additional evidence that Srv regulated control of SpeB may mediate biofilm formation and dispersal in diverse strain backgrounds.

An amino-terminal signal peptide of Vfr protein negatively influences RopB-dependent SpeB expression and attenuates virulence in Streptococcus pyogenes

Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B (SpeB) is an extracellular cysteine protease that is a critical virulence factor made by the major human pathogen group A Streptococcus (GAS). speB expression is dependent on the regulator of proteinase B (RopB) and is upregulated with increasing cell density and during infection. Because computer modelling suggested significant structural similarity between RopB and peptide-sensing regulatory proteins made by other Gram-positive bacteria, we hypothesized that speB expression is influenced by RopB-peptide interactions. Inactivation of the gene (vfr) encoding the virulence factor related (Vfr) protein resulted in increased speB transcript level during the exponential growth phase, whereas provision of only the amino-terminal region of Vfr comprising the secretion signal sequence in trans restored a wild-type speB expression profile. Addition of the culture supernatant from a Vfr signal peptide-expressing GAS strain restored wild-type speB transcript level to a vfr-inactivated isogenic mutant strain. A distinct peptide in the Vfr secretion signal sequence specifically bound to recombinant RopB. Finally, overexpression of the Vfr secretion signal sequence significantly decreased speB transcript level and attenuated GAS virulence in two mouse models of invasive infection. Taken together, these data delineate a previously unknown small peptide-mediated regulatory system that controls GAS virulence factor production.