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Wu CH, Rismondo J, Morgan RML, Shen Y, Loessner MJ, Larrouy-Maumus G, Freemont PS, Gründling A. Bacillus subtilis YngB contributes to wall teichoic acid glucosylation and glycolipid formation during anaerobic growth. J Biol Chem 2021; 296:100384. [PMID: 33556370 PMCID: PMC7961091 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
UTP-glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferases are enzymes that produce UDP-glucose from UTP and glucose-1-phosphate. In Bacillus subtilis 168, UDP-glucose is required for the decoration of wall teichoic acid (WTA) with glucose residues and the formation of glucolipids. The B. subtilis UGPase GtaB is essential for UDP-glucose production under standard aerobic growth conditions, and gtaB mutants display severe growth and morphological defects. However, bioinformatics predictions indicate that two other UTP-glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferases are present in B. subtilis. Here, we investigated the function of one of them named YngB. The crystal structure of YngB revealed that the protein has the typical fold and all necessary active site features of a functional UGPase. Furthermore, UGPase activity could be demonstrated in vitro using UTP and glucose-1-phosphate as substrates. Expression of YngB from a synthetic promoter in a B. subtilis gtaB mutant resulted in the reintroduction of glucose residues on WTA and production of glycolipids, demonstrating that the enzyme can function as UGPase in vivo. When WT and mutant B. subtilis strains were grown under anaerobic conditions, YngB-dependent glycolipid production and glucose decorations on WTA could be detected, revealing that YngB is expressed from its native promoter under anaerobic condition. Based on these findings, along with the structure of the operon containing yngB and the transcription factor thought to be required for its expression, we propose that besides WTA, potentially other cell wall components might be decorated with glucose residues during oxygen-limited growth condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Hung Wu
- Section of Molecular Microbiology and Medical Research Council Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jeanine Rismondo
- Section of Molecular Microbiology and Medical Research Council Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rhodri M L Morgan
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yang Shen
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Martin J Loessner
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Gerald Larrouy-Maumus
- Department of Life Sciences, Medical Research Council Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Paul S Freemont
- London Biofoundry, Imperial College Translation and Innovation Hub, White City Campus, London, United Kingdom; Section of Structural and Synthetic Biology, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; UK Dementia Research Institute Centre for Care Research and Technology, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Angelika Gründling
- Section of Molecular Microbiology and Medical Research Council Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
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2
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Hesser AR, Matano LM, Vickery CR, Wood BM, Santiago AG, Morris HG, Do T, Losick R, Walker S. The length of lipoteichoic acid polymers controls Staphylococcus aureus cell size and envelope integrity. J Bacteriol 2020; 202:JB.00149-20. [PMID: 32482719 PMCID: PMC8404710 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00149-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The opportunistic pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is protected by a cell envelope that is crucial for viability. In addition to peptidoglycan, lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is an especially important component of the S. aureus cell envelope. LTA is an anionic polymer anchored to a glycolipid in the outer leaflet of the cell membrane. It was known that deleting the gene for UgtP, the enzyme that makes this glycolipid anchor, causes cell growth and division defects. In Bacillus subtilis, growth abnormalities from the loss of ugtP have been attributed to both the absence of the encoded protein and to the loss of its products. Here, we show that growth defects in S. aureus ugtP deletion mutants are due to the long, abnormal LTA polymer that is produced when the glycolipid anchor is missing from the outer leaflet of the membrane. Dysregulated cell growth leads to defective cell division, and these phenotypes are corrected by mutations in the LTA polymerase, ltaS, that reduce polymer length. We also show that S. aureus mutants with long LTA are sensitized to cell wall hydrolases, beta-lactam antibiotics, and compounds that target other cell envelope pathways. We conclude that control of LTA polymer length is important for S. aureus physiology and promotes survival under stressful conditions, including antibiotic stress.IMPORTANCE Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a common cause of community- and hospital-acquired infections and is responsible for a large fraction of deaths caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. S. aureus is surrounded by a complex cell envelope that protects it from antimicrobial compounds and other stresses. Here we show that controlling the length of an essential cell envelope polymer, lipoteichoic acid, is critical for controlling S. aureus cell size and cell envelope integrity. We also show that genes involved in LTA length regulation are required for resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics in MRSA. The proteins encoded by these genes may be targets for combination therapy with an appropriate beta-lactam.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Hesser
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Leigh M Matano
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - B McKay Wood
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ace George Santiago
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Heidi G Morris
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Truc Do
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Richard Losick
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Suzanne Walker
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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3
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Hill NS, Zuke JD, Buske PJ, Chien AC, Levin PA. A nutrient-dependent division antagonist is regulated post-translationally by the Clp proteases in Bacillus subtilis. BMC Microbiol 2018; 18:29. [PMID: 29625553 PMCID: PMC5889556 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-018-1155-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Changes in nutrient availability have dramatic and well-defined impacts on both transcription and translation in bacterial cells. At the same time, the role of post-translational control in adaptation to nutrient-poor environments is poorly understood. Previous studies demonstrate the ability of the glucosyltransferase UgtP to influence cell size in response to nutrient availability. Under nutrient-rich medium, interactions with its substrate UDP-glucose promote interactions between UgtP and the tubulin-like cell division protein FtsZ in Bacillus subtilis, inhibiting maturation of the cytokinetic ring and increasing cell size. In nutrient-poor medium, reductions in UDP-glucose availability favor UgtP oligomerization, sequestering it from FtsZ and allowing division to occur at a smaller cell mass. RESULTS Intriguingly, in nutrient-poor conditions UgtP levels are reduced ~ 3-fold independent of UDP-glucose. B. subtilis cells cultured under different nutrient conditions indicate that UgtP accumulation is controlled through a nutrient-dependent post-translational mechanism dependent on the Clp proteases. Notably, all three B. subtilis Clp chaperones appeared able to target UgtP for degradation during growth in nutrient-poor conditions. CONCLUSIONS Together these findings highlight conditional proteolysis as a mechanism for bacterial adaptation to a rapidly changing nutritional landscape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert S Hill
- Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, 63130, MO, USA.,Present address: Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, 94720, CA, USA
| | - Jason D Zuke
- Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, 63130, MO, USA.,Present address: Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 53706, WI, USA
| | - P J Buske
- Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, 63130, MO, USA.,Present address: Clinical Immunology and Bioanalysis, MedImmune LLC, South San Francisco, 94080, CA, USA
| | - An-Chun Chien
- Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, 63130, MO, USA.,Leukaemia & Blood Cancer Research Unit, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | - Petra Anne Levin
- Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, 63130, MO, USA.
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4
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Apdila ET, Awai K. Configuration of the sugar head of glycolipids in thylakoid membranes. Genes Genet Syst 2018; 92:235-242. [PMID: 29343668 DOI: 10.1266/ggs.17-00047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycolipids constitute the majority of membrane components in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms, whereas they are minor lipids in other organisms. In cyanobacteria, three glycolipids comprise ~90 mol% of the total lipids in thylakoid membranes, where photosynthetic electron transport occurs. Among these glycolipids, 80 mol% are galactolipids (monogalactosyldiacylglycerol and digalactosyldiacylglycerol). Galactolipids are well conserved in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms and are believed to be essential for the integrity of the membrane system. It remains unclear, however, which part(s) of the galactolipid structure is the key factor for their function, e.g., the sugar moiety and/or the anomeric configuration. To address this issue, several bacterial membrane glycolipid synthase genes have been introduced into cyanobacteria to test for complementation of knocked-out genes involved in galactolipid biosynthesis. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the analyses of sugar species and configurations of glycolipids heterologously synthesized in the thylakoid membrane and discuss their functional importance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Koichiro Awai
- Faculty of Science, Shizuoka University.,Research Institute of Electronics, Shizuoka University.,JST, CREST
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5
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Abstract
Glyceroglycolipids are very important in Gram-positive bacteria and cyanobacteria. In Bacillus subtilis, a model organism for the Gram-positive bacteria, the ugtP mutant, which lacks glyceroglucolipids, shows abnormal morphology. Lack of glucolipids has many consequences: abnormal localization of the cytoskeletal protein MreB and activation of some extracytoplasmic function (ECF) sigma factors (σM, σV and σX) in the log phase are two examples. Conversely, the expression of monoglucosyldiacylglycerol (MGlcDG) by 1,2-diacylglycerol 3-glucosyltransferase from Acholeplasma laidlawii (alMGS) almost completely suppresses the ugtP disruptant phenotype. Activation of ECF sigmas in the ugtP mutant is decreased by alMGS expression, and is suppressed to low levels by MgSO4 addition. When alMGS and alDGS (A. laidlawii 1,2-diacylglycerol-3-glucose (1-2)-glucosyltransferase producing diglucosyldiacylglycerol (DGlcDG)) are simultaneously expressed, σX activation is repressed to wild type level. These observations suggest that MGlcDG molecules are required for maintenance of B. subtilis cell shape and regulation of ECF sigmas, and that DGlcDG regulates σX activity. The activation of ECF sigmas is not accompanied by proteolysis of anti-σ. Thus, glyceroglucolipids may have the specific role of helping membrane proteins function by acting in the manner of chaperones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Matsuoka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
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6
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Matsumoto K, Hara H, Fishov I, Mileykovskaya E, Norris V. The membrane: transertion as an organizing principle in membrane heterogeneity. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:572. [PMID: 26124753 PMCID: PMC4464175 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The bacterial membrane exhibits a significantly heterogeneous distribution of lipids and proteins. This heterogeneity results mainly from lipid-lipid, protein-protein, and lipid-protein associations which are orchestrated by the coupled transcription, translation and insertion of nascent proteins into and through membrane (transertion). Transertion is central not only to the individual assembly and disassembly of large physically linked groups of macromolecules (alias hyperstructures) but also to the interactions between these hyperstructures. We review here these interactions in the context of the processes in Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli of nutrient sensing, membrane synthesis, cytoskeletal dynamics, DNA replication, chromosome segregation, and cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kouji Matsumoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, SaitamaJapan
| | - Hiroshi Hara
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, SaitamaJapan
| | - Itzhak Fishov
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-ShevaIsrael
| | - Eugenia Mileykovskaya
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at HoustonHouston, TX, USA
| | - Vic Norris
- Laboratory of Microbiology Signals and Microenvironment EA 4312, Department of Science, University of Rouen, Mont-Saint-AignanFrance
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7
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Seki T, Mineshima R, Hashimoto M, Matsumoto K, Hara H, Matsuoka S. Repression of the activities of two extracytoplasmic function σ factors, σM and σV, of Bacillus subtilis by glucolipids in Escherichia coli cells. Genes Genet Syst 2015; 90:109-14. [DOI: 10.1266/ggs.90.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Seki
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Ryota Mineshima
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Michihiro Hashimoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Kouji Matsumoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Hiroshi Hara
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Satoshi Matsuoka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
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8
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Abstract
Like eukaryotes, bacteria must coordinate division with growth to ensure cells are the appropriate size for a given environmental condition or developmental fate. As single-celled organisms, nutrient availability is one of the strongest influences on bacterial cell size. Classic physiological experiments conducted over four decades ago first demonstrated that cell size is directly correlated with nutrient source and growth rate in the Gram-negative bacterium Salmonella typhimurium. This observation subsequently served as the basis for studies revealing a role for cell size in cell cycle progression in a closely related organism, Escherichia coli. More recently, the development of powerful genetic, molecular, and imaging tools has allowed us to identify and characterize the nutrient-dependent pathway responsible for coordinating cell division and cell size with growth rate in the Gram-positive model organism Bacillus subtilis. Here, we discuss the role of cell size in bacterial growth and development and propose a broadly applicable model for cell size control in this important and highly divergent domain of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- An-Chun Chien
- Department of Biology, Box 1137, Washington University, 1 Brookings Dr., Saint Louis, MO, USA
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9
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Reichmann NT, Gründling A. Location, synthesis and function of glycolipids and polyglycerolphosphate lipoteichoic acid in Gram-positive bacteria of the phylum Firmicutes. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2011; 319:97-105. [PMID: 21388439 PMCID: PMC3089915 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2011.02260.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is a zwitterionic polymer found in the cell wall of many Gram-positive bacteria. A widespread and one of the best-studied forms of LTA consists of a polyglycerolphosphate (PGP) chain that is tethered to the membrane via a glycolipid anchor. In this review, we will summarize our current understanding of the enzymes involved in glycolipid and PGP backbone synthesis in a variety of different Gram-positive bacteria. The recent identification of key LTA synthesis proteins allowed the construction and analysis of mutant strains with defined defects in glycolipid or backbone synthesis. Using these strains, new information on the functions of LTA for bacterial growth, physiology and during developmental processes was gained and will be discussed. Furthermore, we will reintroduce the idea that LTA remains in close proximity to the bacterial membrane for its function during bacterial growth rather than as a surface-exposed structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie T Reichmann
- Section of Microbiology, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, UK
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10
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Matsuoka S, Hashimoto M, Kamiya Y, Miyazawa T, Ishikawa K, Hara H, Matsumoto K. The Bacillus subtilis essential gene dgkB is dispensable in mutants with defective lipoteichoic acid synthesis. Genes Genet Syst 2011; 86:365-76. [DOI: 10.1266/ggs.86.365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Matsuoka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Michihiro Hashimoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Yusuke Kamiya
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Takeshi Miyazawa
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Kazuki Ishikawa
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Hiroshi Hara
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Kouji Matsumoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
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11
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Matsuoka S, Chiba M, Tanimura Y, Hashimoto M, Hara H, Matsumoto K. Abnormal morphology of Bacillus subtilis ugtP mutant cells lacking glucolipids. Genes Genet Syst 2011; 86:295-304. [DOI: 10.1266/ggs.86.295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Matsuoka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Minako Chiba
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Yu Tanimura
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Michihiro Hashimoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Hiroshi Hara
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
| | - Kouji Matsumoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University
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12
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Abstract
Events in the past decade have made it both possible and interesting to ask how bacteria create cells of defined length, diameter, and morphology. The current consensus is that bacterial shape is determined by the coordinated activities of cytoskeleton complexes that drive cell elongation and division. Cell length is most easily explained by the timing of cell division, principally by regulating the activity of the FtsZ protein. However, the question of how cells establish and maintain a specific and uniform diameter is, by far, much more difficult to answer. Mutations associated with the elongation complex often alter cell width, though it is not clear how. Some evidence suggests that diameter is strongly influenced by events during cell division. In addition, surprising new observations show that the bacterial cell wall is more highly malleable than previously believed and that cells can alter and restore their shapes by relying only on internal mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin D Young
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205-7199, USA.
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13
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Warnecke D, Heinz E. Glycolipid headgroup replacement: a new approach for the analysis of specific functions of glycolipids in vivo. Eur J Cell Biol 2009; 89:53-61. [PMID: 19939496 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2009.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycolipids with one or two sugar residues attached to different lipid backbones are found in biomembranes of bacteria, fungi, plants and animals in the form of steryl glycosides, glycosylceramides and diacylglycerol glycosides. They contain different sugar residues, mainly glucose and galactose, in either alpha- or beta-configuration. Many of the isolated compounds have been studied in great detail with regard to their biophysical behavior in artificial membrane systems. With the availability of cloned genes, the methods of reverse genetics were used to study glycolipid functions in living cells. The deletion of a lipid glycosyltransferase gene leads to the loss of the corresponding glycolipid in the transformed pro- and eukaryotic organisms. Often, these glycosyltransferase deletion mutants showed many differences to the wild-type organisms and thus demonstrated the biological importance of the glycolipid. When extensive deletion-induced glycolipid losses were not complemented by higher proportions of other membrane lipids, the mutants could display severe phenotypes due to a serious dysfunction or even collapse of an entire membrane system. On the other hand, by this approach the specific contribution of characteristic head group details cannot be recognized and separated from more general glycolipid functions. Many of these difficulties can be circumvented by a glycolipid headgroup replacement approach. This new approach requires the exchange of a lipid glycosyltransferase in an organism by a heterologous glycosyltransferase having a different headgroup specificity, e.g. the substitution of a galactosyltransferase by a glucosyltransferase. The resulting transgenic organism produces a novel glycolipid which differs from that of the native organism not in proportion, but only in structural details of its headgroup. Therefore, such rescued mutants are comparable to suppressor mutants and show less severe phenotypes than the intermediate deletion mutants. A comparison between the wild type, the simple deletion mutant and the mutant rescued by glycolipid replacement will not only disclose general functions of glycolipids, but also additional roles of headgroup details.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Warnecke
- Biocenter Klein Flottbek and Botanical Garden, University of Hamburg, Ohnhorststrasse 18, 22609 Hamburg, Germany.
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14
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Phenotypic and transcriptomic characterization of Bacillus subtilis mutants with grossly altered membrane composition. J Bacteriol 2008; 190:7797-807. [PMID: 18820022 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00720-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Bacillus subtilis membrane contains diacylglycerol-based lipids with at least five distinct headgroups that together help to define the physical and chemical properties of the lipid bilayer. Here, we describe the phenotypic characterization of mutant strains lacking one or more of the following lipids: glycolipids (ugtP mutants), phosphatidylethanolamine (pssA and psd mutants), lysylphosphatidylglycerol (mprF), and cardiolipin (ywnE and ywjE). Alterations of membrane lipid headgroup composition are generally well-tolerated by the cell, and even severe alterations lead to only modest effects on growth proficiency. Mutants with decreased levels of positively charged lipids display an increased sensitivity to cationic antimicrobial compounds, and cells lacking glycolipids are more sensitive to the peptide antibiotic sublancin and are defective in swarming motility. A quadruple mutant strain (ugtP pssA mprF ywnE), with a membrane comprised predominantly of phosphatidylglycerol, is viable and grows at near-wild-type rates, although it forms long, coiled filaments. Transcriptome comparisons identified numerous regulons with altered expression in cells of the ugtP mutant, the pssA mprF ywnE triple mutant, and the ugtP pssA mprF ywnE quadruple mutant. These effects included a general decrease in expression of the SigD and FapR regulons and increased expression of cell envelope stress responses mediated by sigma(M) and the YvrGHb two-component system.
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15
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Phage SPP1 reversible adsorption to Bacillus subtilis cell wall teichoic acids accelerates virus recognition of membrane receptor YueB. J Bacteriol 2008; 190:4989-96. [PMID: 18487323 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00349-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteriophage SPP1 targets the host cell membrane protein YueB to irreversibly adsorb and infect Bacillus subtilis. Interestingly, SPP1 still binds to the surface of yueB mutants, although in a completely reversible way. We evaluated here the relevance of a reversible step in SPP1 adsorption and identified the receptor(s) involved. We show that reversible adsorption is impaired in B. subtilis mutants defective in the glucosylation pathway of teichoic acids or displaying a modified chemical composition of these polymers. The results indicate that glucosylated poly(glycerolphosphate) cell wall teichoic acid is the major target for SPP1 reversible binding. Interaction with this polymer is characterized by a fast adsorption rate showing low-temperature dependence, followed by a rapid establishment of an equilibrium state between adsorbed and free phages. This equilibrium is basically determined by the rate of phage dissociation, which exhibits a strong dependence on temperature compatible with an Arrhenius law. This allowed us to determine an activation energy of 22.6 kcal/mol for phage release. Finally, we show that SPP1 reversible interaction strongly accelerates irreversible binding to YueB. Our results support a model in which fast SPP1 adsorption to and desorption from teichoic acids allows SPP1 to scan the bacterial surface for rapid YueB recognition.
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16
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Garcia M, Myouga F, Takechi K, Sato H, Nabeshima K, Nagata N, Takio S, Shinozaki K, Takano H. An Arabidopsis homolog of the bacterial peptidoglycan synthesis enzyme MurE has an essential role in chloroplast development. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 53:924-34. [PMID: 18036201 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2007.03379.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Enzymes encoded by bacterial MurE genes catalyze the ATP-dependent formation of uridine diphosphate-N-acetylmuramic acid-tripeptide in bacterial peptidoglycan biosynthesis. The Arabidopsis thaliana genome contains one gene with homology to the bacterial MurE:AtMurE. Under normal conditions AtMurE is expressed in leaves and flowers, but not in roots or stems. Sequence-based predictions and analyses of GFP fusions of the N terminus of AtMurE, as well as the full-length protein, suggest that AtMurE localizes to plastids. We identified three T-DNA-tagged and one Ds-tagged mutant alleles of AtMurE in A. thaliana. All four alleles show a white phenotype, and A. thaliana antisense AtMurE lines showed a pale-green phenotype. These results suggest that AtMurE is involved in chloroplast biogenesis. Cells of the mutants were inhibited in thylakoid membrane development. RT-PCR analysis of the mutant lines suggested that the expression of genes that depend on a multisubunit plastid-encoded RNA polymerase was decreased. To analyze the functional relationships between the MurE genes of cyanobacteria, the moss Physcomitrella patens and higher plants, a complementation assay was carried out with a P. patens (Pp) MurE knock-out line, which exhibits a small number of macrochloroplasts per cell. Although the Anabaena MurE, fused with the N-terminal region of PpMurE, complemented the macrochloroplast phenotype in P. patens, transformation with AtMurE did not complement this phenotype. These results suggest that AtMurE is functionally divergent from the bacterial and moss MurE proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlon Garcia
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
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17
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Carballido-López R, Formstone A. Shape determination in Bacillus subtilis. Curr Opin Microbiol 2007; 10:611-6. [PMID: 17981078 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2007.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2007] [Accepted: 09/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of cytoskeletal elements in prokaryotes has dramatically changed the way we think about bacterial cell morphogenesis. The rod shape of Bacillus subtilis is maintained by the two major polymers (peptidoglycan and teichoic acids) of its thick cell wall and determined by the way these are inserted during growth. The current view is that the dynamic tubulin-like (FtsZ) and actin-like (MreB) cytoskeletons orchestrate, both in time and space, the assembly of macromolecular machineries that effect cell wall synthesis and hydrolysis during cell division and cell elongation, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rut Carballido-López
- Génétique Microbienne, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 78352 Jouy-en-Josas Cedex, France.
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18
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Abstract
Bacteria, like eukaryotic cells, regulate their size by coordinating cell growth and division, growing faster and becoming larger when nutrients are more plentiful. Weart et al. (2007) now identify an enzyme in a glucolipid pathway that inhibits assembly of the key cell division protein FtsZ, but only during high nutrient conditions. Delaying cell division during rapid growth allows bacterial cells to become larger.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Shiomi
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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19
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Weart RB, Lee AH, Chien AC, Haeusser DP, Hill NS, Levin PA. A metabolic sensor governing cell size in bacteria. Cell 2007; 130:335-47. [PMID: 17662947 PMCID: PMC1971218 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2006] [Revised: 03/06/2007] [Accepted: 05/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Nutrient availability is one of the strongest determinants of cell size. When grown in rich media, single-celled organisms such as yeast and bacteria can be up to twice the size of their slow-growing counterparts. The ability to modulate size in a nutrient-dependent manner requires cells to: (1) detect when they have reached the appropriate mass for a given growth rate and (2) transmit this information to the division apparatus. We report the identification of a metabolic sensor that couples nutritional availability to division in Bacillus subtilis. A key component of this sensor is an effector, UgtP, which localizes to the division site in a nutrient-dependent manner and inhibits assembly of the tubulin-like cell division protein FtsZ. This sensor serves to maintain a constant ratio of FtsZ rings to cell length regardless of growth rate and ensures that cells reach the appropriate mass and complete chromosome segregation prior to cytokinesis.
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20
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Bhavsar AP, Brown ED. Cell wall assembly in Bacillus subtilis: how spirals and spaces challenge paradigms. Mol Microbiol 2007; 60:1077-90. [PMID: 16689786 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05169.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Although the bacterial cell wall has been the subject of decades of investigation, recent studies continue to generate novel and controversial models of its synthesis and assembly. Here we compare and contrast the transcompartmental biosyntheses of peptidoglycan and teichoic acid in Bacillus subtilis. In addition, the current paradigms of B. subtilis wall assembly and structure are distinguished from emerging models of murein insertion and organization. We discuss evidence for the directed, cytoskeleton-dependent insertion of nascent peptidoglycan and the existence of a periplasmic compartment. Furthermore, we summarize the challenges these findings represent to the existing paradigm of murein insertion. Finally, motivated by these new developments, we discuss outstanding issues that remain to be addressed and suggest research directions that may contribute to a better understanding of cell wall assembly in B. subtilis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit P Bhavsar
- Antimicrobial Research Centre and Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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21
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Gründling A, Schneewind O. Genes required for glycolipid synthesis and lipoteichoic acid anchoring in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2007; 189:2521-30. [PMID: 17209021 PMCID: PMC1899383 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01683-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is composed of a linear 1,3-linked polyglycerolphosphate chain and is tethered to the bacterial membrane by a glycolipid (diglucosyl-diacylglycerol [Glc2-DAG]). Glc2-DAG is synthesized in the bacterial cytoplasm by YpfP, a processive enzyme that transfers glucose to diacylglycerol (DAG), using UDP-glucose as its substrate. Here we present evidence that the S. aureus alpha-phosphoglucomutase (PgcA) and UTP:alpha-glucose 1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GtaB) homologs are required for the synthesis of Glc2-DAG. LtaA (lipoteichoic acid protein A), a predicted membrane permease whose structural gene is located in an operon with ypfP, is not involved in Glc2-DAG synthesis but is required for synthesis of glycolipid-anchored LTA. Our data suggest a model in which LtaA facilitates the transport of Glc2-DAG from the inner (cytoplasmic) leaflet to the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane, delivering Glc2-DAG as a substrate for LTA synthesis, thereby generating glycolipid-anchored LTA. Glycolipid anchoring of LTA appears to play an important role during infection, as S. aureus variants lacking ltaA display defects in the pathogenesis of animal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelika Gründling
- Department of Microbiology, 920 East 58th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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22
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Nishibori A, Kusaka J, Hara H, Umeda M, Matsumoto K. Phosphatidylethanolamine domains and localization of phospholipid synthases in Bacillus subtilis membranes. J Bacteriol 2005; 187:2163-74. [PMID: 15743965 PMCID: PMC1064036 DOI: 10.1128/jb.187.6.2163-2174.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Application of the cardiolipin (CL)-specific fluorescent dye 10-N-nonyl-acridine orange has recently revealed CL-rich domains in the septal regions and at the poles of the Bacillus subtilis membrane (F. Kawai, M. Shoda, R. Harashima, Y. Sadaie, H. Hara, and K. Matsumoto, J. Bacteriol. 186:1475-1483, 2004). This finding prompted us to examine the localization of another phospholipid, phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), with the cyclic peptide probe, Ro09-0198 (Ro), that binds specifically to PE. Treatment with biotinylated Ro followed by tetramethyl rhodamine-conjugated streptavidin revealed that PE is localized in the septal membranes of vegetative cells and in the membranes of the polar septum and the engulfment membranes of sporulating cells. When the mutant cells of the strains SDB01 (psd1::neo) and SDB02 (pssA10::spc), which both lack PE, were examined under the same conditions, no fluorescence was observed. The localization of the fluorescence thus evidently reflected the localization of PE-rich domains in the septal membranes. Similar PE-rich domains were observed in the septal regions of the cells of many Bacillus species. In Escherichia coli cells, however, no PE-rich domains were found. Green fluorescent protein fusions to the enzymes that catalyze the committed steps in PE synthesis, phosphatidylserine synthase, and in CL synthesis, CL synthase and phosphatidylglycerophosphate synthase, were localized mainly in the septal membranes in B. subtilis cells. The majority of the lipid synthases were also localized in the septal membranes; this includes 1-acyl-glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase, CDP-diacylglycerol synthase, phosphatidylserine decarboxylase, diacylglycerol kinase, glucolipid synthase, and lysylphosphatidylglycerol synthase. These results suggest that phospholipids are produced mostly in the septal membranes and that CL and PE are kept from diffusing out to lateral ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayako Nishibori
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Saitama University, Sakura, Saitama, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
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Lazarevic V, Soldo B, Médico N, Pooley H, Bron S, Karamata D. Bacillus subtilis alpha-phosphoglucomutase is required for normal cell morphology and biofilm formation. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005; 71:39-45. [PMID: 15640167 PMCID: PMC544238 DOI: 10.1128/aem.71.1.39-45.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations designated gtaC and gtaE that affect alpha-phosphoglucomutase activity required for interconversion of glucose 6-phosphate and alpha-glucose 1-phosphate were mapped to the Bacillus subtilis pgcA (yhxB) gene. Backcrossing of the two mutations into the 168 reference strain was accompanied by impaired alpha-phosphoglucomutase activity in the soluble cell extract fraction, altered colony and cell morphology, and resistance to phages phi29 and rho11. Altered cell morphology, reversible by additional magnesium ions, may be correlated with a deficiency in the membrane glycolipid. The deficiency in biofilm formation in gtaC and gtaE mutants may be attributed to an inability to synthesize UDP-glucose, an important intermediate in a number of cell envelope biosynthetic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Lazarevic
- Département de Microbiologie Fondamentale, Batiment de Biologie, Faculté de Biologie et de Médecine, Université de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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Gad M, Awai K, Shimojima M, Yamaryo Y, Shimada H, Masuda T, Takamiya K, Ikai A, Ohta H. Accumulation of plant galactolipid affects cell morphology of Escherichia coli. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001; 286:114-8. [PMID: 11485316 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.2001.5358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) is a major constituent of thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts. Therefore, it is considered to have an important role in the maintenance of the complicated structure of the thylakoid membrane. We have succeeded in cloning the enzyme for MGDG synthesis and overexpressed it in Escherichia coli. In this study we analyzed the morphology of the E. coli harboring the gene. The fatty acid composition of its membrane lipids did not differ between the wild type and transformant, except for the appearance of MGDG. However, transformant cells appeared to be elongated. DAPI staining revealed the entire intracellular region of filamentous cells to be stained; therefore, the elongation of the cells is probably due to a defect in cell division. Atomic force microscopy revealed that the transformant had a smooth but scratched surface. It was concluded that the excessive accumulation of a non-bilayer lipid, MGDG, interfered with the translocation of proteins across the plasma membrane, including those for cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gad
- Department of Life Science, Graduate School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8501, Japan
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25
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Kiriukhin MY, Debabov DV, Shinabarger DL, Neuhaus FC. Biosynthesis of the glycolipid anchor in lipoteichoic acid of Staphylococcus aureus RN4220: role of YpfP, the diglucosyldiacylglycerol synthase. J Bacteriol 2001; 183:3506-14. [PMID: 11344159 PMCID: PMC99649 DOI: 10.1128/jb.183.11.3506-3514.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In Staphylococcus aureus RN4220, lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is anchored in the membrane by a diglucosyldiacylglycerol moiety. The gene (ypfP) which encodes diglucosyldiacylglycerol synthase was recently cloned from Bacillus subtilis and expressed in Escherichia coli (P. Jorasch, F. P. Wolter, U. Zahringer, and E. Heinz, Mol. Microbiol. 29:419-430, 1998). To define the role of ypfP in this strain of S. aureus, a fragment of ypfP truncated from both ends was cloned into the thermosensitive replicon pVE6007 and used to inactivate ypfP. Chloramphenicol-resistant (ypfP::cat) clones did not synthesize the glycolipids monoglucosyldiacylglycerol and diglucosyldiacylglycerol. Thus, YpfP would appear to be the only diglucosyldiacylglycerol synthase in S. aureus providing glycolipid for LTA assembly. In LTA from the mutant, the glycolipid anchor is replaced by diacylglycerol. Although the doubling time of the mutant was identical to that of the wild type in Luria-Bertani (LB) medium, growth of the mutant in LB medium containing 1% glycine was not observed. This inhibition was antagonized by either L- or D-alanine. Moreover, viability of the mutant at 37 degrees C in 0.05 M phosphate (pH 7.2)-saline for 12 h was reduced to <0.1%. Addition of 0.1% D-glucose to the phosphate-saline ensured viability under these conditions. The autolysis of the ypfP::cat mutant in the presence of 0.05% Triton X-100 was 1.8-fold faster than that of the parental strain. Electron microscopy of the mutant revealed not only a small increase in cell size but also the presence of pleomorphic cells. Each of these phenotypes may be correlated with either (or both) a deficiency of free glycolipid in the membrane or the replacement of the usual glycolipid anchor of LTA with diacylglycerol.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Y Kiriukhin
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular and Cell Biology, Northwestern University, 2153 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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26
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Ludovice AM, Wu SW, de Lencastre H. Molecular cloning and DNA sequencing of the Staphylococcus aureus UDP-N-acetylmuramyl tripeptide synthetase (murE) gene, essential for the optimal expression of methicillin resistance. Microb Drug Resist 2000; 4:85-90. [PMID: 9650993 DOI: 10.1089/mdr.1998.4.85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Tn551 insertion in mutant RUSA235 of a highly methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain results in drastic reduction in the level of methicillin resistance and abnormalities, both in the composition of the peptidoglycan and of the cell wall precursor pool. Cloning and sequencing of the inactivated gene indicates that it is the murE gene of Staphylococcus aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Ludovice
- Molecular Genetics Unit, Instituto de Technologia Química e Biológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
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