Vir proteins stabilize VirB5 and mediate its association with the T pilus of Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Conjugative type IV secretion systems enable bacterial antagonism that operates independently of plasmid transfer

Bacterial cooperation and antagonism mediated by secretion systems are among the ways in which bacteria interact with one another. Here we report the discovery of an antagonistic property of a type IV secretion system (T4SS) sourced from a conjugative plasmid, RP4, using engineering approaches. We scrutinized the genetic determinants and suggested that this antagonistic activity is independent of molecular cargos, while we also elucidated the resistance genes. We further showed that a range of Gram-negative bacteria and a mixed bacterial population can be eliminated by this T4SS-dependent antagonism. Finally, we showed that such an antagonistic property is not limited to T4SS sourced from RP4, rather it can also be observed in a T4SS originated from another conjugative plasmid, namely R388. Our results are the first demonstration of conjugative T4SS-dependent antagonism between Gram-negative bacteria on the genetic level and provide the foundation for future mechanistic studies.

Cryo-EM structure of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens T4SS-associated T-pilus reveals stoichiometric protein-phospholipid assembly

Agrobacterium tumefaciens causes crown gall disease in plants by the horizontal transfer of oncogenic DNA. The conjugation is mediated by the VirB/D4 type 4 secretion system (T4SS) that assembles an extracellular filament, the T-pilus, and is involved in mating pair formation between A. tumefaciens and the recipient plant cell. Here, we present a 3 Å cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of the T-pilus solved by helical reconstruction. Our structure reveals that the T-pilus is a stoichiometric assembly of the VirB2 major pilin and phosphatidylglycerol (PG) phospholipid with 5-start helical symmetry. We show that PG head groups and the positively charged Arg 91 residues of VirB2 protomers form extensive electrostatic interactions in the lumen of the T-pilus. Mutagenesis of Arg 91 abolished pilus formation. While our T-pilus structure is architecturally similar to previously published conjugative pili structures, the T-pilus lumen is narrower and positively charged, raising questions of whether the T-pilus is a conduit for ssDNA transfer.

Targeted bacterial conjugation mediated by synthetic cell-to-cell adhesions

Genetic interventions on microbiomes, for clinical or biotechnological purposes, remain challenging. Conjugation-based delivery of genetic cargo is still unspecific and limited by low conjugation rates. Here we report an approach to overcome these problems, based on a synthetic bacterial adhesion system. Mating assemblers consist on a synthetic adhesion formed by the expression on the surface of donor and target cells of specific nanobodies (Nb) and their cognate antigen (Ag). The Nb-Ag bridge increased 1-3 logs transfer of a variety of plasmids, especially in liquid media, confirming that cell-cell docking is a main determinant limiting mating efficiency. Synthetic cell-to-cell adhesion allows efficient conjugation to targeted recipients, enhancing delivery of desired genes to a predefined subset of prey species, or even specific pathogenic strains such as enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), within a bacterial community. The synthetic conjugation enhancer presented here optimizes plasmid delivery by selecting the target hosts with high selectivity.

Cryo-EM structure of the Agrobacteriumtumefaciens T-pilus reveals the importance of positive charges in the lumen

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a natural genetic engineer that transfers DNA into plants, which is the most applied process for generation of genetically modified plants. DNA transfer is mediated by a type IV secretion system in the cell envelope and extracellular T-pili. We here report the cryo-electron microscopic structures of the T-pilus at 3.2-Å resolution and of the plasmid pKM101-determined N-pilus at 3-Å resolution. Both pili contain a main pilus protein (VirB2 in A. tumefaciens, TraM in pKM101) and phospholipids arranged in a five-start helical assembly. They contain positively charged amino acids in the lumen, and the lipids are positively charged in the T-pilus (phosphatidylcholine) conferring overall positive charge. Mutagenesis of the lumen-exposed Arg91 in VirB2 results in protein destabilization and loss of pilus formation. Our results reveal that different phospholipids can be incorporated into type IV secretion pili and that the charge of the lumen may be of functional importance.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens Type IV and Type VI Secretion Systems Reside in Detergent-Resistant Membranes

Cell membranes are not homogenous but compartmentalized into lateral microdomains, which are considered as biochemical reaction centers for various physiological processes in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Due to their special lipid and protein composition, some of these microdomains are resistant to treatment with non-ionic detergents and can be purified as detergent-resistant membranes (DRMs). Here we report the proteome of DRMs from the Gram-negative phytopathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Using label-free liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, we identified proteins enriched in DRMs isolated under normal and virulence-mimicking growth conditions. Prominent microdomain marker proteins such as the SPFH (stomatin/prohibitin/flotillin/HflKC) proteins HflK, HflC and Atu3772, along with the protease FtsH were highly enriched in DRMs isolated under any given condition. Moreover, proteins involved in cell envelope biogenesis, transport and secretion, as well as motility- and chemotaxis-associated proteins were overrepresented in DRMs. Most strikingly, we found virulence-associated proteins such as the VirA/VirG two-component system, and the membrane-spanning type IV and type VI secretion systems enriched in DRMs. Fluorescence microscopy of the cellular localization of both secretion systems and of marker proteins was in agreement with the results from the proteomics approach. These findings suggest that virulence traits are micro-compartmentalized into functional microdomains in A. tumefaciens.

Arabidopsis RAB8A, RAB8B and RAB8D Proteins Interact with Several RTNLB Proteins and are Involved in the Agrobacterium tumefaciens Infection Process

Arabidopsis thaliana small GTP-binding proteins, AtRAB8s, associate with the endomembrane system and modulate tubulovesicular trafficking between compartments of the biosynthetic and endocytic pathways. There are five members in Arabidopsis, namely AtRAB8A-8E. Yeast two-hybrid assays, bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays and glutathione-S-transferase pull-down assays showed that RAB8A, 8B and 8D interacted with several membrane-associated reticulon-like (AtRTNLB) proteins in yeast, plant cells and in vitro. Furthermore, RAB8A, 8B and 8D proteins showed interactions with the Agrobacterium tumefaciens virulence protein, VirB2, a component of a type IV secretion system (T4SS). A. tumefaciens uses a T4SS to transfer T-DNA and Virulence proteins to plants, which causes crown gall disease in plants. The Arabidopsis rab8A, rab8B and rab8D single mutants showed decreased levels of Agrobacterium-mediated root and seedling transformation, while the RAB8A, 8B and 8D overexpression transgenic Arabidopsis plants were hypersusceptible to A. tumefaciens and Pseudomonas syringae infections. RAB8A-8E transcripts accumulated differently in roots, rosette leaves, cauline leaves, inflorescence and flowers of wild-type plants. In summary, RAB8A, 8B and 8D interacted with several RTNLB proteins and participated in A. tumefaciens and P. syringae infection processes.

Synthesis of the unusual lipid bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate in environmental bacteria

The bacterial membrane is constantly remodelled in response to environmental conditions and the external supply of precursor molecules. Some bacteria are able to acquire exogenous lyso-phospholipids and convert them to the corresponding phospholipids. Here, we report that some soil-dwelling bacteria have alternative options to metabolize lyso-phosphatidylglycerol (L-PG). We find that the plant-pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens takes up this mono-acylated phospholipid and converts it to two distinct isoforms of the non-canonical lipid bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate (BMP). Chromatographic separation and quadrupole-time-of-flight MS/MS analysis revealed the presence of two possible BMP stereo configurations acylated at either of the free hydroxyl groups of the glycerol head group. BMP accumulated in the inner membrane and did not visibly alter cell morphology and growth behaviour. The plant-associated bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti was also able to convert externally provided L-PG to BMP. Other bacteria like Pseudomonas fluorescens and Escherichia coli metabolized L-PG after cell disruption, suggesting that BMP production in the natural habitat relies both on dedicated uptake systems and on head-group acylation enzymes. Overall, our study adds two previously overlooked phospholipids to the repertoire of bacterial membrane lipids and provides evidence for the remarkable condition-responsive adaptation of bacterial membranes.

A LysR-type transcriptional regulator controls the expression of numerous small RNAs in Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Small RNAs (sRNAs) are universal posttranscriptional regulators of gene expression and hundreds of sRNAs are frequently found in each and every bacterium. In order to coordinate cellular processes in response to ambient conditions, many sRNAs are differentially expressed. Here, we asked how these small regulators are regulated using Agrobacterium tumefaciens as a model system. Among the best-studied sRNAs in this plant pathogen are AbcR1 regulating numerous ABC transporters and PmaR, a regulator of peptidoglycan biosynthesis, motility, and ampicillin resistance. We report that the LysR-type regulator VtlR (also known as LsrB) controls expression of AbcR1 and PmaR. A vtlR/lsrB deletion strain showed growth defects, was sensitive to antibiotics and severely compromised in plant tumor formation. Transcriptome profiling by RNA-sequencing revealed more than 1,200 genes with altered expression in the mutant. Consistent with the function of VtlR/LsrB as regulator of AbcR1, many ABC transporter genes were affected. Interestingly, the transcription factor did not only control the expression of AbcR1 and PmaR. In the mutant, 102 sRNA genes were significantly up- or downregulated. Thus, our study uncovered VtlR/LsrB as the master regulator of numerous sRNAs. Thereby, the transcriptional regulator harnesses the regulatory power of sRNAs to orchestrate the expression of distinct sub-regulons.

The UTP-glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase of Brucella melitensis inhibits the activation of NF-κB via regulating the bacterial type IV secretion system

UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (UGPase) is an important pyrophosphatase that reversibly catalyzes the synthesis of UDP-glucose during glucose metabolism. We previously found that the deletion of UGPase may affect structure, growth, the virulence of Brucella, and the activation of cellular NF-κB. However, the exact mechanism of activation of NF-κB regulated by Brucella UGPase is still unclear. Here, we found for the first time that UGPase can regulate the expression of virB proteins (virB3, virB4, virB5, virB6, virB8, virB9, virB10, and virB11) of type IV secretion system (T4SS) as well as effectors (vceC, btpA, btpB, ricA, bspB, bspC, and bspF) of Brucella by promoting the expression of ribosomal S12 protein (rpsL), BMEI1825, and quinone of 2,4,5-trihydroxyphenylalanine (topA) proteins, and further inhibits the activation of cellular NF-κB and affects the virulence of Brucella. Our findings provide new insights into the mechanism used by Brucella to escape the immune recognition, which is expected to be of great value in the designing of Brucella vaccines and the screening of drug targets.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens Small Lipoprotein Atu8019 Is Involved in Selective Outer Membrane Vesicle (OMV) Docking to Bacterial Cells

Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), released from Gram-negative bacteria, have been attributed to intra- and interspecies communication and pathogenicity in diverse bacteria. OMVs carry various components including genetic material, toxins, signaling molecules, or proteins. Although the molecular mechanism(s) of cargo delivery is not fully understood, recent studies showed that transfer of the OMV content to surrounding cells is mediated by selective interactions. Here, we show that the phytopathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens, the causative agent of crown gall disease, releases OMVs, which attach to the cell surface of various Gram-negative bacteria. The OMVs contain the conserved small lipoprotein Atu8019. An atu8019-deletion mutant produced wildtype-like amounts of OMVs with a subtle but reproducible reduction in cell-attachment. Otherwise, loss of atu8019 did not alter growth, susceptibility against cations or antibiotics, attachment to plant cells, virulence, motility, or biofilm formation. In contrast, overproduction of Atu8019 in A. tumefaciens triggered cell aggregation and biofilm formation. Localization studies revealed that Atu8019 is surface exposed in Agrobacterium cells and in OMVs supporting a role in cell adhesion. Purified Atu8019 protein reconstituted into liposomes interacted with model membranes and with the surface of several Gram-negative bacteria. Collectively, our data suggest that the small lipoprotein Atu8019 is involved in OMV docking to specific bacteria.

CagW, a VirB6 homologue interacts with Cag-type IV secretion system substrate CagA in Helicobacter pylori

Protein translocating Cag type IV secretion system of Helicobacter pylori is a diverse multi-protein complex. Here, we have characterized one of its key subunit CagW to identify its interacting partners. Our results demonstrate for the first time that this VirB6 homologue interacts with the substrate of the secretion system CagA. CagW forms multimer and its absence affects cellular levels of pilus forming components, CagL, CagI and CagH. Our results support the notion that the protein is essential for the transport of CagA across the bacterial membrane barrier and would aid in improving our understanding of structural and functional aspects of the inner membrane part of Cag-T4SS channel complex for the passage of substrate CagA.

Bacteria-Killing Type IV Secretion Systems

Bacteria have been constantly competing for nutrients and space for billions of years. During this time, they have evolved many different molecular mechanisms by which to secrete proteinaceous effectors in order to manipulate and often kill rival bacterial and eukaryotic cells. These processes often employ large multimeric transmembrane nanomachines that have been classified as types I-IX secretion systems. One of the most evolutionarily versatile are the Type IV secretion systems (T4SSs), which have been shown to be able to secrete macromolecules directly into both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Until recently, examples of T4SS-mediated macromolecule transfer from one bacterium to another was restricted to protein-DNA complexes during bacterial conjugation. This view changed when it was shown by our group that many Xanthomonas species carry a T4SS that is specialized to transfer toxic bacterial effectors into rival bacterial cells, resulting in cell death. This review will focus on this special subtype of T4SS by describing its distinguishing features, similar systems in other proteobacterial genomes, and the nature of the effectors secreted by these systems and their cognate inhibitors.

The RNase YbeY Is Vital for Ribosome Maturation, Stress Resistance, and Virulence of the Natural Genetic Engineer Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Riboregulation involving regulatory RNAs, RNA chaperones, and ribonucleases is fundamental for the rapid adaptation of gene expression to changing environmental conditions. The gene coding for the RNase YbeY belongs to the minimal prokaryotic genome set and has a profound impact on physiology in a wide range of bacteria. Here, we show that the Agrobacterium tumefaciens ybeY gene is not essential. Deletion of the gene in the plant pathogen reduced growth, motility, and stress tolerance. Most interestingly, YbeY is crucial for A. tumefaciens-mediated T-DNA transfer and tumor formation. Comparative proteomics by using isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) revealed dysregulation of 59 proteins, many of which have previously been found to be dependent on the RNA chaperone Hfq. YbeY and Hfq have opposing effects on production of these proteins. Accumulation of a 16S rRNA precursor in the ybeY mutant suggests that A. tumefaciens YbeY is involved in rRNA processing. RNA coimmunoprecipitation-sequencing (RIP-Seq) showed binding of YbeY to the region immediately upstream of the 16S rRNA. Purified YbeY is an oligomer with RNase activity. It does not physically interact with Hfq and thus plays a partially overlapping but distinct role in the riboregulatory network of the plant pathogen.IMPORTANCE Although ybeY gene belongs to the universal bacterial core genome, its biological function is incompletely understood. Here, we show that YbeY is critical for fitness and host-microbe interaction in the plant pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens Consistent with the reported endoribonuclease activity of YbeY, A. tumefaciens YbeY acts as a RNase involved in maturation of 16S rRNA. This report adds a worldwide plant pathogen and natural genetic engineer of plants to the growing list of bacteria that require the conserved YbeY protein for host-microbe interaction.

Virulence of Agrobacterium tumefaciens requires lipid homeostasis mediated by the lysyl-phosphatidylglycerol hydrolase AcvB

Agrobacterium tumefaciens transfers oncogenic T-DNA via the type IV secretion system (T4SS) into plants causing tumor formation. The acvB gene encodes a virulence factor of unknown function required for plant transformation. Here we specify AcvB as a periplasmic lysyl-phosphatidylglycerol (L-PG) hydrolase, which modulates L-PG homeostasis. Through functional characterization of recombinant AcvB variants, we showed that the C-terminal domain of AcvB (residues 232-456) is sufficient for full enzymatic activity and defined key residues for catalysis. Absence of the hydrolase resulted in ~10-fold increase in L-PG in Agrobacterium membranes and abolished T-DNA transfer and tumor formation. Overproduction of the L-PG synthase gene (lpiA) in wild-type A. tumefaciens resulted in a similar increase in the L-PG content (~7-fold) and a virulence defect even in the presence of intact AcvB. These results suggest that elevated L-PG amounts (either by overproduction of the synthase or absence of the hydrolase) are responsible for the virulence phenotype. Gradually increasing the L-PG content by complementation with different acvB variants revealed that cellular L-PG levels above 3% of total phospholipids interfere with T-DNA transfer. Cumulatively, this study identified AcvB as a novel virulence factor required for membrane lipid homeostasis and T-DNA transfer.

Two pKM101-encoded proteins, the pilus-tip protein TraC and Pep, assemble on the Escherichia coli cell surface as adhesins required for efficient conjugative DNA transfer

Mobile genetic elements (MGEs) encode type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) known as conjugation machines for their transmission between bacterial cells. Conjugation machines are composed of an envelope-spanning translocation channel, and those functioning in Gram-negative species additionally elaborate an extracellular pilus to initiate donor-recipient cell contacts. We report that pKM101, a self-transmissible MGE functioning in the Enterobacteriaceae, has evolved a second target cell attachment mechanism. Two pKM101-encoded proteins, the pilus-tip adhesin TraC and a protein termed Pep, are exported to the cell surface where they interact and also form higher order complexes appearing as distinct foci or patches around the cell envelope. Surface-displayed TraC and Pep are required for an efficient conjugative transfer, 'extracellular complementation' potentially involving intercellular protein transfer, and activation of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa type VI secretion system. Both proteins are also required for bacteriophage PRD1 infection. TraC and Pep are exported across the outer membrane by a mechanism potentially involving the β-barrel assembly machinery. The pKM101 T4SS, thus, deploys alternative routing pathways for the delivery of TraC to the pilus tip or both TraC and Pep to the cell surface. We propose that T4SS-encoded, pilus-independent attachment mechanisms maximize the probability of MGE propagation and might be widespread among this translocation superfamily.

Interaction via the N terminus of the type IV secretion system (T4SS) protein VirB6 with VirB10 is required for VirB2 and VirB5 incorporation into T-pili and for T4SS function

Many bacterial pathogens employ multicomponent protein complexes such as type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) to transfer virulence factors into host cells. Here we studied the interaction between two essential T4SS components: the very hydrophobic inner membrane protein VirB6, which may be a component of the translocation channel, and VirB10, which links the inner and outer bacterial membranes. To map the interaction site between these two T4SS components, we conducted alanine scanning and deleted six-amino acid stretches from the N-terminal periplasmic domain of VirB6 from Brucella suis. Using the bacterial two-hybrid system to analyze the effects of these alterations on the VirB6–VirB10 interaction, we identified the amino acid regions 16–21 and 28–33 and Leu-18 in VirB6 as being required for this interaction. SDS-PAGE coupled with Western blotting of cell lysates and native PAGE of detergent-extracted membrane proteins revealed that the corresponding VirB6 residues in Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Phe-20 and amino acids 18–23 and 30–35) modulate the stability of both VirB6 and VirB5. However, the results from immuno-EM and super-resolution microscopy suggested that these regions and residues are not required for membrane association or for polar localization of VirB6. The six-amino acid deletions in the N terminus of VirB6 abolished pilus formation and virulence of A. tumefaciens, and the corresponding deletions in the VirB6 homolog TraD from the plasmid pKM101-T4SS abrogated plasmid transfer. Our results indicate that specific residues of the VirB6 N-terminal domain are required for VirB6 stabilization, its interaction with VirB10, and the incorporation of VirB2 and VirB5 into T-pili.

Arabidopsis RETICULON-LIKE3 (RTNLB3) and RTNLB8 Participate in Agrobacterium-Mediated Plant Transformation

Agrobacterium tumefaciens can genetically transform various eukaryotic cells because of the presence of a resident tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid. During infection, a defined region of the Ti plasmid, transfer DNA (T-DNA), is transferred from bacteria into plant cells and causes plant cells to abnormally synthesize auxin and cytokinin, which results in crown gall disease. T-DNA and several virulence (Vir) proteins are secreted through a type IV secretion system (T4SS) composed of T-pilus and a transmembrane protein complex. Three members of Arabidopsis reticulon-like B (RTNLB) proteins, RTNLB1, 2, and 4, interact with VirB2, the major component of T-pilus. Here, we have identified that other RTNLB proteins, RTNLB3 and 8, interact with VirB2 in vitro. Root-based A. tumefaciens transformation assays with Arabidopsis rtnlb3, or rtnlb5-10 single mutants showed that the rtnlb8 mutant was resistant to A. tumefaciens infection. In addition, rtnlb3 and rtnlb8 mutants showed reduced transient transformation efficiency in seedlings. RTNLB3- or 8 overexpression transgenic plants showed increased susceptibility to A. tumefaciens and Pseudomonas syringae infection. RTNLB1-4 and 8 transcript levels differed in roots, rosette leaves, cauline leaves, inflorescence, flowers, and siliques of wild-type plants. Taken together, RTNLB3 and 8 may participate in A. tumefaciens infection but may have different roles in plants.

Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation: biology and applications

Plant genetic transformation heavily relies on the bacterial pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens as a powerful tool to deliver genes of interest into a host plant. Inside the plant nucleus, the transferred DNA is capable of integrating into the plant genome for inheritance to the next generation (i.e. stable transformation). Alternatively, the foreign DNA can transiently remain in the nucleus without integrating into the genome but still be transcribed to produce desirable gene products (i.e. transient transformation). From the discovery of A. tumefaciens to its wide application in plant biotechnology, numerous aspects of the interaction between A. tumefaciens and plants have been elucidated. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the biology and the applications of Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation, which may be useful for both microbiologists and plant biologists who desire a better understanding of plant transformation, protein expression in plants, and plant-microbe interaction.

Functional interaction and structural characteristics of unique components of Helicobacter pylori T4SS

The Helicobacter pylori infection of the human gastric mucosa causes chronic active gastritis and peptic ulcers and is associated with the development of gastric cancer. Epidemiological studies show that these gastric diseases are related to virulent H. pylori strains that harbor the cytotoxin-associated gene pathogenicity island (cag PAI). The cag PAI is a DNA insertion in the H. pylori chromosome that encodes ~ 27 proteins, including the oncoprotein CagA. Approximately 20 of these proteins have been designated as cag type IV secretion system (T4SS) components. However, only 11 of these proteins share function, structure, and/or sequence similarities with the prototypical VirB/VirD4 T4SS of Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The VirB/VirD4 orthologs of the cag T4SS of H. pylori are required for CagA translocation and stimulate the gastric epithelial cells to produce and secrete interleukin-8 (IL-8). The cag PAI encodes eight additional proteins, such as Cag3 (Cagδ/HP0522), CagM (Cag16/HP0537), CagU (Cag11/HP0531), CagI (Cag19/HP0540), and CagH (Cag20/HP0541), which are also required for the translocation of CagA and IL-8 secretion, meanwhile CagF (Cag22/HP0543), CagG (Cag21/HP0542), and CagZ (Cag6/HP0526) are just required for the translocation of CagA. However, relatively little is known about their functions and structural organization because they exhibit a nondetectable sequence similarity with T4SS components in the current databases. In this review, we conducted an exhaustive analysis of the literature to present the biochemistry, putative role, localization, and interactions of each of these eight additional cag T4SS components.

Type IV Secretion in Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Development of Specific Inhibitors

The Agrobacterium tumefaciens VirB/D4 type IV secretion system (T4SS) comprises 12 membrane-bound proteins, and it assembles a surface-exposed T-pilus. It is considered to be the archetypical system that is generally used to orient the nomenclature of other T4SS. Whereas the sequence similarities between T4SSs from different organisms are often limited, the general mechanism of action appears to be conserved, and the evolutionary relationship to bacterial conjugation systems and to T4SSs from animal pathogens is well established. Agrobacterium is a natural genetic engineer that is extensively used for the generation of transgenic plants for research and for agro-biotechnological applications. It also served as an early model for the understanding of pathogen-host interactions and for the transfer of macromolecular virulence factors into host cells. The knowledge on the mechanism of its T4SS inspired the search for small molecules that inhibit the virulence of bacterial pathogens and of bacterial conjugation. Inhibitors of bacterial virulence and of conjugation have interesting potential as alternatives to antibiotics and as inhibitors of antimicrobial resistance gene transfer. Mechanistic work on the Agrobacterium T4SS will continue to inspire the search for inhibitor target sites and drug design.

Two Distinct Cardiolipin Synthases Operate in Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Cardiolipin (CL) is a universal component of energy generating membranes. In most bacteria, it is synthesized via the condensation of two molecules phosphatidylglycerol (PG) by phospholipase D-type cardiolipin synthases (PLD-type Cls). In the plant pathogen and natural genetic engineer Agrobacterium tumefaciens CL comprises up to 15% of all phospholipids in late stationary growth phase. A. tumefaciens harbors two genes, atu1630 (cls1) and atu2486 (cls2), coding for PLD-type Cls. Heterologous expression of either cls1 or cls2 in Escherichia coli resulted in accumulation of CL supporting involvement of their products in CL synthesis. Expression of cls1 and cls2 in A. tumefaciens is constitutive and irrespective of the growth phase. Membrane lipid profiling of A. tumefaciens mutants suggested that Cls2 is required for CL synthesis at early exponential growth whereas both Cls equally contribute to CL production at later growth stages. Contrary to many bacteria, which suffer from CL depletion, A. tumefaciens tolerates large changes in CL content since the CL-deficient cls1/cls2 double mutant showed no apparent defects in growth, stress tolerance, motility, biofilm formation, UV-stress and tumor formation on plants.

The Rickettsia type IV secretion system: unrealized complexity mired by gene family expansion

Many prokaryotes utilize type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) to translocate substrates (e.g. nucleoprotein, DNA, protein) across the cell envelope, and/or to elaborate surface structures (i.e. pili or adhesins). Among eight distinct T4SS classes, P-T4SSs are typified by the Agrobacterium tumefaciens vir T4SS, which is comprised of 12 scaffold components (VirB1-VirB11, VirD4). While most P-T4SSs include all 12 Vir proteins, some differ from the vir archetype by either containing additional scaffold components not analogous to Vir proteins or lacking one or more of the Vir proteins. In a special case, the Rickettsiales vir homolog (rvh) P-T4SS comprises unprecedented gene family expansion. rvh contains three families of gene duplications (rvhB9, rvhB8, rvhB4): RvhB9,8,4-I are conserved relative to equivalents in other P-T4SSs, while RvhB9,8,4-II have evolved atypical features that deviate substantially from other homologs. Furthermore, rvh contains five VirB6-like genes (rvhB6a-e), which are tandemly arrayed and contain large N- and C-terminal extensions. Our work herein focuses on the complexity underpinned by rvh gene family expansion. Furthermore, we describe an RvhB10 insertion, which occurs in a region that forms the T4SS pore. The significance of these curious properties to rvh structure and function is evaluated, shedding light on a highly complex T4SS.

Structural Biology of Bacterial Type IV Secretion Systems

Type IV secretion systems (T4SSs) are large multisubunit translocons, found in both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria and in some archaea. These systems transport a diverse array of substrates from DNA and protein-DNA complexes to proteins, and play fundamental roles in both bacterial pathogenesis and bacterial adaptation to the cellular milieu in which bacteria live. This review describes the various biochemical and structural advances made toward understanding the biogenesis, architecture, and function of T4SSs.

Comparative transcriptome analysis of Brucella melitensis in an acidic environment: Identification of the two-component response regulator involved in the acid resistance and virulence of Brucella

Brucella melitensis, encounters a very stressful environment in phagosomes, especially low pH levels. So identifying the genes that contribute to the replication and survival within an acidic environment is critical in understanding the pathogenesis of the Brucella bacteria. In our research, comparative transcriptome with RNA-seq were used to analyze the changes of genes in normal-medium culture and in pH4.4-medium culture. The results reveal that 113 genes expressed with significant differences (|log2Ratio| ≥ 3); about 44% genes expressed as up-regulated. With GO term analysis, structural constituent of the ribosome, rRNA binding, structural molecule activity, and cation-transporting ATPase activity were significantly enriched (p-value ≤ 0.05). These genes distributed in 51 pathways, in which ribosome and photosynthesis pathways were significantly enriched. Six pathways (oxidative phosphorylation, iron-transporting, bacterial secretion system, transcriptional regulation, two-component system, and ABC transporters pathways) tightly related to the intracellular survival and virulence of Brucella were analyzed. A two-component response regulator gene in the transcriptional regulation pathway, identified through gene deletion and complementary technologies, played an important role in the resistance to the acid-resistance and virulence of Brucella.

Overexpression of the HspL Promotes Agrobacterium tumefaciens Virulence in Arabidopsis Under Heat Shock Conditions

Agrobacterium tumefaciens transfers a specific DNA fragment from the resident tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid and effector virulence (Vir) proteins to plant cells during infection. A. tumefaciens VirB1-11 and VirD4 proteins assemble as the type IV secretion system (T4SS), which mediates transfer of the T-DNA and effector Vir protein into plant cells, thus resulting in crown gall disease in plants. Previous studies revealed that an α-crystallin-type, small heat-shock protein (HspL) is a more effective VirB8 chaperone than three other small heat-shock proteins (HspC, HspAT1, and HspAT2). Additionally, HspL contributes to efficient T4SS-mediated DNA transfer and tumorigenesis under room-temperature growth. In this study, we aimed to characterize the impact of HspL on Agrobacterium-mediated transformation efficiency under heat-shock treatment. During heat shock, transient transformation efficiency and VirB8 protein accumulation were lower in the hspL deletion mutant than in the wild type. Overexpression of HspL in A. tumefaciens enhanced the transient transformation efficiency in root explants of both susceptible and recalcitrant Arabidopsis ecotypes. In addition, the reduced transient transformation efficiency during heat stress was recovered by overexpression of HspL in A. tumefaciens. HspL may help maintain VirB8 homeostasis and elevate Agrobacterium-mediated transformation efficiency under both heat-shock and nonheat-shock growth.

Secretome of obligate intracellular Rickettsia

The genus Rickettsia (Alphaproteobacteria, Rickettsiales, Rickettsiaceae) is comprised of obligate intracellular parasites, with virulent species of interest both as causes of emerging infectious diseases and for their potential deployment as bioterrorism agents. Currently, there are no effective commercially available vaccines, with treatment limited primarily to tetracycline antibiotics, although others (e.g. josamycin, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, and azithromycin) are also effective. Much of the recent research geared toward understanding mechanisms underlying rickettsial pathogenicity has centered on characterization of secreted proteins that directly engage eukaryotic cells. Herein, we review all aspects of the Rickettsia secretome, including six secretion systems, 19 characterized secretory proteins, and potential moonlighting proteins identified on surfaces of multiple Rickettsia species. Employing bioinformatics and phylogenomics, we present novel structural and functional insight on each secretion system. Unexpectedly, our investigation revealed that the majority of characterized secretory proteins have not been assigned to their cognate secretion pathways. Furthermore, for most secretion pathways, the requisite signal sequences mediating translocation are poorly understood. As a blueprint for all known routes of protein translocation into host cells, this resource will assist research aimed at uniting characterized secreted proteins with their apposite secretion pathways. Furthermore, our work will help in the identification of novel secreted proteins involved in rickettsial 'life on the inside'.

Towards an integrated model of bacterial conjugation

Bacterial conjugation is one of the main mechanisms for horizontal gene transfer. It constitutes a key element in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance and virulence genes to human pathogenic bacteria. DNA transfer is mediated by a membrane-associated macromolecular machinery called Type IV secretion system (T4SS). T4SSs are involved not only in bacterial conjugation but also in the transport of virulence factors by pathogenic bacteria. Thus, the search for specific inhibitors of different T4SS components opens a novel approach to restrict plasmid dissemination. This review highlights recent biochemical and structural findings that shed new light on the molecular mechanisms of DNA and protein transport by T4SS. Based on these data, a model for pilus biogenesis and substrate transfer in conjugative systems is proposed. This model provides a renewed view of the mechanism that might help to envisage new strategies to curb the threating expansion of antibiotic resistance.

Profound impact of Hfq on nutrient acquisition, metabolism and motility in the plant pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens

As matchmaker between mRNA and sRNA interactions, the RNA chaperone Hfq plays a key role in riboregulation of many bacteria. Often, the global influence of Hfq on the transcriptome is reflected by substantially altered proteomes and pleiotropic phenotypes in hfq mutants. Using quantitative proteomics and co-immunoprecipitation combined with RNA-sequencing (RIP-seq) of Hfq-bound RNAs, we demonstrate the pervasive role of Hfq in nutrient acquisition, metabolism and motility of the plant pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens. 136 of 2544 proteins identified by iTRAQ (isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation) were affected in the absence of Hfq. Most of them were associated with ABC transporters, general metabolism and motility. RIP-seq of chromosomally encoded Hfq^3xFlag revealed 1697 mRNAs and 209 non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) associated with Hfq. 56 ncRNAs were previously undescribed. Interestingly, 55% of the Hfq-bound ncRNAs were encoded antisense (as) to a protein-coding sequence suggesting that A. tumefaciens Hfq plays an important role in asRNA-target interactions. The exclusive enrichment of 296 mRNAs and 31 ncRNAs under virulence conditions further indicates a role for post-transcriptional regulation in A. tumefaciens-mediated plant infection. On the basis of the iTRAQ and RIP-seq data, we assembled a comprehensive model of the Hfq core regulon in A. tumefaciens.

Expression and functional characterization of the Agrobacterium VirB2 amino acid substitution variants in T-pilus biogenesis, virulence, and transient transformation efficiency

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a phytopathogenic bacterium that causes crown gall disease by transferring transferred DNA (T-DNA) into the plant genome. The translocation process is mediated by the type IV secretion system (T4SS) consisting of the VirD4 coupling protein and 11 VirB proteins (VirB1 to VirB11). All VirB proteins are required for the production of T-pilus, which consists of processed VirB2 (T-pilin) and VirB5 as major and minor subunits, respectively. VirB2 is an essential component of T4SS, but the roles of VirB2 and the assembled T-pilus in Agrobacterium virulence and the T-DNA transfer process remain unknown. Here, we generated 34 VirB2 amino acid substitution variants to study the functions of VirB2 involved in VirB2 stability, extracellular VirB2/T-pilus production and virulence of A. tumefaciens. From the capacity for extracellular VirB2 production (ExB2⁺ or ExB2⁻) and tumorigenesis on tomato stems (Vir⁺ or Vir⁻), the mutants could be classified into three groups: ExB2⁻/Vir⁻, ExB2⁻/Vir⁺, and ExB2⁺/Vir⁺. We also confirmed by electron microscopy that five ExB2⁻/Vir⁺ mutants exhibited a wild-type level of virulence with their deficiency in T-pilus formation. Interestingly, although the five T-pilus⁻/Vir⁺ uncoupling mutants retained a wild-type level of tumorigenesis efficiency on tomato stems and/or potato tuber discs, their transient transformation efficiency in Arabidopsis seedlings was highly attenuated. In conclusion, we have provided evidence for a role of T-pilus in Agrobacterium transformation process and have identified the domains and amino acid residues critical for VirB2 stability, T-pilus biogenesis, tumorigenesis, and transient transformation efficiency.

Recent advances in the structural and molecular biology of type IV secretion systems

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We describe the first structure of a type IV secretion (T4S) system.

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The previously reported core complex is mostly an outer membrane complex.

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We describe the newly discovered inner membrane complex and the stalk.

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We discuss proposed translocation mechanisms of T4S systems.

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We discuss the regulation of pilus biogenesis and substrate transfer by T4S systems.

Bacteria use type IV secretion (T4S) systems to deliver DNA and protein substrates to a diverse range of prokaryotic and eukaryotic target cells. T4S systems have great impact on human health, as they are a major source of antibiotic resistance spread among bacteria and are central to infection processes of many pathogens. Therefore, deciphering the structure and underlying translocation mechanism of T4S systems is crucial to facilitate development of new drugs. The last five years have witnessed considerable progress in unraveling the structure of T4S system subassemblies, notably that of the T4S system core complex, a large 1 MegaDalton (MDa) structure embedded in the double membrane of Gram-negative bacteria and made of 3 of the 12 T4S system components. However, the recent determination of the structure of ∼3 MDa assembly of 8 of these components has revolutionized our views of T4S system architecture and opened up new avenues of research, which are discussed in this review.

A bifunctional glycosyltransferase from Agrobacterium tumefaciens synthesizes monoglucosyl and glucuronosyl diacylglycerol under phosphate deprivation

Glycolipids are mainly found in phototrophic organisms (like plants and cyanobacteria), in Gram-positive bacteria, and a few other bacterial phyla. Besides the function as bulk membrane lipids, they often play a role under phosphate deprivation as surrogates for phospholipids. The Gram-negative Agrobacterium tumefaciens accumulates four different glycolipids under phosphate deficiency, including digalactosyl diacylglycerol and glucosylgalactosyl diacylglycerol synthesized by a processive glycosyltransferase. The other two glycolipids have now been identified by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy as monoglucosyl diacylglycerol and glucuronosyl diacylglycerol. These two lipids are synthesized by a single promiscuous glycosyltransferase encoded by the ORF atu2297, with UDP-glucose or UDP-glucuronic acid as sugar donors. The transfer of sugars differing in their chemistry is a novel feature not observed before for lipid glycosyltransferases. Furthermore, this enzyme is the first glucuronosyl diacylglycerol synthase isolated. Deletion mutants of Agrobacterium lacking monoglucosyl diacylglycerol and glucuronosyl diacylglycerol or all glycolipids are not impaired in growth or virulence during infection of tobacco leaf discs. Our data suggest that the four glycolipids and the nonphospholipid diacylglyceryl trimethylhomoserine can mutually replace each other during phosphate deprivation. This redundancy of different nonphospholipids may represent an adaptation mechanism to enhance the competitiveness in nature.

Type IV secretion machinery: molecular architecture and function

Bacteria have evolved several secretion machineries to bring about transport of various virulence factors, nutrients, nucleic acids and cell-surface appendages that are essential for their pathogenesis. T4S (Type IV secretion) systems are versatile secretion systems found in various Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and in few archaea. They are large multisubunit translocons secreting a diverse array of substrates varying in size and nature from monomeric proteins to nucleoprotein complexes. T4S systems have evolved from conjugation machineries and are implicated in antibiotic resistance gene transfer and transport of virulence factors in Legionella pneumophila causing Legionnaires’ disease, Brucella suis causing brucellosis and Helicobacter pylori causing gastroduodenal diseases. The best-studied are the Agrobacterium tumefaciens VirB/D4 and the Escherichia coli plasmid pKM101 T4S systems. Recent structural advances revealing the cryo-EM (electron microscopy) structure of the core translocation assembly and high-resolution structure of the outer-membrane pore of T4S systems have made paradigm shifts in the understanding of T4S systems. The present paper reviews the advances made in biochemical and structural studies and summarizes our current understanding of the molecular architecture of this mega-assembly.

Brucella T4SS: the VIP pass inside host cells

For many Gram-negative bacteria, like Brucella, the type IV secretion system (T4SS) has a critical role in bacterial virulence. In Brucella, the VirB T4SS permits the injection of bacterial effectors inside host cells, leading to subversion of signaling pathways and favoring bacterial growth and pathogenesis. The virB operon promoter is tightly regulated by a combination of transcriptional activators and repressors that are expressed according to the environmental conditions encountered by Brucella. Recent advances have shed light on the Brucella T4SS regulatory mechanisms and also its substrates. Characterization of the targets and functions of these translocated effectors is underway and will help understand the role of the T4SS in the establishment of a replication niche inside host cells.

Type-IVC secretion system: a novel subclass of type IV secretion system (T4SS) common existing in gram-positive genus Streptococcus

A growing number of pathogens are being found to possess specialized secretion systems which they use in various ways to subvert host defenses. Type IV secretion system (T4SS) is one of versatile secretion systems essential for the virulence and even survival of some bacteria species, and they enable the secretion of protein and DNA substrates across the cell envelope. T4SS was once believed to be present only in Gram-negative bacteria. In this study, we present evidence of a new subclass of T4SS, Type-IVC secretion system and indicate its common existence in the Gram-positive bacterial genus Streptococcus. We further identified that VirB1, VirB4, VirB6 and VirD4 are the minimal key components of this system. Using genome comparisons and evolutionary relationship analysis, we proposed that Type-IVC secretion system is movable via transposon factors and mediates the conjugative transfer of DNA, enhances bacterial pathogenicity, and could cause large-scale outbreaks of infections in humans.

Expression of Agrobacterium tumefaciens octopine Ti-plasmid virB8 gene is regulated by translational coupling

Eleven proteins of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens virB operon are required for type IV secretion. All octopine Ti-plasmid pTiA6NC VirB proteins, except VirB8, could be expressed from a cloned monocistronic gene. Accumulation of VirB8 required translation of the upstream virB7 gene. Analysis of chimeric virB8 genes and a newly constructed virB7 deletion mutant Agrobacterium AD1275 showed that translation of virB7, and not the gene product, is required for VirB8 accumulation. Agrobacterium AD1275 accumulated VirB8 and other downstream virB gene products, and could be complemented with only virB7 in trans. In monocistronic virB8, sequences upstream of the virB8 ORF negatively controls virB8 expression possibly through the formation of a secondary structure that occludes both the ribosome binding site and translation start codon. Disruption of the structure through translation of the upstream gene ensures efficient translation of the virB8 mRNA in wild type bacteria. The pTiA6NC virB8 contains two potential translation start sites within the first eight codons. We show that the first AUG is used for virB8 translation initiation. The seven N-terminal residues resulting from translation initiation at the first AUG are required for both tumor formation and stabilization of VirB3. VirB8 and VirB4 are sufficient for the stabilization of VirB3, and VirB7 stabilizes VirB3 indirectly through its effect on virB8 expression.

Accumulation of glycolipids and other non-phosphorous lipids in Agrobacterium tumefaciens grown under phosphate deprivation

Phosphate deficiency is characteristic for many natural habitats, resulting in different physiological responses in plants and bacteria including the replacement of phospholipids by glycolipids and other phosphorous-free lipids. The plant pathogenic bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which is free of glycolipids under full nutrition, harbors an open reading frame (ORF) coding for a processive glycosyltransferase (named as Pgt). This glycosyltransferase was previously shown to synthesize glucosylgalactosyldiacylglycerol (GGD) and digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGD) after heterologous expression. The native function of this enzyme and the conditions for its activation remained unknown. We show here that Pgt is active under phosphate deprivation synthesizing GGD and DGD in Agrobacterium. A corresponding deletion mutant (Δpgt) is free of these two glycolipids. Glycolipid accumulation is mainly regulated by substrate (diacylglycerol) availability. Diacylglycerol and the total fatty acid pool are characterized by an altered acyl composition in dependence of the phosphate status with a strong decrease of 18:1 and concomitant increase of 19:0 cyclo during phosphate deprivation. Furthermore, Agrobacterium accumulates two additional unknown glycolipids and diacylglycerol trimethylhomoserine (DGTS) during phosphate deprivation. Accumulation of all these lipids is accompanied by a reduction in phospholipids from 75 to 45% in the wild type. A further non-phosphorous lipid, ornithine lipid, was not increased but its degree of hydroxylation was elevated under phosphate deprivation. The lack of GGD and DGD in the Δpgt mutant has no effect on growth and virulence of Agrobacterium, suggesting that these two lipids are functionally replaced by DGTS and the two unknown glycolipids under phosphate deprivation.

Identification of Bartonella Trw host-specific receptor on erythrocytes

Each Bartonella species appears to be highly adapted to one or a limited number of reservoir hosts, in which it establishes long-lasting intraerythrocytic bacteremia as the hallmark of infection. Recently, we identified Trw as the bacterial system involved in recognition of erythrocytes according to their animal origin. The T4SS Trw is characterized by a multiprotein complex that spans the inner and outer bacterial membranes, and possesses a hypothetical pilus structure. TrwJ, I, H and trwL are present in variable copy numbers in different species and the multiple copies of trwL and trwJ in the Bartonella trw locus are considered to encode variant forms of surface-exposed pilus components. We therefore aimed to identify which of the candidate Trw pilus components were located on the bacterial surface and involved in adhesion to erythrocytes, together with their erythrocytic receptor. Using different technologies (electron microscopy, phage display, invasion inhibition assay, far western blot), we found that only TrwJ1 and TrwJ2 were expressed and localized at the cell surface of B. birtlesii and had the ability to bind to mouse erythrocytes, and that their receptor was band3, one of the major outer-membrane glycoproteins of erythrocytes, (anion exchanger). According to these results, we propose that the interaction between TrwJ1, TrwJ2 and band 3 leads to the critical host-specific adherence of Bartonella to its host cells, erythrocytes.

Hfq influences multiple transport systems and virulence in the plant pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens

The Hfq protein mediates gene regulation by small RNAs (sRNAs) in about 50% of all bacteria. Depending on the species, phenotypic defects of an hfq mutant range from mild to severe. Here, we document that the purified Hfq protein of the plant pathogen and natural genetic engineer Agrobacterium tumefaciens binds to the previously described sRNA AbcR1 and its target mRNA atu2422, which codes for the substrate binding protein of an ABC transporter taking up proline and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Several other ABC transporter components were overproduced in an hfq mutant compared to their levels in the parental strain, suggesting that Hfq plays a major role in controlling the uptake systems and metabolic versatility of A. tumefaciens. The hfq mutant showed delayed growth, altered cell morphology, and reduced motility. Although the DNA-transferring type IV secretion system was produced, tumor formation by the mutant strain was attenuated, demonstrating an important contribution of Hfq to plant transformation by A. tumefaciens.

Type IV secretion system core component VirB8 from Brucella binds to the globular domain of VirB5 and to a periplasmic domain of VirB6

Type IV secretion systems are macromolecular assemblies in the cell envelopes of bacteria that function in macromolecular translocation. Structural biology approaches have provided insights into the interaction of core complex components, but information about proteins that undergo transient interactions with membrane components has not been forthcoming. We have pursued an unbiased approach using peptide arrays and phage display to identify interaction partners and interaction domains of type IV secretion system assembly factor VirB8. These approaches identified the globular domain from the VirB5 protein to interact with VirB8. This interaction was confirmed in cross-linking, pull-down, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based interaction assays. In addition, using phage display analysis, we identified different regions of VirB6 as potential interaction partners of VirB8. Using a FRET-based interaction assay, we provide the first direct experimental evidence of the interaction of a VirB6 periplasmic domain with VirB8. These results will allow us to conduct directed structural biological work and structure-function analyses aimed at defining the molecular details and biological significance of these interactions with VirB8 in the future.

Brucellosis and type IV secretion

Brucellosis is a global disease of domestic and wild mammals that is caused by intracellular bacteria of the genus Brucella. Although humans are not a natural reservoir for Brucella, infection in the human population is common in many countries, and brucellosis is one of the most common zoonotic infections. Brucella species have evolved to avoid the host's immune system and infection is usually characterized by long-term persistence of the bacteria. One important Brucella virulence factor for intracellular survival and persistence in the host is the type IV secretion system. This review will discuss the Brucella type IV secretion system in detail, including current knowledge of architecture and regulation, as well as the newly identified effector substrates that this system transports into host cells.

Association and evidence for linked recognition of type IV secretion system proteins VirB9-1, VirB9-2, and VirB10 in Anaplasma marginale

Like several other bacterial pathogens, Anaplasma marginale has an outer membrane that induces complete protection from infection and disease. However, the proteins that confer protective immunity and whether protection requires interacting proteins and/or linked T-cell and immunoglobulin G epitopes are not known. Our goal is to target the conserved type IV secretion system (T4SS) to identify conserved, immunogenic membrane proteins that are interacting and linked recognition candidates. Linked recognition is a process by which a B cell is optimally activated by a helper T cell that responds to the same, or physically associated, antigen. A. marginale T4SS proteins VirB2, VirB4-1, VirB4-2, VirB6-1, VirB7, VirB8-2, VirB9-1, VirB9-2, VirB10, VirB11, and VirD4 were screened for their ability to induce IgG and to stimulate CD4+ T cells from outer membrane-vaccinated cattle. VirB9-1, VirB9-2, and VirB10 induced the strongest IgG and T-cell responses in the majority of cattle, although three animals with major histocompatibility complex class II DRB3 restriction fragment length polymorphism types 8/23, 3/16, and 16/27 lacked T-cell responses to VirB9-1, VirB9-1 and VirB9-2, or VirB9-2 and VirB10, respectively. For these animals, VirB9-1-, VirB9-2-, and VirB10-specific IgG production may be associated with T-cell help provided by responses to an interacting protein partner(s). Interacting protein partners indicated by far-Western blotting were confirmed by immunoprecipitation assays and revealed, for the first time, specific interactions of VirB9-1 with VirB9-2 and VirB10. The immunogenicity and interactions of VirB9-1, VirB9-2, and VirB10 justify their testing as a linked protein vaccine against A. marginale.

Extracellular VirB5 enhances T-DNA transfer from Agrobacterium to the host plant

VirB5 is a type 4 secretion system protein of Agrobacterium located on the surface of the bacterial cell. This localization pattern suggests a function for VirB5 which is beyond its known role in biogenesis and/or stabilization of the T-pilus and which may involve early interactions between Agrobacterium and the host cell. Here, we identify VirB5 as the first Agrobacterium virulence protein that can enhance infectivity extracellularly. Specifically, we show that elevating the amounts of the extracellular VirB5--by exogenous addition of the purified protein, its overexpression in the bacterium, or transgenic expression in and secretion out of the host cell--enhances the efficiency the Agrobacterium-mediated T-DNA transfer, as measured by transient expression of genes contained on the transferred T-DNA molecule. Importantly, the exogenous VirB5 enhanced transient T-DNA expression in sugar beet, a major crop recalcitrant to genetic manipulation. Increasing the pool of the extracellular VirB5 did not complement an Agrobacterium virB5 mutant, suggesting a dual function for VirB5: in the bacterium and at the bacterium-host cell interface. Consistent with this idea, VirB5 expressed in the host cell, but not secreted, had no effect on the transformation efficiency. That the increase in T-DNA expression promoted by the exogenous VirB5 was not due to its effects on bacterial growth, virulence gene induction, bacterial attachment to plant tissue, or host cell defense response suggests that VirB5 participates in the early steps of the T-DNA transfer to the plant cell.

Choline uptake in Agrobacterium tumefaciens by the high-affinity ChoXWV transporter

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a facultative phytopathogen that causes crown gall disease. For successful plant transformation A. tumefaciens requires the membrane lipid phosphatidylcholine (PC), which is produced via the methylation and the PC synthase (Pcs) pathways. The latter route is dependent on choline. Although choline uptake has been demonstrated in A. tumefaciens, the responsible transporter(s) remained elusive. In this study, we identified the first choline transport system in A. tumefaciens. The ABC-type choline transporter is encoded by the chromosomally located choXWV operon (ChoX, binding protein; ChoW, permease; and ChoV, ATPase). The Cho system is not critical for growth and PC synthesis. However, [14C]choline uptake is severely reduced in A. tumefaciens choX mutants. Recombinant ChoX is able to bind choline with high affinity (equilibrium dissociation constant [KD] of ≈2 μM). Since other quaternary amines are bound by ChoX with much lower affinities (acetylcholine, KD of ≈80 μM; betaine, KD of ≈470 μM), the ChoXWV system functions as a high-affinity transporter with a preference for choline. Two tryptophan residues (W40 and W87) located in the predicted ligand-binding pocket are essential for choline binding. The structural model of ChoX built on Sinorhizobium meliloti ChoX resembles the typical structure of substrate binding proteins with a so-called "Venus flytrap mechanism" of substrate binding.

A processive glycosyltransferase involved in glycolipid synthesis during phosphate deprivation in Mesorhizobium loti

Natural habitats are often characterized by a low availability of phosphate. In plants and many bacteria, phosphate deficiency causes different physiological responses, including the replacement of phosphoglycerolipids in the membranes with nonphosphorous lipids. We describe here a processive glycosyltransferase (Pgt) in Mesorhizobium loti (Rhizobiales) involved in the synthesis of di- and triglycosyldiacylglycerols (DGlycD and TGlycD) during phosphate deprivation. Cells of the corresponding Δpgt deletion mutant are deficient in DGlycD and TGlycD. Additional Pgt-independent lipids accumulate in Mesorhizobium after phosphate starvation, including diacylglyceryl trimethylhomoserine (DGTS) and ornithine lipid (OL). The accumulation of the nonphosphorous lipids during phosphate deprivation leads to the reduction of phosphoglycerolipids from 90 to 50%. Nodulation experiments of Mesorhizobium wild type and the Δpgt mutant with its host plant, Lotus japonicus, revealed that DGlycD and TGlycD are not essential for nodulation under phosphate-replete or -deficient conditions. Lipid measurements showed that the Pgt-independent lipids including OL and DGTS accumulate to higher proportions in the Δpgt mutant and therefore might functionally replace DGlycD and TGlycD during phosphate deprivation.

Agrobacterium-produced and exogenous cytokinin-modulated Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a plant pathogenic bacterium that causes neoplastic growths, called 'crown gall', via the transfer and integration of transferred DNA (T-DNA) from the bacterium into the plant genome. We characterized an acetosyringone (AS)-induced tumour-inducing (Ti) plasmid gene, tzs (trans-zeatin synthesizing), that is responsible for the synthesis of the plant hormone cytokinin in nopaline-type A. tumefaciens strains. The loss of Tzs protein expression and trans-zeatin secretions by the tzs frameshift (tzs-fs) mutant is associated with reduced tumorigenesis efficiency on white radish stems and reduced transformation efficiencies on Arabidopsis roots. Complementation of the tzs-fs mutant with a wild-type tzs gene restored wild-type levels of trans-zeatin secretions and transformation efficiencies. Exogenous application of cytokinin during infection increased the transient transformation efficiency of Arabidopsis roots infected by strains lacking Tzs, which suggests that the lower transformation efficiency resulted from the lack of Agrobacterium-produced cytokinin. Interestingly, although the tzs-fs mutant displayed reduced tumorigenesis efficiency on several tested plants, the loss of Tzs enhanced tumorigenesis efficiencies on green pepper and cowpea. These data strongly suggest that Tzs, by synthesizing trans-zeatin at early stage(s) of the infection process, modulates plant transformation efficiency by A. tumefaciens.

Molecular architecture of bacterial type IV secretion systems

In Gram-negative bacteria, type IV secretion (T4S) systems form ATP-powered complexes that span the entire cellular envelope and secrete a wide variety of substrates from single proteins to protein-protein and protein-DNA complexes. Recent structural data, namely the electron microscopy structure of the T4S core complex and the atomic-resolution structure of its outer-membrane pore, have profoundly altered our understanding of T4S architecture and mechanisms.