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Blanvillain G, Lorch JM, Joudrier N, Bury S, Cuenot T, Franzen M, Martínez-Freiría F, Guiller G, Halpern B, Kolanek A, Kurek K, Lourdais O, Michon A, Musilová R, Schweiger S, Szulc B, Ursenbacher S, Zinenko O, Hoyt JR. Contribution of host species and pathogen clade to snake fungal disease hotspots in Europe. Commun Biol 2024; 7:440. [PMID: 38600171 PMCID: PMC11006896 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06092-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases are influenced by interactions between host and pathogen, and the number of infected hosts is rarely homogenous across the landscape. Areas with elevated pathogen prevalence can maintain a high force of infection and may indicate areas with disease impacts on host populations. However, isolating the ecological processes that result in increases in infection prevalence and intensity remains a challenge. Here we elucidate the contribution of pathogen clade and host species in disease hotspots caused by Ophidiomyces ophidiicola, the pathogen responsible for snake fungal disease, in 21 species of snakes infected with multiple pathogen strains across 10 countries in Europe. We found isolated areas of disease hotspots in a landscape where infections were otherwise low. O. ophidiicola clade had important effects on transmission, and areas with multiple pathogen clades had higher host infection prevalence. Snake species further influenced infection, with most positive detections coming from species within the Natrix genus. Our results suggest that both host and pathogen identity are essential components contributing to increased pathogen prevalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaëlle Blanvillain
- Biological Sciences Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Jeffrey M Lorch
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Nicolas Joudrier
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- Institute of Animal Pathology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Info fauna-Karch, Centre Suisse de Cartographie de la Faune (CSCF) and Centre de coordination pour la protection des reptiles et des amphibiens de Suisse (karch), Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Stanislaw Bury
- Department of Comparative Anatomy, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
- NATRIX Herpetological Association, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Thibault Cuenot
- LPO Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, Site de Franche-Comté, Maison de l'environnement de BFC, Besançon, France
| | - Michael Franzen
- Bavarian State Collection of Zoology (ZSM-SNSB), Munich, Germany
| | - Fernando Martínez-Freiría
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
| | | | - Bálint Halpern
- MME BirdLife Hungary, Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
- HUN-REN-ELTE-MTM, Integrative Ecology Research Group, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Aleksandra Kolanek
- NATRIX Herpetological Association, Wroclaw, Poland
- Department of Geoinformatics and Cartography, Institute of Geography and Regional Development, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Environmental Management, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Kurek
- Department of Wildlife Conservation, Institute of Nature Conservation Polish Academy of Science, Cracow, Poland
| | - Olivier Lourdais
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, ULR CNRS UMR 7372, Villiers en Bois, France
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Alix Michon
- LPO Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, Site de Franche-Comté, Maison de l'environnement de BFC, Besançon, France
| | | | - Silke Schweiger
- First Zoological Department, Herpetological Collection, Natural History Museum, Vienna, Austria
| | - Barbara Szulc
- NATRIX Herpetological Association, Wroclaw, Poland
- Department of Genetics, Kazimierz Wielki University, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Sylvain Ursenbacher
- Info fauna-Karch, Centre Suisse de Cartographie de la Faune (CSCF) and Centre de coordination pour la protection des reptiles et des amphibiens de Suisse (karch), Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Section of Conservation Biology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Balaton Limnological Research Institute, Tihany, Hungary
| | | | - Joseph R Hoyt
- Biological Sciences Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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Dillon RM, Paterson JE, Manorome P, Ritchie K, Shirose L, Slavik E, Davy CM. Effects of ophidiomycosis on movement, survival, and reproduction of eastern foxsnakes (Pantherophis vulpinus). Sci Rep 2024; 14:4948. [PMID: 38418485 PMCID: PMC10901895 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-54568-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Ophidiomycosis (snake fungal disease) is caused by the fungal pathogen Ophidiomyces ophidiicola, which causes dermal lesions, occasional systemic infections, and in some cases, mortality. To better understand potential conservation implications of ophidiomycosis (i.e., population-level effects), we investigated its impacts on individual fitness in a population of endangered eastern foxsnakes (Pantherophis vulpinus). We tracked 38 foxsnakes over 6 years and quantified body condition, movement patterns, oviposition rates, and survival. Body condition, distance travelled, and oviposition rates were similar between snakes with and without ophidiomycosis. Interestingly, snakes that tested positive for the pathogen travelled farther, suggesting that movement through a greater diversity of habitats increases risk of exposure. Ophidiomycosis did not negatively affect survival, and most apparently infected snakes persisted in a manner comparable to snakes without ophidiomycosis. Only one mortality was directly attributed to ophidiomycosis, although infected snakes were overrepresented in a sample of snakes killed by predators. Overall, our results suggest that ophidiomycosis may have sublethal effects on eastern foxsnakes, but do not suggest direct effects on survival, ovipositioning, or viability of the study population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel M Dillon
- Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, K9H 7B8, Canada.
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 2Nd Flr DNA Building, 2140 East Bank Dr., Peterborough, ON, K9L 1Z8, Canada.
- Wildlife Preservation Canada, 5420 Highway 6 North, Guelph, ON, N1H 6J2, Canada.
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada.
| | - James E Paterson
- Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, K9H 7B8, Canada
- Institute for Wetland and Waterfowl Research, Ducks Unlimited Canada, Stonewall, MB, Canada
| | - Pilar Manorome
- Ontario Parks, Ontario Ministry of Environment, Conservation, and Parks, 300 Water Street, 3Rd Floor S, Peterborough, ON, K9J 8M5, Canada
| | - Kyle Ritchie
- Wildlife Preservation Canada, 5420 Highway 6 North, Guelph, ON, N1H 6J2, Canada
| | - Leonard Shirose
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Emily Slavik
- Lake Erie Management Unit, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 320 Milo Road, Wheatley, ON, N0P 2P0, Canada
| | - Christina M Davy
- Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, K9H 7B8, Canada.
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 2Nd Flr DNA Building, 2140 East Bank Dr., Peterborough, ON, K9L 1Z8, Canada.
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada.
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3
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Burger J, Jeitner C, Zappalorti RT, Bunnell JF, Ng K, DeVito E, Schneider D, Gochfeld M. Snake Fungal Disease in Free-Ranging Northern Pine Snakes ( Pituophis melanoleucus melanoleucus) in New Jersey: Lesions, Severity of Sores and Investigator's Perceptions. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:125. [PMID: 38392797 PMCID: PMC10889963 DOI: 10.3390/jof10020125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Ophidiomyces ophidiicola, the fungus causing snake fungal disease (SFD), has been identified in northern pine snakes (Pituophis melanoleucus) in New Jersey. In this paper, we (1) review the positivity rate of SFD on different locations on snakes' bodies, (2) determine the relationship between the sores and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) positivity rates, and (3) explore the relationship between the investigators' clinical evaluation of the severity of sores, their evaluation of the likelihood of the sores being positive, and the qPCR positivity of SFD for the sores. Swabbing the sores was more effective at determining whether the snakes tested positive for O. ophidiicola than ventrum swabbing alone. The perception of the severity of the sores did not relate to qPCR positivity for O. ophidiicola. We suggest that the assessment of the rate of SFD among snakes in the wild needs to include the sampling of snakes with no clinical signs, as well as those with sores, and the swabbing of all the sores collectively. Clear terminology for sores, the identification of clinical signs of SFD, and distinguishing the rates of O. ophidiicola by PCR testing should be adopted. Overall, the pine snakes exhibited a higher rate of sores and positivity of O. ophidiicola swabs by PCR testing compared to the other snakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Burger
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, 604 Allison Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
- Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources, Rutgers University, 14 College Farm Road, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
- Center for Environmental Exposures and Disease, and Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, 604 Allison Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Christian Jeitner
- Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, 604 Allison Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
- New Jersey Pinelands Commission, New Lisbon, NJ 08064, USA
| | | | - John F Bunnell
- New Jersey Pinelands Commission, New Lisbon, NJ 08064, USA
| | - Kelly Ng
- Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources, Rutgers University, 14 College Farm Road, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| | - Emile DeVito
- New Jersey Conservation Foundation, Far Hills, NJ 07931, USA
| | | | - Michael Gochfeld
- Center for Environmental Exposures and Disease, and Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, 604 Allison Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
- Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
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Haynes E, Stanford K, Cox S, Vivirito K, Durante K, Wright A, Gramhofer M, Pohly A, Gartlan B, Fredrickson K, Allender MC. CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL USING TERBINAFINE NEBULIZATION TO TREAT WILD LAKE ERIE WATERSNAKES ( NERODIA SIPEDON INSULARUM) WITH OPHIDIOMYCOSIS. J Zoo Wildl Med 2024; 54:746-756. [PMID: 38251998 DOI: 10.1638/2023-0050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Ophidiomycosis (snake fungal disease) is an important infectious disease caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophidiicola. To mitigate the disease's impact on individual snakes, a controlled clinical trial was conducted using terbinafine nebulization to treat snakes with ophidiomycosis. Fifty-three wild-caught Lake Erie watersnakes (Nerodia sipedon insularum) with apparent ophidiomycosis (skin lesions present, qPCR positive for O. ophidiicola) were divided into treatment and control groups: treatment snakes were nebulized with a 2 mg/ml terbinafine solution for 30 min daily for 30 d; control snakes received nebulization with 0.9% saline or no nebulization. Weekly physical exams were conducted to assign disease severity scores based on the number, type, location, and size of lesions, and qPCR was repeated after each 30-d course of treatment. Persistently qPCR-positive snakes received multiple nebulization courses. Terbinafine nebulization showed mixed results as a treatment for ophidiomycosis: 29.2% of animals treated with terbinafine showed molecular resolution of external disease, based on antemortem swabbing, following 3-6 mon of daily nebulization; this was significantly more than with saline nebulization (5%), but molecular resolution also occurred in 11.1% of snakes that received no treatment. Terbinafine nebulization did not significantly decrease clinical disease, as measured by disease severity scores. Evaluating molecular response to treatment using fungal quantities, terbinafine nebulization significantly reduced fungal quantity after three or more courses of treatment. These results indicate that, although terbinafine nebulization is a promising treatment for ophidiomycosis, snakes may require multiple nebulization courses and disease may not always resolve completely, despite treatment. This treatment may be most useful in snakes from managed populations that can be treated for several months, rather than wild snakes who are not releasable after multiple months in captivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Haynes
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA,
| | - Kristin Stanford
- Franz Theodore Stone Laboratory, The Ohio State University, OH 43456, USA
| | - Sherry Cox
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Kathryn Vivirito
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Kennymac Durante
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Allison Wright
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Megan Gramhofer
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Andrea Pohly
- University of Illinois Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Brina Gartlan
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Kelcie Fredrickson
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Matthew C Allender
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
- Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield Zoo, Brookfield, IL 60513, USA
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5
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Visvanathan N, Lim JYA, Chng HT, Xie S. A Critical Review on the Dosing and Safety of Antifungals Used in Exotic Avian and Reptile Species. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:810. [PMID: 37623581 PMCID: PMC10455840 DOI: 10.3390/jof9080810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Antifungals are used in exotic avian and reptile species for the treatment of fungal diseases. Dose extrapolations across species are common due to lack of species-specific pharmacological data. This may not be ideal because interspecies physiological differences may result in subtherapeutic dosing or toxicity. This critical review aims to collate existing pharmacological data to identify antifungals with the most evidence to support their safe and effective use. In the process, significant trends and gaps are also identified and discussed. An extensive search was conducted on PubMed and JSTOR, and relevant data were critically appraised. Itraconazole or voriconazole showed promising results in Japanese quails, racing pigeons and inland bearded dragons for the treatment of aspergillosis and CANV-related infections. Voriconazole neurotoxicity manifested as seizures in multiple penguins, but as lethargy or torticollis in cottonmouths. Itraconazole toxicity was predominantly hepatotoxicity, observed as liver abnormalities in inland bearded dragons and a Parson's chameleon. Differences in formulations of itraconazole affected various absorption parameters. Non-linearities in voriconazole due to saturable metabolism and autoinduction showed opposing effects on clearance, especially in multiple-dosing regimens. These differences in pharmacokinetic parameters across species resulted in varying elimination half-lives. Terbinafine has been used in dermatomycoses, especially in reptiles, due to its keratinophilic nature, and no significant adverse events were observed. The use of fluconazole has declined due to resistance or its narrow spectrum of activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naresh Visvanathan
- Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117559, Singapore
| | - Jolise Yi An Lim
- Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117559, Singapore
| | - Hui Ting Chng
- Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117559, Singapore
| | - Shangzhe Xie
- Mandai Wildlife Group, 80 Mandai Lake Road, Singapore 729826, Singapore
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Gentry S, Lorch JM, Lankton JS, Pringle A. A Cross-Inoculation Experiment Reveals that Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola and Nannizziopsis guarroi Can Each Infect Both Snakes and Lizards. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0216822. [PMID: 37098892 PMCID: PMC10231240 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02168-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Host range and specificity are key concepts in the study of infectious diseases. However, both concepts remain largely undefined for many influential pathogens, including many fungi within the Onygenales order. This order encompasses reptile-infecting genera (Nannizziopsis, Ophidiomyces, and Paranannizziopsis) formerly classified as the Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (CANV). The reported hosts of many of these fungi represent a narrow range of phylogenetically related animals, suggesting that many of these disease-causing fungi are host specific, but the true number of species affected by these pathogens is unknown. For example, to date, Nannizziopsis guarroi (the causative agent of yellow fungus disease) and Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola (the causative agent of snake fungal disease) have been documented only in lizards and snakes, respectively. In a 52-day reciprocal-infection experiment, we tested the ability of these two pathogens to infect currently unreported hosts, inoculating central bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) with O. ophiodiicola and corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus) with N. guarroi. We confirmed infection by documenting both clinical signs and histopathological evidence of fungal infection. Our reciprocity experiment resulted in 100% of corn snakes and 60% of bearded dragons developing infections with N. guarroi and O. ophiodiicola, respectively, demonstrating that these fungal pathogens have a broader host range than previously thought and that hosts with cryptic infections may play a role in pathogen translocation and transmission. IMPORTANCE Our experiment using Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola and Nannizziopsis guarroi is the first to look more critically at these pathogens' host range. We are the first to identify that both fungal pathogens can infect both corn snakes and bearded dragons. Our findings illustrate that both fungal pathogens have a more general host range than previously known. Additionally, there are significant implications concerning the spread of snake fungal disease and yellow fungus disease in popular companion animals and the increased chance of disease spillover into other wild and naive populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Savannah Gentry
- University of Wisconsin—Madison, Department of Botany, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Jeffrey M. Lorch
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Julia S. Lankton
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Anne Pringle
- University of Wisconsin—Madison, Department of Botany, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- University of Wisconsin—Madison, Department of Bacteriology, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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Harding SF, Moretta‐Urdiales MDM, Nordmeyer SC, Wostl E, Rodriguez D. Leveraging preserved specimens of Nerodia to infer the spatiotemporal dynamics of Ophidiomyces ophidiicola via quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e9998. [PMID: 37082316 PMCID: PMC10111236 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (Oo) is a fungal pathogen and the causative agent of ophidiomycosis that has affected multiple snake taxa across the United States, Europe, and Asia. Ophidiomycosis has often been referred to as an emerging infectious disease (EID); however, its status as an EID has recently come under debate. Oo infections have been confirmed in wild snake populations in Texas; however, it is unknown if the pathogen is novel (i.e., invasive) or endemic to the state. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted surveys for Oo among preserved Nerodia deposited at three university museums in Texas. First, we visually assessed snakes for signs of infection (SOI), and if SOI were present, we sampled the affected area. We then used quantitative polymerase chain reaction to diagnose the presence of Oo DNA on areas with SOI and used these data to evaluate spatiotemporal patterns of Oo prevalence. We also tested for significant spatial clusters of Oo infenction using a Bernoulli probability model as implemented in the program SatScan. We found that the proportion of snakes exhibiting SOI was constant over time while the prevalence of Oo DNA among those SOI increased across space and time. Within these data, we detected an incidence pattern consistent with an introduction and then spread. We detected six spatial clusters of Oo infection, although only one was significant. Our results support the hypothesis that Oo is an emerging, novel pathogen to Texas snakes. These data narrow the knowledge gap regarding the history of Oo infections in Texas and establish a historical record of confirmed Oo detections in several counties across the state. Thus, our results will guide future research to those areas with evidence of past Oo infections but lacking confirmation in contemporary hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Stephanie C. Nordmeyer
- Department of Molecular Immunology and MicrobiologyUniversity of Texas at San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
| | - Elijah Wostl
- Department of Biological SciencesSt. Edward's UniversityAustinTexasUSA
| | - David Rodriguez
- Department of BiologyTexas State UniversitySan MarcosTexasUSA
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Schilliger L, Paillusseau C, François C, Bonwitt J. Major Emerging Fungal Diseases of Reptiles and Amphibians. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12030429. [PMID: 36986351 PMCID: PMC10053826 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12030429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are caused by pathogens that have undergone recent changes in terms of geographic spread, increasing incidence, or expanding host range. In this narrative review, we describe three important fungal EIDs with keratin trophism that are relevant to reptile and amphibian conservation and veterinary practice. Nannizziopsis spp. have been mainly described in saurians; infection results in thickened, discolored skin crusting, with eventual progression to deep tissues. Previously only reported in captive populations, it was first described in wild animals in Australia in 2020. Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (formely O. ophiodiicola) is only known to infect snakes; clinical signs include ulcerating lesions in the cranial, ventral, and pericloacal regions. It has been associated with mortality events in wild populations in North America. Batrachochytrium spp. cause ulceration, hyperkeratosis, and erythema in amphibians. They are a major cause of catastrophic amphibian declines worldwide. In general, infection and clinical course are determined by host-related characteristics (e.g., nutritional, metabolic, and immune status), pathogens (e.g., virulence and environmental survival), and environment (e.g., temperature, hygrometry, and water quality). The animal trade is thought to be an important cause of worldwide spread, with global modifications in temperature, hygrometry, and water quality further affecting fungal pathogenicity and host immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Schilliger
- Argos Veterinary Clinic of Paris Auteuil, 35 Rue Leconte de Lisle, 75016 Paris, France
- SpéNac Referral Center, 100 Boulevard de la Tour Maubourg, 75007 Paris, France
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-188-616-831
| | - Clément Paillusseau
- Argos Veterinary Clinic of Paris Auteuil, 35 Rue Leconte de Lisle, 75016 Paris, France
- SpéNac Referral Center, 100 Boulevard de la Tour Maubourg, 75007 Paris, France
| | - Camille François
- Argos Veterinary Clinic of Paris Auteuil, 35 Rue Leconte de Lisle, 75016 Paris, France
- SpéNac Referral Center, 100 Boulevard de la Tour Maubourg, 75007 Paris, France
| | - Jesse Bonwitt
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, South Rd., Durham DH1 3LE, UK
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9
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Lizarraga AJ, Hart L, Wright RM, Williams LR, Glavy JS. Incidents of snake fungal disease caused by the fungal pathogen Ophidiomyces ophidiicola in Texas. FRONTIERS IN FUNGAL BIOLOGY 2023; 4:1064939. [PMID: 37746129 PMCID: PMC10512329 DOI: 10.3389/ffunb.2023.1064939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
The pathogen Ophidiomyces ophidiicola, widely known as the primary cause of snake fungal disease (SFD) has been detected in Texas's naïve snakes. Our team set out to characterize O. ophidiicola's spread in eastern Texas. From December 2018 until November 2021, we sampled and screened with ultraviolet (UV) light, 176 snakes across eastern Texas and detected 27. O. ophidiicola's positive snakes using qPCR and one snake in which SFD was confirmed via additional histological examination. Upon finding the ribbon snake with clear clinical display, we isolated and cultured what we believe to be the first culture from Texas. This cultured O. ophidiicola TX displays a ring halo formation when grown on a solid medium as well as cellular autofluorescence as expected. Imaging reveals individual cells within the septated hyphae branches contain a distinct nucleus separation from neighboring cells. Overall, we have found over 1/10 snakes that may be infected in East Texas, gives credence to the onset of SFD in Texas. These results add to the progress of the disease across the continental United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan J. Lizarraga
- Biology Department, The University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, United States
| | - Lezley Hart
- Biology Department, The University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, United States
| | - R. Michele Wright
- Biology Department, The University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, United States
- The Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fisch College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, United States
| | - Lance R. Williams
- Biology Department, The University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, United States
| | - Joseph S. Glavy
- Biology Department, The University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, United States
- The Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fisch College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, United States
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10
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Ophidiomyces ophidiicola detection and infection: a global review on a potential threat to the world’s snake populations. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-022-01612-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AbstractOphidiomyces ophidiicola (Oo) is one of the most relevant fungal pathogens for snakes. It is the etiological agent of ophidiomycosis, an emerging disease causing dysecdysis, skin abnormalities, crusting cutaneous lesions, and ulcerations. Despite this major tegumentary “tropism”, Oo infection can be systemic and it is capable of inducing visceral lesions. Moreover, ophidiomycosis may lead to abnormalities of reproductive physiology, hunting behavior, and thermoregulation, thus increasing the risks of sublethal effects and predation on affected snakes. Oo seems horizontally transmitted and can induce postnatal mortality. This article reviews published data on Oo detection and infection in all snake species in countries around the world and categorizes these data using new classification parameters. The presence of this fungus has been recorded in 11 states (considering the USA as a whole); however, in four states, the mycosis has only been reported in snakes held in captivity. Detection and/or infection of Oo has been ascertained in 62 snake species, divided into nine families. The taxa have been categorized with diagnostic criteria in order to report, for each species, the highest rank of categorization resulting from all cases. Therefore, 20 species have been included within the class “Ophidiomycosis and Oo shedder”, 11 within “Ophidiomycosis”, 16 in “Apparent ophidiomycosis”, and 15 within “Ophidiomyces ophidiicola present”. We also discuss the significance and limits of case classifications and Oo’s impact on wild populations, and we suggest methods for preliminary surveillance. Standardized methods, interdisciplinary studies, and cooperation between various research institutions may facilitate further Oo screening studies, elucidate the unclear aspects of the disease, and protect ophidiofauna from this emerging threat at the global level.
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SEASONAL AND INTERSPECIFIC VARIATION IN THE PREVALENCE OF OPHIDIOMYCES OPHIDIICOLA AND OPHIDIOMYCOSIS IN A COMMUNITY OF FREE-RANGING SNAKES. J Wildl Dis 2022; 58:791-802. [PMID: 36240744 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-21-00134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Ophidiomycosis in snakes is caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophidiicola. Clinical signs associated with the disease range from minor skin lesions to severe swelling of the face. In some cases, the fungus invades the snake's underlying muscle and bone and internal organs; disease severity appears to peak during brumation. We quantified the prevalence of O. ophidiicola and ophidiomycosis in free-ranging snakes to explore seasonal variation in detection of the pathogen and disease. We collected skin swabs (n=464 samples) from seven species of free-ranging snakes (n=336) from Rondeau Provincial Park (Ontario, Canada) and tested the swabs for O. ophidiicola using quantitative PCR. We also assessed individuals for lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis and monitored changes in gross lesions over time in recaptured individuals. Eastern foxsnakes (Pantherophis vulpinus) had the highest prevalence of O. ophidiicola (24/84) and of lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis (34/84). On other species (Nerodia sipedon, Storeria dekayi, Thamnophis sirtalis, and Thamnophis sauritus), we detected the pathogen on only 4/229 snakes and observed gross lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis on 24/229 snakes. Body length of eastern foxsnakes was associated with detection of O. ophidiicola, suggesting that eastern foxsnakes' large size increases the risk of pathogen exposure relative to the other, smaller, species at our study site. Ophidiomyces ophidiicola and lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis were detected most frequently in eastern foxsnakes soon after emergence from brumation and less frequently later in the active season (O. ophidiicola: April=29.8%, October=3.9%; lesions: April=36.1%, October=5.5%). This decrease corresponded with resolution of lesions in 6/13 resampled eastern foxsnakes. Considering the seasonal cycle of O. ophidiicola and ophidiomycosis when planning disease surveillance research may improve detection probabilities for ophidiomycosis in Nearctic snakes.
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Abstract
AbstractThe order Onygenales is classified in the class Eurotiomycetes of the subphylum Pezizomycotina. Families in this order have classically been isolated from soil and dung, and two lineages contain causative agents of superficial, cutaneous and systemic infections in mammals. The ecology and habitat choices of the species are driven mainly by the keratin and cellulose degradation abilities. The present study aimed to investigate whether the ecological trends of the members of Onygenales can be interpreted in an evolutionary sense, linking phylogenetic parameters with habitat preferences, to achieve polyphasic definitions of the main taxonomic groups. Evolutionary processes were estimated by multiple gene genealogies and divergence time analysis. Previously described families, namely, Arthrodermataceae, Ajellomycetaceae, Ascosphaeraceae, Eremascaceae, Gymnoascaceae, Onygenaceae and Spiromastigoidaceae, were accepted in Onygenales, and two new families, Malbrancheaceae and Neogymnomycetaceae, were introduced. A number of species could not be assigned to any of the defined families. Our study provides a revised overview of the main lines of taxonomy of Onygenales, supported by multilocus analyses of ITS, LSU, TUB, TEF1, TEF3, RPB1, RPB2, and ribosomal protein 60S L10 (L1) (RP60S) sequences, combined with available data on ecology, physiology, morphology, and genomics.
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REPEATED SAMPLING OF WILD INDIVIDUALS REVEALS OPHIDIOMYCES OPHIDIICOLA INFECTION DYNAMICS IN A PENNSYLVANIA SNAKE ASSEMBLAGE. J Wildl Dis 2022; 58:290-297. [PMID: 35245359 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-21-00116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Ophidiomyces ophidiicola is an emerging fungal pathogen associated with infections in snakes across North America. Although documented in Pennsylvania, O. ophidiicola has not been found at Powdermill Nature Reserve (PNR) in southwestern Pennsylvania, where the snake assemblage has been studied since 2002 and several species have recently declined. We surveyed for O. ophidiicola and putative ophidiomycosis at PNR. We screened five species of free-ranging, wild snakes (n=34) for suspected ophidiomycosis by visually checking for dermatitis and swabbing for the presence of O. ophidiicola DNA. We found a moderate prevalence of snakes with skin lesions (n=15) but a low prevalence of snakes with O. ophidiicola DNA in traditional PCR assays (n=2). Both positive snakes belonged to the same species and only one presented with lesions. When quantitative PCR screens were performed on duplicate swabs, 19 snakes were positive for O. ophidiicola DNA, with positive individuals in two species. Mark-recapture methods revealed seasonal variability in disease dynamics for sampled snakes. One individual presented with less than five skin lesions and tested negative in May 2020, had more than five lesions with a high fungal DNA load in June 2020, and no lesions with a low fungal DNA load in July 2020. We also found that snakes sampled from under the same cover object at the same time either all tested positive or all negative, including one instance involving two species. Our results underscore the value of using multiple screening techniques for O. ophidiicola surveillance and repeated sampling of individuals to understand the dynamics of ophidiomycosis in wild populations as compared to single method and single timepoint approaches.
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RETROSPECTIVE REVIEW OF OPHIDIOMYCOSIS ( OPHIDIOMYCES OPHIODIICOLA) AT THE SMITHSONIAN'S NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK (1983-2017). J Zoo Wildl Med 2021; 52:997-1002. [PMID: 34687515 DOI: 10.1638/2020-0213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A retrospective review of systemic or localized mycotic infections in captive snakes confirmed via biopsy or necropsy from 1983 to 2017 was performed at the Smithsonian's National Zoological Park. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) confirmed infection with Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola (Oo) in 36.8% (n = 14) of the 38 mycotic infections. Infections with Oo were evenly distributed over the 35-y period and lacked a sex predilection. There was a period prevalence of 4.5% of completed snake necropsy or biopsy cases that were Oo positive. Species affected included green anaconda (Eunectes murinus, n = 4), garden tree boa (Corallus hortulanus, n = 1), false water cobra (Hydrodynastes gigas, n = 5), yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus, n = 1), eastern milksnake (Lampropeltis triangulum, n = 1), Brazilian rainbow boa (Epicrates cenchria cenchria, n = 1), and eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus, n = 1). Histopathology demonstrated one or more of the following: heterophilic to necrotizing epidermitis with or without granulomatous dermatitis (n = 12), granulomatous pneumonia (n = 5), granulomatous endophthalmitis (n = 1), and subcutaneous-intramuscular fungal granuloma (n = 1). This study documents the presence of ophidiomycosis in a captive collection for almost 40 years, despite current literature designating it a recently emerging pathogen.
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Godwin CD, Walker DM, Romer AS, Grajal-Puche A, Grisnik M, Goessling JM, Perkin JS, Murray CM. Testing the febrile response of snakes inoculated with Ophidiomyces ophidiicola, the causative agent of snake fungal disease. J Therm Biol 2021; 100:103065. [PMID: 34503803 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2021.103065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Snake Fungal Disease (SFD) negatively impacts wild snake populations in the eastern United States and Europe. Ophidiomyces ophidiicola causes SFD and manifests clinically by the formation of heterophilic granulomas around the mouth and eyes, weight loss, impaired vision, and sometimes death. Field observations have documented early seasonal basking behaviors in severely infected snakes, potentially suggesting induction of a behavioral febrile response to combat the mycosis. This study tested the hypothesis that snakes inoculated with Ophidiomyces ophidiicola would seek elevated basking temperatures to control body temperature and behaviorally induce a febrile response. Eastern ribbon snakes (Thamnophis saurita, n = 29) were experimentally or sham inoculated with O. ophidiicola. Seven days after inoculation, snakes were tested on a thermal gradient and the internal body temperature and substrate temperature of each snake was recorded over time. Quantitative PCR was used when snakes arrived, during pre-inoculation, and post-inoculation to test snakes for the presence of O. ophidiicola. Some snakes arrived with O. ophidiicola and were subsequently inoculated, allowing for an assessment of secondary exposure effects. Snake thermoregulatory behavior was compared between 1) O. ophidiicola inoculated vs. sham inoculated treatments, 2) infected vs. disease negative groups, and 3) disease naïve vs. pre-exposed immune response categories. Neither internal nor substrate temperatures differed among initially prescribed, and qPCR recovered disease states, although infected snakes tended to reach a preferred body temperature faster than disease negative snakes. Snakes experiencing their first exposure (disease naïve) sought higher substrate temperatures than snakes experiencing their second exposure (pre-exposed). Here, we recover no evidence for behaviorally induced fever in snakes with SFD but do elucidate a febrile immune response associated with secondary exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cody Davis Godwin
- Tennessee Technological University, Department of Biology, 1 William L Jones Dr, Cookeville, TN, 38505, USA
| | - Donald M Walker
- Middle Tennessee State University, Department of Biology, 1301 E Main St, Murfreesboro, TN, 37132, USA.
| | - Alexander S Romer
- Middle Tennessee State University, Department of Biology, 1301 E Main St, Murfreesboro, TN, 37132, USA
| | - Alejandro Grajal-Puche
- Middle Tennessee State University, Department of Biology, 1301 E Main St, Murfreesboro, TN, 37132, USA; Northern Arizona University, Department of Biological Sciences, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011, USA
| | - Matthew Grisnik
- Middle Tennessee State University, Department of Biology, 1301 E Main St, Murfreesboro, TN, 37132, USA
| | | | - Joshua S Perkin
- Department of Ecology and Conservation Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Christopher M Murray
- Tennessee Technological University, Department of Biology, 1 William L Jones Dr, Cookeville, TN, 38505, USA; Southeastern Louisiana University, Department of Biological Sciences, Hammond, LA, 70402, USA
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Takami Y, Nam KO, Takaki Y, Kadekaru S, Hemmi C, Hosoya T, Une Y. First report of ophidiomycosis in Asia caused by Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola in captive snakes in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2021; 83:1234-1239. [PMID: 34176821 PMCID: PMC8437724 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.21-0177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Ophidiomycosis is an emerging infectious disease caused by the fungus
Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, which has been affecting wild and captive
snakes in North America, Europe, and Australia. We report 12 cases of suspected
ophidiomycosis in captive colubrid snakes in Japan. Pathological and microbiological
examinations were performed, and the results confirmed the diagnosis of ophidiomycosis in
two snakes, which indicated that the remaining sympatrically raised snakes also had
ophidiomycosis since they exhibited similar lesions. This is the first report of
ophidiomycosis in Asia caused by O. ophiodiicola. To prevent the
expansion of ophidiomycosis in the natural environment in Japan, there is a need to
evaluate the ophidiomycosis carrier status of imported snakes, the pathogenicity of the
infection in native snakes, and the prevalence and distribution of O.
ophiodiicola in wild and captive snakes. Measures also must be taken to prevent
endemicity globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshinori Takami
- Verts Animal Hospital, 4-3-1 Morooka, Hakata-ku, Fukuoka-shi, Fukuoka 812-0894, Japan
| | - Kyung-Ok Nam
- Department of Botany, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-0005, Japan
| | - Youki Takaki
- Verts Animal Hospital, 4-3-1 Morooka, Hakata-ku, Fukuoka-shi, Fukuoka 812-0894, Japan
| | - Sho Kadekaru
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Okayama University of Science, Imabari, Ehime 794-8555, Japan
| | - Chizuka Hemmi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Okayama University of Science, Imabari, Ehime 794-8555, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Hosoya
- Department of Botany, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-0005, Japan
| | - Yumi Une
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Okayama University of Science, Imabari, Ehime 794-8555, Japan
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Davy CM, Shirose L, Campbell D, Dillon R, McKenzie C, Nemeth N, Braithwaite T, Cai H, Degazio T, Dobbie T, Egan S, Fotherby H, Litzgus JD, Manorome P, Marks S, Paterson JE, Sigler L, Slavic D, Slavik E, Urquhart J, Jardine C. Revisiting Ophidiomycosis (Snake Fungal Disease) After a Decade of Targeted Research. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:665805. [PMID: 34136555 PMCID: PMC8200636 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.665805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are typically characterized by novelty (recent detection) and by increasing incidence, distribution, and/or pathogenicity. Ophidiomycosis, also called snake fungal disease, is caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (formerly “ophiodiicola”). Ophidiomycosis has been characterized as an EID and as a potential threat to populations of Nearctic snakes, sparking over a decade of targeted research. However, the severity of this threat is unclear. We reviewed the available literature to quantify incidence and effects of ophidiomycosis in Nearctic snakes, and to evaluate whether the evidence supports the ongoing characterization of ophidiomycosis as an EID. Data from Canada remain scarce, so we supplemented the literature review with surveys for O. ophidiicola in the Canadian Great Lakes region. Peer-reviewed reports of clinical signs consistent with ophidiomycosis in free-ranging, Nearctic snakes date back to at least 1998, and retrospective molecular testing of samples extend the earliest confirmed record to 1986. Diagnostic criteria varied among publications (n = 33), confounding quantitative comparisons. Ophidiomycosis was diagnosed or suspected in 36/121 captive snakes and was fatal in over half of cases (66.7%). This result may implicate captivity-related stress as a risk factor for mortality from ophidiomycosis, but could also reflect reporting bias (i.e., infections are more likely to be detected in captive snakes, and severe cases are more likely to be reported). In contrast, ophidiomycosis was diagnosed or suspected in 441/2,384 free-ranging snakes, with mortality observed in 43 (9.8 %). Ophidiomycosis was only speculatively linked to population declines, and we found no evidence that the prevalence of the pathogen or disease increased over the past decade of targeted research. Supplemental surveys and molecular (qPCR) testing in Ontario, Canada detected O. ophidiicola on 76 of 657 free-ranging snakes sampled across ~136,000 km2. The pathogen was detected at most sites despite limited and haphazard sampling. No large-scale mortality was observed. Current evidence supports previous suggestions that the pathogen is a widespread, previously unrecognized endemic, rather than a novel pathogen. Ophidiomycosis may not pose an imminent threat to Nearctic snakes, but further research should investigate potential sublethal effects of ophidiomycosis such as altered reproductive success that could impact population growth, and explore whether shifting environmental conditions may alter host susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina M Davy
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Peterborough, ON, Canada.,Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Leonard Shirose
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Doug Campbell
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Rachel Dillon
- Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Christina McKenzie
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Nicole Nemeth
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | | | - Hugh Cai
- Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | | | - Tammy Dobbie
- Point Pelee National Park, Leamington, ON, Canada
| | - Sean Egan
- Egan Fife Animal Hospital, Chatham, ON, Canada
| | | | | | - Pilar Manorome
- Ontario Parks, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Steve Marks
- Essex County Field Naturalists' Club, c/o Ojibway Nature Centre, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - James E Paterson
- Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Lynne Sigler
- Agriculture, Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Durda Slavic
- Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Emily Slavik
- Ontario Parks, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | | | - Claire Jardine
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, ON, Canada
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18
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Sun PL, Yang CK, Li WT, Lai WY, Fan YC, Huang HC, Yu PH. Infection with Nannizziopsis guarroi and Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola in reptiles in Taiwan. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:764-775. [PMID: 33638294 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Fungal infection is an emerging threat to reptiles. The main pathogens are fungi of the genera Nannizziopsis, Paranannizziopsis and Ophidiomyces. The clinical symptoms range from mild skin lesions to the dissemination of internal organs and even death. Most of the reported cases are from Europe, North America and Australia. In this study, we report the Nannizziopsis guarroi infection in one captive inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps), one captive green iguana (Iguana iguana) and Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola infection in one wild red-banded snake (Dinodon rufozonatum) and one wild Chinese cobra (Naja atra) in Taiwan. The infections were confirmed by the presence of fungal elements in the tissue. The pathogens were identified based on their morphological and DNA sequence characteristics. The susceptibility profiles of the fungal strains to nine antifungal drugs were obtained using broth microdilution methods. The presence of both fungal species in Asia highlights the urgent need for surveillance and close monitoring of reptile infections to prevent them from spreading and to the possible collapse of reptile populations in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Lun Sun
- Department of Dermatology and Research Laboratory of Medical Mycology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou Branch, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Kai Yang
- Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien County, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Ta Li
- Fishhead Labs, LLC, Stuart, FL, USA.,Pangolin International Biomedical Consultant Ltd., Keelung, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Yin Lai
- Institute of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,National Taiwan University Veterinary Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yun-Chen Fan
- Department of Dermatology and Research Laboratory of Medical Mycology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou Branch, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Huei-Chuen Huang
- Institute of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,National Taiwan University Veterinary Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Pin-Huan Yu
- Institute of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,National Taiwan University Veterinary Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
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19
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McKenzie CM, Oesterle PT, Stevens B, Shirose L, Lillie BN, Davy CM, Jardine CM, Nemeth NM. Pathology associated with ophidiomycosis in wild snakes in Ontario, Canada. THE CANADIAN VETERINARY JOURNAL = LA REVUE VETERINAIRE CANADIENNE 2020; 61:957-962. [PMID: 32879520 PMCID: PMC7424923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Ophidiomycosis (snake fungal disease) is the most common cause of skin lesions in free-ranging snakes in North America. Naturally infected snakes with ophidiomycosis (9 carcasses, 12 biopsies) were examined grossly and histologically. These cases comprised 32% of the 66 snake cases submitted to the Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative-Ontario/Nunavut Node in 2012 through 2018. Affected species included the eastern foxsnake (Pantherophis vulpinus; n = 15), gray ratsnake (Pantherophis spiloides; n = 3), eastern massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus; n = 2), and queensnake (Regina septemvittata; n = 1). Severity of disease varied widely from mild microscopic skin lesions to fatal, necrotizing, and ulcerative facial lesions. Key clinical message: Ophidiomycosis should be the primary differential diagnosis for skin lesions in wild snakes, particularly in southern Ontario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina M McKenzie
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Oesterle, Stevens, Shirose, Jardine); Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Lillie, Jardine); Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Environmental Science Building, Suite A211, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2 (Davy); Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 300 Water Street, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 8M5 (Davy); Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA (Nemeth)
| | - Paul T Oesterle
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Oesterle, Stevens, Shirose, Jardine); Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Lillie, Jardine); Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Environmental Science Building, Suite A211, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2 (Davy); Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 300 Water Street, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 8M5 (Davy); Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA (Nemeth)
| | - Brian Stevens
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Oesterle, Stevens, Shirose, Jardine); Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Lillie, Jardine); Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Environmental Science Building, Suite A211, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2 (Davy); Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 300 Water Street, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 8M5 (Davy); Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA (Nemeth)
| | - Leonard Shirose
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Oesterle, Stevens, Shirose, Jardine); Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Lillie, Jardine); Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Environmental Science Building, Suite A211, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2 (Davy); Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 300 Water Street, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 8M5 (Davy); Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA (Nemeth)
| | - Brandon N Lillie
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Oesterle, Stevens, Shirose, Jardine); Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Lillie, Jardine); Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Environmental Science Building, Suite A211, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2 (Davy); Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 300 Water Street, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 8M5 (Davy); Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA (Nemeth)
| | - Christina M Davy
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Oesterle, Stevens, Shirose, Jardine); Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Lillie, Jardine); Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Environmental Science Building, Suite A211, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2 (Davy); Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 300 Water Street, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 8M5 (Davy); Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA (Nemeth)
| | - Claire M Jardine
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Oesterle, Stevens, Shirose, Jardine); Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Lillie, Jardine); Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Environmental Science Building, Suite A211, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2 (Davy); Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 300 Water Street, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 8M5 (Davy); Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA (Nemeth)
| | - Nicole M Nemeth
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Oesterle, Stevens, Shirose, Jardine); Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1 (McKenzie, Lillie, Jardine); Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Environmental Science Building, Suite A211, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2 (Davy); Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 300 Water Street, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 8M5 (Davy); Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA (Nemeth)
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20
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McKenzie CM, Oesterle PT, Stevens B, Shirose L, Mastromonaco GF, Lillie BN, Davy CM, Jardine CM, Nemeth NM. Ophidiomycosis in Red Cornsnakes ( Pantherophis guttatus): Potential Roles of Brumation and Temperature on Pathogenesis and Transmission. Vet Pathol 2020; 57:825-837. [PMID: 32862796 DOI: 10.1177/0300985820953423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Ophidiomycosis (snake fungal disease) is caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola. As ophidiomycosis is difficult to study in free-ranging snakes, a reliable experimental model is needed to investigate transmission, pathogenesis, morbidity, and mortality, and the effects of brumation and temperature on disease development. Our objective was to develop such a model via subcutaneous injection of O. ophiodiicola conidia in red cornsnakes (Pantherophis guttatus). The model was used to evaluate transmission and the effects of brumation and temperature in co-housed inoculated and noninoculated snakes. All 23 inoculated snakes developed lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis, including heterophilic and granulomatous dermatitis, cellulitis, and myositis, and embolic fungal granulomas throughout the liver and the coelomic connective tissue in 21/23 (91%). In the inoculated snakes, 21% of skin swabs, 37% of exuvia, and all liver samples tested positive by qPCR (quantitative polymerase chain reaction) for O. ophiodiicola. A post brumation skin swab from 1/12 noninoculated snakes that brumated in contact with inoculated snakes tested positive by qPCR, suggesting possible contact transmission. That snake had microscopic skin lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis, but no visible fungal elements. Of the 23 inoculated snakes, 20 (87%) died over the 70-day experiment, with ophidiomycosis considered the primary cause of death; 12 (52%) of the inoculated snakes died during brumation. Overall, this experimental model of ophidiomycosis reproduced skin lesions analogous to those of many natural cases, and internal lesions similar to the most severe natural cases. The study provides tentative experimental evidence for horizontal transmission in brumation, and offers a tool for future studies of this widespread snake disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina M McKenzie
- 3653University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative-Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Paul T Oesterle
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative-Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Brian Stevens
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative-Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Leonard Shirose
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative-Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | - Christina M Davy
- 6515Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.,Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Claire M Jardine
- 3653University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative-Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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21
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Haynes E, Chandler HC, Stegenga BS, Adamovicz L, Ospina E, Zerpa-Catanho D, Stevenson DJ, Allender MC. Ophidiomycosis surveillance of snakes in Georgia, USA reveals new host species and taxonomic associations with disease. Sci Rep 2020; 10:10870. [PMID: 32616837 PMCID: PMC7331741 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-67800-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Ophidiomycosis (snake fungal disease) is caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola and threatens snake health worldwide. It has been documented throughout the eastern United States and severe cases have recently been reported in Georgia, USA. To evaluate disease distribution and prevalence in this state, 786 free-ranging snakes were examined for skin lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis and swabbed to detect O. ophiodiicola DNA using qPCR. Sampled snakes represented 34 species and 4 families; 27.5% had skin lesions, 13.3% were positive for O. ophiodiicola DNA, and 77.8% of the qPCR positive individuals had skin lesions. This is the first report of O. ophiodiicola in five of the 22 species that were qPCR positive. Multinomial logistic regression modeling indicated that Drymarchon couperi had a higher relative risk of apparent ophidiomycosis (lesions present and qPCR positive), and the best models predicting qPCR result and ophidiomycosis category included individual factors and excluded temporal and spatial factors. Phylogeny-based bipartite network analysis showed that Nerodia erythrogaster, Nerodia taxispilota, and D. couperi had the highest prevalence of apparent ophidiomycosis; this category was more prevalent in the subfamily Colubrinae and less prevalent in Natricinae. These results provide important information about ophidiomycosis epidemiology, which has implications for snake conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Haynes
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
| | | | | | - Laura Adamovicz
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Emilie Ospina
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | | | - Dirk J Stevenson
- The Orianne Society, Tiger, GA, USA
- Altamaha Environmental Consulting, Hinesville, GA, USA
| | - Matthew C Allender
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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22
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Sunny A, Gandarilla-Aizpuro FJ, Monroy-Vilchis O, Zarco-Gonzalez MM. Potential distribution and habitat connectivity of Crotalus triseriatus in Central Mexico. HERPETOZOA 2019. [DOI: 10.3897/herpetozoa.32.e36361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The dusky rattlesnake, Crotalustriseriatus, used to be very abundant in many parts of the highlands of central Mexico, but with the increasing human population and associated activities, the rattlesnake habitats and populations have suffered drastic reductions and fragmentation. At the moment, the most important habitat features, associated with the presence of C.triseriatus, the current potential distribution and the landscape connectivity amongst the populations of the State of Mexico and Mexico City, are unknown. Therefore, we used the maximum entropy modelling software (MAXENT) to analyse the current potential distribution and most important habitat features, associated with the presence of the species. The variables with the highest contribution to the model were: proportion of Abies forest, minimum temperature of coldest month, maximum temperature of the warmest month, proportion of Pinus forest and annual precipitation. Furthermore, we found connectivity corridors only within mountain chains. Our results highlight the necessity for conserving the patches of Abies forest and preserving the populations of C.triseriatus and the connectivity of the landscape.
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23
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Emydomyces testavorans, a New Genus and Species of Onygenalean Fungus Isolated from Shell Lesions of Freshwater Aquatic Turtles. J Clin Microbiol 2019; 57:JCM.00628-18. [PMID: 30487306 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00628-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The fungal order Onygenales includes many pathogens of humans and animals, and recent studies have shown some onygenalean fungi to be significant emerging pathogens of reptiles. Although many of these fungi have similar morphological features in histologic tissue sections, recent molecular analyses have revealed a genetically complex and diverse group of reptile pathogens comprising several genera, most notably Nannizziopsis, Ophidiomyces, and Paranannizziopsis Infections by members of these genera have been previously reported in a variety of reptile species, including crocodilians, lizards, snakes, and tuataras, with negative impacts on conservation efforts for some reptiles. Despite the well-documented pathogenicity of these fungi in all other extant reptile lineages, infection has not yet been reported in aquatic turtles. In this study, we report the isolation of an onygenalean fungus associated with shell lesions in freshwater aquatic turtles. The morphologic and genetic characteristics of multiple isolates (n = 21) are described and illustrated. Based on these features and results of a multigene phylogenetic analysis, a new genus and species, Emydomyces testavorans, are proposed for these fungi isolated from turtle shell lesions.
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24
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Rainwater KL, Wiederhold NP, Sutton DA, Garner MM, Maguire C, Sanders C, Gibas C, Cano JF, Guarro J, Stchigel AM. Novel Paranannizziopsis species in a Wagler's viper (Tropidolaemus wagleri), tentacled snakes (Erpeton tentaculatum), and a rhinoceros snake (Rhynchophis boulengeri) in a zoological collection. Med Mycol 2018; 57:825-832. [DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myy134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractWe report several cases of fungal infections in snakes associated with a new species within the genus Paranannizziopsis. Three juvenile Wagler's vipers (Tropidolaemus wagleri) presented with skin abnormalities or ulcerative dermatitis, and two snakes died. Histologic examination of skin from the living viper revealed hyperplastic, hyperkeratotic, and crusting epidermitis with intralesional fungal elements. The terrestrial Wagler's vipers were housed in a room with fully aquatic tentacled snakes (Erpeton tentaculatum), among which there had been a history of intermittent skin lesions. Approximately 2 months after the biopsy of the viper, a skin sample was collected from one tentacled snake (TS1) with skin abnormalities and revealed a fungal infection with a similar histologic appearance. Fungal isolates were obtained via culture from the Wagler's viper and TS1 and revealed a novel species, Paranannizziopsis tardicrescens, based on phenotypic characterization and molecular analysis. P. tardicrescens was cultured and identified by DNA sequence analysis 8 months later from a dead tentacled snake in an exhibit in an adjacent hallway and 13 months later from a living rhinoceros snake (Rhynchophis boulengeri) with two focal skin lesions. Antifungal susceptibility testing on three of four cultured isolates demonstrated potent in vitro activity for terbinafine and voriconazole.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nathan P Wiederhold
- Fungus Testing Laboratory, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Deanna A Sutton
- Fungus Testing Laboratory, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | | | - Cheryl Maguire
- Texas A&M Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Carmita Sanders
- Fungus Testing Laboratory, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Connie Gibas
- Fungus Testing Laboratory, Department of Pathology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - José F Cano
- Mycology Unit, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut and IISPV, University Rovira i Virgili, Reus, Spain
| | - Josep Guarro
- Mycology Unit, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut and IISPV, University Rovira i Virgili, Reus, Spain
| | - Alberto M Stchigel
- Mycology Unit, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut and IISPV, University Rovira i Virgili, Reus, Spain
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25
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Sunny A, Monroy-Vilchis O, Zarco-González MM. Genetic diversity and structure of Crotalus triseriatus, a rattlesnake of central Mexico. J Genet 2018; 97:1119-1130. [PMID: 30555061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The isolated and fragmented populations are highly susceptible to stochastic events, increasing the extinction risk because of the decline in putative adaptive potential and individual fitness. The population has high heterozygosity values and a moderate allelic diversity, the heterozygosity values are higher than in most other Crotalus species and snake studies. Possibly these high levels of genetic diversity can be related to a large founder size, high effective population size, multiple paternity and overlapping generations. We did not find the genetic structuring but the effective number of alleles (Ne) was 138.1. We found evidence of bottlenecks and the majority of rattlesnakeswere unrelated, despite the small sample size, endemic status, the isolated and fragmented habitat. The genetic information provided in this study can be useful as a first approach to try to make informed conservation efforts for this species and also, important to preserve the habitat of this species; the endangered Abies-Pinus forest of the Nevado the Toluca Volcano.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armando Sunny
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias Biológicas Aplicadas, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Instituto Literario # 100, Colonia Centro, Toluca, Estado de México, CP 50000, México. ,
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26
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Sunny A, Monroy-Vilchis O, Zarco-González MM. Genetic diversity and structure of Crotalus triseriatus, a rattlesnake of central Mexico. J Genet 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12041-018-1004-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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27
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Hill AJ, Leys JE, Bryan D, Erdman FM, Malone KS, Russell GN, Applegate RD, Fenton H, Niedringhaus K, Miller AN, Allender MC, Walker DM. Common Cutaneous Bacteria Isolated from Snakes Inhibit Growth of Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola. ECOHEALTH 2018; 15:109-120. [PMID: 29134436 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-017-1289-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2016] [Revised: 10/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
There is increasing concern regarding potential impacts of snake fungal disease (SFD), caused by Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola (Oo), on free-ranging snake populations in the eastern USA. The snake cutaneous microbiome likely serves as the first line of defense against Oo and other pathogens; however, little is known about microbial associations in snakes. The objective of this study was to better define the composition and immune function of the snake cutaneous microbiome. Eight timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) and four black racers (Coluber constrictor) were captured in Arkansas and Tennessee, with some snakes exhibiting signs of SFD. Oo was detected through real-time qPCR in five snakes. Additional histopathological techniques confirmed a diagnosis of SFD in one racer, the species' first confirmed case of SFD in Tennessee. Fifty-eight bacterial and five fungal strains were isolated from skin swabs and identified with Sanger sequencing. Non-metric multidimensional scaling and PERMANOVA analyses indicated that the culturable microbiome does not differ between snake species. Fifteen bacterial strains isolated from rattlesnakes and a single strain isolated from a racer inhibited growth of Oo in vitro. Results shed light on the culturable cutaneous microbiome of snakes and probiotic members that may play a role in fighting an emergent disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aubree J Hill
- Department of Biology, Tennessee Technological University, 1100 North Dixie Avenue, Box 5063, Cookeville, TN, 38505, USA.
| | - Jacob E Leys
- Department of Biology, Tennessee Technological University, 1100 North Dixie Avenue, Box 5063, Cookeville, TN, 38505, USA
| | - Danny Bryan
- Biology Department, Cumberland University, Lebanon, TN, USA
| | - Fantasia M Erdman
- Department of Biology, Tennessee Technological University, 1100 North Dixie Avenue, Box 5063, Cookeville, TN, 38505, USA
| | - Katherine S Malone
- Department of Biology, Tennessee Technological University, 1100 North Dixie Avenue, Box 5063, Cookeville, TN, 38505, USA
| | - Gabrielle N Russell
- Department of Biology, Tennessee Technological University, 1100 North Dixie Avenue, Box 5063, Cookeville, TN, 38505, USA
| | - Roger D Applegate
- Department of Biology, Tennessee Technological University, 1100 North Dixie Avenue, Box 5063, Cookeville, TN, 38505, USA
- Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Heather Fenton
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
- Environment and Natural Resources, Wildlife Division, Government of the Northwest Territories, Yellowknife, NT, Canada
| | - Kevin Niedringhaus
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Andrew N Miller
- Illinois Natural History Survey, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Matthew C Allender
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Donald M Walker
- Department of Biology, Tennessee Technological University, 1100 North Dixie Avenue, Box 5063, Cookeville, TN, 38505, USA
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28
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Lorch JM, Knowles S, Lankton JS, Michell K, Edwards JL, Kapfer JM, Staffen RA, Wild ER, Schmidt KZ, Ballmann AE, Blodgett D, Farrell TM, Glorioso BM, Last LA, Price SJ, Schuler KL, Smith CE, Wellehan JFX, Blehert DS. Snake fungal disease: an emerging threat to wild snakes. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 371:rstb.2015.0457. [PMID: 28080983 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Since 2006, there has been a marked increase in the number of reports of severe and often fatal fungal skin infections in wild snakes in the eastern USA. The emerging condition, referred to as snake fungal disease (SFD), was initially documented in rattlesnakes, where the infections were believed to pose a risk to the viability of affected populations. The disease is caused by Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, a fungus recently split from a complex of fungi long referred to as the Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (CANV). Here we review the current state of knowledge about O. ophiodiicola and SFD. In addition, we provide original findings which demonstrate that O. ophiodiicola is widely distributed in eastern North America, has a broad host range, is the predominant cause of fungal skin infections in wild snakes and often causes mild infections in snakes emerging from hibernation. This new information, together with what is already available in the scientific literature, advances our knowledge of the cause, pathogenesis and ecology of SFD. However, additional research is necessary to elucidate the factors driving the emergence of this disease and develop strategies to mitigate its impacts.This article is part of the themed issue 'Tackling emerging fungal threats to animal health, food security and ecosystem resilience'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Lorch
- US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA
| | - Susan Knowles
- US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA
| | - Julia S Lankton
- US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA
| | - Kathy Michell
- New York Center for Turtle Rehabilitation and Conservation, Inc., Narrowburg, NY 12764, USA
| | - Jaime L Edwards
- Minnesota Department of Natural Resources-Nongame Wildlife Program, Saint Paul, MN 55155, USA
| | - Joshua M Kapfer
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, Whitewater, WI 53190, USA
| | - Richard A Staffen
- Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 101 South Webster Street, Madison, WI 53707, USA
| | - Erik R Wild
- Department of Biology, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, Stevens Point, WI 54481, USA
| | - Katie Z Schmidt
- US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA
| | - Anne E Ballmann
- US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA
| | - Doug Blodgett
- Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department, Rutland, VT 05701, USA
| | | | - Brad M Glorioso
- US Geological Survey-Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, Lafayette, LA 70506, USA
| | - Lisa A Last
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Steven J Price
- Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
| | - Krysten L Schuler
- Animal Health Diagnostic Center, Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Christopher E Smith
- Minnesota Department of Natural Resources-Nongame Wildlife Program, Saint Paul, MN 55155, USA
| | - James F X Wellehan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - David S Blehert
- US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA
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29
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PHARMACOKINETICS, EFFICACY, AND SAFETY OF VORICONAZOLE AND ITRACONAZOLE IN HEALTHY COTTONMOUTHS (AGKISTRODON PISCIVORUS) AND MASSASAUGA RATTLESNAKES (SISTRURUS CATENATUS) WITH SNAKE FUNGAL DISEASE. J Zoo Wildl Med 2017; 48:757-766. [DOI: 10.1638/2016-0179.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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30
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Incidence of Keratinophilic Fungi from the Selected Soils of Kaziranga National Park, Assam (India). Mycopathologia 2016; 182:371-377. [DOI: 10.1007/s11046-016-0083-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Abstract
Snake fungal disease (SFD) is an emerging disease of wildlife believed to be caused by Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola. Although geographic and host ranges have yet to be determined, this disease is characterized by crusty scales, superficial pustules, and subcutaneous nodules, with subsequent morbidity and mortality in some snake species. To confirm the presence of SFD and O. ophiodiicola in snakes of eastern Virginia, US, we clinically examined 30 free-ranging snakes on public lands from April to October 2014. Skin biopsy samples were collected from nine snakes that had gross lesions suggestive of SFD; seven of these biopsies were suitable for histologic interpretation, and eight were suitable for culture and PCR detection of O. ophiodiicola. Seven snakes had histologic features consistent with SFD and eight were positive for O. ophiodiicola by PCR or fungal culture.
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32
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Last LA, Fenton H, Gonyor-McGuire J, Moore M, Yabsley MJ. Snake fungal disease caused by Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola in a free-ranging mud snake (Farancia abacura). J Vet Diagn Invest 2016; 28:709-713. [DOI: 10.1177/1040638716663250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake fungal disease is an emerging infectious disease caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola leading to severe dermatitis and facial disfiguration in numerous free-ranging and captive snakes. A free-ranging mud snake ( Farancia abacura) from Bulloch County, Georgia, was presented for autopsy because of facial swelling and emaciation. Extensive ulceration of the skin, which was especially severe on the head, and retained shed were noted on external examination. Microscopic examination revealed severe heterophilic dermatitis with intralesional fungal hyphae and arthroconidia consistent with O. ophiodiicola. A skin sample incubated on Sabouraud dextrose agar yielded a white-to-tan powdery fungal culture that was confirmed to be O. ophiodiicola by polymerase chain reaction and sequence analysis. Heavy infestation with adult tapeworms ( Ophiotaenia faranciae) was present within the intestine. Various bacterial and fungal species, interpreted to either be secondary invaders or postmortem contaminants, were associated with oral lesions. Although the role of these other organisms in the overall health of this individual is not known, factors such as concurrent infections or immunosuppression should be considered in order to better understand the overall manifestation of snake fungal disease, which remains poorly characterized in its host range and geographic distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A. Last
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine (Last, Fenton, Yabsley), University of Georgia, Athens, GA
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources (Yabsley), University of Georgia, Athens, GA
- Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Thomasville, GA (McGuire)
- The Orianne Society, Athens, GA (Moore)
| | - Heather Fenton
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine (Last, Fenton, Yabsley), University of Georgia, Athens, GA
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources (Yabsley), University of Georgia, Athens, GA
- Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Thomasville, GA (McGuire)
- The Orianne Society, Athens, GA (Moore)
| | - Jessica Gonyor-McGuire
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine (Last, Fenton, Yabsley), University of Georgia, Athens, GA
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources (Yabsley), University of Georgia, Athens, GA
- Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Thomasville, GA (McGuire)
- The Orianne Society, Athens, GA (Moore)
| | - Matthew Moore
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine (Last, Fenton, Yabsley), University of Georgia, Athens, GA
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources (Yabsley), University of Georgia, Athens, GA
- Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Thomasville, GA (McGuire)
- The Orianne Society, Athens, GA (Moore)
| | - Michael J. Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine (Last, Fenton, Yabsley), University of Georgia, Athens, GA
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources (Yabsley), University of Georgia, Athens, GA
- Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Thomasville, GA (McGuire)
- The Orianne Society, Athens, GA (Moore)
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Ravesi MJ, Tetzlaff SJ, Allender MC, Kingsbury BA. Detection of Snake Fungal Disease from aLampropeltis triangulum(Eastern Milksnake) in Northern Michigan. Northeast Nat (Steuben) 2016. [DOI: 10.1656/045.023.0310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Colston TJ, Jackson CR. Microbiome evolution along divergent branches of the vertebrate tree of life: what is known and unknown. Mol Ecol 2016; 25:3776-800. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.13730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Revised: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J. Colston
- Department of Biology The University of Mississippi University MS 38677 USA
| | - Colin R. Jackson
- Department of Biology The University of Mississippi University MS 38677 USA
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Masters NJ, Alexander S, Jackson B, Sigler L, Chatterton J, Harvey C, Gibson R, Humphrey S, Rawdon TG, Spence RP, Ha HJ, McInnes K, Jakob-Hoff R. Dermatomycosis caused by Paranannizziopsis australasiensis in five tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) and a coastal bearded dragon (Pogona barbata) in a zoological collection in New Zealand. N Z Vet J 2016; 64:301-7. [DOI: 10.1080/00480169.2016.1177473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- NJ Masters
- Zoological Society of London, London NW1 4RY, United Kingdom
| | - S Alexander
- New Zealand Centre for Conservation Medicine, Auckland Zoo, Western Springs 1022, New Zealand
| | - B Jackson
- New Zealand Centre for Conservation Medicine, Auckland Zoo, Western Springs 1022, New Zealand
| | - L Sigler
- University of Alberta Microfungus Collection and Herbarium, Devonian Botanic Garden, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E1, Canada
| | - J Chatterton
- New Zealand Centre for Conservation Medicine, Auckland Zoo, Western Springs 1022, New Zealand
| | - C Harvey
- New Zealand Veterinary Pathology, Western Springs 1022, New Zealand
| | - R Gibson
- New Zealand Centre for Conservation Medicine, Auckland Zoo, Western Springs 1022, New Zealand
| | - S Humphrey
- Ministry for Primary Industries, PO Box 40742, Upper Hutt 5140, New Zealand
| | - TG Rawdon
- Ministry for Primary Industries, PO Box 40742, Upper Hutt 5140, New Zealand
| | - RP Spence
- Ministry for Primary Industries, PO Box 40742, Upper Hutt 5140, New Zealand
| | - HJ Ha
- Ministry for Primary Industries, PO Box 40742, Upper Hutt 5140, New Zealand
| | - K McInnes
- Department of Conservation, PO Box 10420, Wellington 6143, New Zealand
| | - R Jakob-Hoff
- New Zealand Centre for Conservation Medicine, Auckland Zoo, Western Springs 1022, New Zealand
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HEMATOLOGY IN AN EASTERN MASSASAUGA (SISTRURUS CATENATUS) POPULATION AND THE EMERGENCE OF OPHIDIOMYCES IN ILLINOIS, USA. J Wildl Dis 2016; 52:258-69. [PMID: 26967140 DOI: 10.7589/2015-02-049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Disease events are threatening wildlife populations across North America. Specifically, mortality events due to Ophidiomyces (snake fungal disease; SFD) have been observed recently in snakes in Illinois, US. We investigated the health of a population of eastern massasaugas ( Sistrurus catenatus ) in south-central Illinois using 1) a meta-analysis of hematologic findings from 2004, 2011, 2013, and 2014; 2) a determination of the prevalence of SFD in snakes examined in 2013 and 2014; and 3) the examination of 184 museum specimens collected from 1999-2013 for signs and presence of SFD. For the meta-analysis and prevalence of SFD, hematologic analytes were reduced to three principle components that explained 67.5% of the cumulative variance. There were significant differences among one principle component (total white blood cell counts, monocytes, lymphocytes, and basophils) across years when it was highest in 2004 and 2014. The top general linear model explaining the difference in principle components included the main effects of year and stage, body condition index (BCI), and the interaction between stage and BCI. The prevalence of SFD was 18% (n=7) in 2013 and 24% (n=11) in 2014, and no hematologic analytes were associated with SFD. In museum specimens, Ophidiomyces DNA was first detected from an individual collected in 2000. Studies such as these, integrating multiple modalities of health, can elucidate the epidemiology of diseases that may pose conservation threats.
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DISSEMINATEDOPHIDIOMYCES OPHIODIICOLAINFECTION IN A CAPTIVE EASTERN MASSASAUGA (SISTRURUS CATENATUS CATENATUS). J Zoo Wildl Med 2016; 47:337-40. [DOI: 10.1638/2014-0222.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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OPHIDIOMYCES OPHIODIICOLAON A CAPTIVE BLACK RACER (COLUBER CONSTRICTOR) AND A GARTER SNAKE (THAMNOPHIS SIRTALIS)IN PENNSYLVANIA. J Zoo Wildl Med 2016; 47:341-6. [DOI: 10.1638/2015-0123.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Paré JA, Sigler L. An Overview of Reptile Fungal Pathogens in the Genera Nannizziopsis, Paranannizziopsis, and Ophidiomyces. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.5818/1529-9651-26.1-2.46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jean A. Paré
- 1. Wildlife Conservation Society, Zoological Health Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, NY 10460, USA
| | - Lynne Sigler
- 2. University of Alberta, Microfungus Collection and Herbarium, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada
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Lorch JM, Lankton J, Werner K, Falendysz EA, McCurley K, Blehert DS. Experimental Infection of Snakes with Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola Causes Pathological Changes That Typify Snake Fungal Disease. mBio 2015; 6:e01534-15. [PMID: 26578676 PMCID: PMC4659463 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01534-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Snake fungal disease (SFD) is an emerging skin infection of wild snakes in eastern North America. The fungus Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola is frequently associated with the skin lesions that are characteristic of SFD, but a causal relationship between the fungus and the disease has not been established. We experimentally infected captive-bred corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus) in the laboratory with pure cultures of O. ophiodiicola. All snakes in the infected group (n = 8) developed gross and microscopic lesions identical to those observed in wild snakes with SFD; snakes in the control group (n = 7) did not develop skin infections. Furthermore, the same strain of O. ophiodiicola used to inoculate snakes was recovered from lesions of all animals in the infected group, but no fungi were isolated from individuals in the control group. Monitoring progression of lesions throughout the experiment captured a range of presentations of SFD that have been described in wild snakes. The host response to the infection included marked recruitment of granulocytes to sites of fungal invasion, increased frequency of molting, and abnormal behaviors, such as anorexia and resting in conspicuous areas of enclosures. While these responses may help snakes to fight infection, they could also impact host fitness and may contribute to mortality in wild snakes with chronic O. ophiodiicola infection. This work provides a basis for understanding the pathogenicity of O. ophiodiicola and the ecology of SFD by using a model system that incorporates a host species that is easy to procure and maintain in the laboratory. IMPORTANCE Skin infections in snakes, referred to as snake fungal disease (SFD), have been reported with increasing frequency in wild snakes in the eastern United States. While most of these infections are associated with the fungus Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, there has been no conclusive evidence to implicate this fungus as a primary pathogen. Furthermore, it is not understood why the infections affect different host populations differently. Our experiment demonstrates that O. ophiodiicola is the causative agent of SFD and can elicit pathological changes that likely impact fitness of wild snakes. This information, and the laboratory model we describe, will be essential in addressing unresolved questions regarding disease ecology and outcomes of O. ophiodiicola infection and helping to conserve snake populations threatened by the disease. The SFD model of infection also offers utility for exploring larger concepts related to comparative fungal virulence, host response, and host-pathogen evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Lorch
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Julia Lankton
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Katrien Werner
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | | | - Kevin McCurley
- New England Reptile Distributors, Plaistow, New Hampshire, USA
| | - David S Blehert
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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Allender MC, Baker S, Wylie D, Loper D, Dreslik MJ, Phillips CA, Maddox C, Driskell EA. Development of Snake Fungal Disease after Experimental Challenge with Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola in Cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorous). PLoS One 2015; 10:e0140193. [PMID: 26469977 PMCID: PMC4607413 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake fungal disease (SFD) is a clinical syndrome associated with dermatitis, myositis, osteomyelitis, and pneumonia in several species of free-ranging snakes in the US. The causative agent has been suggested as Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, but other agents may contribute to the syndrome and the pathogenesis is not understood. To understand the role of O. ophiodiicola in SFD, a cottonmouth snake model of SFD was designed. Five cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorous) were experimentally challenged by nasolabial pit inoculation with a pure culture of O. ophiodiicola. Development of skin lesions or facial swelling at the site of inoculation was observed in all snakes. Twice weekly swabs of the inoculation site revealed variable presence of O. ophiodiicola DNA by qPCR in all five inoculated snakes for 3 to 58 days post-inoculation; nasolabial flushes were not a useful sampling method for detection. Inoculated snakes had a 40% mortality rate. All inoculated snakes had microscopic lesions unilaterally on the side of the swabbed nasolabial pit, including erosions to ulcerations and heterophilic dermatitis. All signs were consistent with SFD; however, the severity of lesions varied in individual snakes, and fungal hyphae were only observed in 3 of 5 inoculated snakes. These three snakes correlated with post-mortem tissue qPCR evidence of O. ophiodiicola. The findings of this study conclude that O. ophiodiicola inoculation in a cottonmouth snake model leads to disease similar to SFD, although lesion severity and the fungal load are quite variable within the model. Future studies may utilize this model to further understand the pathogenesis of this disease and develop management strategies that mitigate disease effects, but investigation of other models with less variability may be warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew C. Allender
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, Department of Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, United States of America
- Illinois Natural History Survey, Prairie Research Institute, Champaign, IL, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Sarah Baker
- Illinois Natural History Survey, Prairie Research Institute, Champaign, IL, United States of America
| | - Daniel Wylie
- Illinois Natural History Survey, Prairie Research Institute, Champaign, IL, United States of America
| | - Daniel Loper
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, Department of Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Michael J. Dreslik
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, Department of Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Christopher A. Phillips
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, Department of Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Carol Maddox
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth A. Driskell
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, United States of America
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Başaran Kahraman B, Diren Sığırcı B, Metiner K, Ak S, Koenhemsi L, Or ME, Castellá G, Abarca ML. Isolation of Chrysosporium guarroi in a Green Iguana (Iguana iguana), in Turkey. J Exot Pet Med 2015. [DOI: 10.1053/j.jepm.2015.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Allender MC, Raudabaugh DB, Gleason FH, Miller AN. The natural history, ecology, and epidemiology of Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola and its potential impact on free-ranging snake populations. FUNGAL ECOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2015.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Allender MC, Bunick D, Dzhaman E, Burrus L, Maddox C. Development and use of a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola in snakes. J Vet Diagn Invest 2015; 27:217-20. [PMID: 25776546 DOI: 10.1177/1040638715573983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungal pathogens threatening the conservation of wildlife are becoming increasingly common. Since 2008, free-ranging snakes across North America have been experiencing a marked increase in the prevalence of snake fungal disease associated with Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola. Diagnosis has historically relied on histology, microbiology, and conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR). More sensitive methods are needed to adequately characterize the epidemiology. The current study describes the development of a real-time PCR (qPCR) assay for detecting a segment of the internal transcribed spacer 1 region between the 18S and 5.8S ribosomal RNA gene. The assay was able to detect as few as 1.05 × 10(1) gene copies per reaction. An additional 4 positive cases were detected when comparing a conventional PCR (n = 3) and the qPCR (n = 7) when used on swab samples from 47 eastern massasauga rattlesnakes. The newly developed assay is a sensitive and specific tool for surveillance and monitoring in the conservation of free-ranging snakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew C Allender
- Departments of Comparative Biosciences (Allender, Bunick, Dzhaman), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, ILPathobiology (Maddox), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, ILVeterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (Burrus), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL
| | - David Bunick
- Departments of Comparative Biosciences (Allender, Bunick, Dzhaman), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, ILPathobiology (Maddox), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, ILVeterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (Burrus), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL
| | - Elena Dzhaman
- Departments of Comparative Biosciences (Allender, Bunick, Dzhaman), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, ILPathobiology (Maddox), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, ILVeterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (Burrus), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL
| | - Lucienne Burrus
- Departments of Comparative Biosciences (Allender, Bunick, Dzhaman), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, ILPathobiology (Maddox), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, ILVeterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (Burrus), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL
| | - Carol Maddox
- Departments of Comparative Biosciences (Allender, Bunick, Dzhaman), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, ILPathobiology (Maddox), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, ILVeterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (Burrus), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL
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Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola dermatitis in eight free-ranging timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) from Massachusetts. J Zoo Wildl Med 2015; 46:86-94. [PMID: 25993746 DOI: 10.1638/2012-0248r2.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Eight free-ranging timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) from two geographically isolated Massachusetts populations were observed with skin lesions located primarily on the head but occasionally also on the lateral and ventral surfaces of the body. The snakes underwent health assessments that included physical examination, clinical pathology, full body radiographs, and full thickness biopsies of skin lesions. Each snake had fungal elements present histologically in tissue sections from skin lesions. Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola was identified from skin lesions using polymerase chain reaction in all eight snakes.
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Bohuski E, Lorch JM, Griffin KM, Blehert DS. TaqMan real-time polymerase chain reaction for detection of Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, the fungus associated with snake fungal disease. BMC Vet Res 2015; 11:95. [PMID: 25889462 PMCID: PMC4404600 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-015-0407-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Accepted: 04/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Fungal skin infections associated with Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, a member of the Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (CANV) complex, have been linked to an increasing number of cases of snake fungal disease (SFD) in captive snakes around the world and in wild snake populations in eastern North America. The emergence of SFD in both captive and wild situations has led to an increased need for tools to better diagnose and study the disease. Results We developed two TaqMan real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays to rapidly detect O. ophiodiicola in clinical samples. One assay targets the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) of the fungal genome while the other targets the more variable intergenic spacer region (IGS). The PCR assays were qualified using skin samples collected from 50 snakes for which O. ophiodiicola had been previously detected by culture, 20 snakes with gross skin lesions suggestive of SFD but which were culture-negative for O. ophiodiicola, and 16 snakes with no clinical signs of infection. Both assays performed equivalently and proved to be more sensitive than traditional culture methods, detecting O. ophiodiicola in 98% of the culture-positive samples and in 40% of the culture-negative snakes that had clinical signs of SFD. In addition, the assays did not cross-react with a panel of 28 fungal species that are closely related to O. ophiodiicola or that commonly occur on the skin of snakes. The assays did, however, indicate that some asymptomatic snakes (~6%) may harbor low levels of the fungus, and that PCR should be paired with histology when a definitive diagnosis is required. Conclusions These assays represent the first published methods to detect O. ophiodiicola by real-time PCR. The ITS assay has great utility for assisting with SFD diagnoses whereas the IGS assay offers a valuable tool for research-based applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Bohuski
- United States Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI, USA.
| | - Jeffrey M Lorch
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
| | - Kathryn M Griffin
- United States Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI, USA.
| | - David S Blehert
- United States Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI, USA.
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Price SJ, Oldham CR, Boys WM, Fleckenstein LJ. First Record of Snake Fungal Disease in Kentucky. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.3101/1098-7096-76.1.47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Steven J. Price
- Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0073
| | - Christian R. Oldham
- Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0073
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Affiliation(s)
- F. Javier Cabañes
- Veterinary Mycology Group, Department of Animal Health and Anatomy, Veterinary School, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain
- * E-mail:
| | - Deanna A. Sutton
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Josep Guarro
- Mycology Unit, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institut d'Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Reus, Catalonia, Spain
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Hubka V, Dobiašova S, Dobiaš R, Kolařik M. Microsporum aenigmaticum sp. nov. from M. gypseum complex, isolated as a cause of tinea corporis. Med Mycol 2014; 52:387-96. [PMID: 24625678 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myt033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
An undescribed Microsporum species was isolated from skin scales recovered from a 40-mm large, annular, scaling lesion on the wrist of a 46-year-old woman. The risk factors for dermatophyte infection in the patient were frequent work in the garden, hunting, and contact with dogs and horses. Direct microscopic examination of the scales revealed the presence of dermatophyte hyphae; when the samples were cultured, a morphologically similar fungus grew on all slants in pure culture. Both of these findings strongly suggested that the isolate was the true causal agent of infection. The possible geophilic nature of the species was based on phylogenetic analysis (internal transcribed spacer region of rDNA and β-tubulin gene) that placed it in between species of the M. gypseum complex. However, its divergencies from all other Microsporum species exceeded 4% base pairs. Based on β-tubulin phylogeny, the isolated species is a sister to M. gypseum. The species produces abundant chlamydospores and clumps of hyphae similar to those of ascomatal primordia but no conidia and ascospores. The species was unable to grow at 37°C and does not grow on T6 basal medium, which is unlike other Microsporum species; hair perforation and urease tests were positive. The addition of histidine to the T6 medium resulted in rapid growth of the fungus. The phylogenetic evidence, morphology, growth parameters, and physiology justified the proposal that the isolate is a new species, M. aenigmaticum, sp. nov.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vit Hubka
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic
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