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Ashwini MA, Pattanaik A, Mani RS. Recent updates on laboratory diagnosis of rabies. Indian J Med Res 2024; 159:48-61. [PMID: 38376376 PMCID: PMC10954107 DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_131_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a lethal viral disease transmitted through the bite of rabid animals. India has a high burden of rabies, contributing to a significant proportion of the global deaths. However, under-reporting of the disease is prevalent due to lack of laboratory confirmation. Laboratory diagnosis of rabies plays a crucial role in differentiating the disease from clinical mimics, initiation of appropriate care, implementing infection control measures and informing disease surveillance. This review provides an overview of the recent advancements in laboratory diagnosis of rabies, aimed at updating physicians involved in diagnosis and management of rabies cases in India.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. A. Ashwini
- Department of Neurovirology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Amrita Pattanaik
- Department of Neurovirology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
- Department of Virus Research, Manipal Institute of Virology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
| | - Reeta S. Mani
- Department of Neurovirology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
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2
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Moore SM. Challenges of Rabies Serology: Defining Context of Interpretation. Viruses 2021; 13:v13081516. [PMID: 34452381 PMCID: PMC8402924 DOI: 10.3390/v13081516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The case fatality rate of rabies, nearly 100%, is one of the most unique characteristic of this ancient virus infection. The crucial role rabies virus neutralizing antibody plays in protection is both well established and explanation of why rabies serology is important. Various laboratory methods can and have been used but serum neutralization methods have long been the gold standard due to the ability to measure function (neutralization), however these methods can be difficult to perform for several reasons. Assays such as enzyme linked absorbance assays (ELISA), indirect fluorescence antibody (IFA) and more recently lateral flow methods are in use. Interpretation of results can be problematic, not only between methods but also due to modifications of the same method that can lead to misinterpretations. A common assumption in review of laboratory test results is that different methods for the same component produce comparable results under all conditions or circumstances. Assumptions and misinterpretations provide the potential for detrimental decisions, ranging from regulatory to clinically related, and most importantly what ‘level’ is protective. Review of the common challenges in performance and interpretation of rabies serology and specific examples illuminate critical issues to consider when reviewing and applying results of rabies serological testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Moore
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
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3
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Oliver J, Tan Y, Haight JD, Tober KJ, Gall WK, Zink SD, Kramer LD, Campbell SR, Howard JJ, Das SR, Sherwood JA. Spatial and temporal expansions of Eastern equine encephalitis virus and phylogenetic groups isolated from mosquitoes and mammalian cases in New York State from 2013 to 2019. Emerg Microbes Infect 2020; 9:1638-1650. [PMID: 32672516 PMCID: PMC7473153 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2020.1774426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Surveillance for the emerging infectious disease Eastern equine encephalitis, and its causative virus in mosquitoes, continued within New York State from 2013 to 2019. There were increases in geographic area and number of consecutive years, with cases in four mammalian species, and virus in 11 mosquito species. The first cases in a goat and in an emu were reported. The first detection of virus in Aedes cinereus was reported. Virus in phylogenetic group NY4 was isolated from a horse and from mosquitoes 6 kilometers and 13 days apart in 2013. Phylogenetic groups NY4 and NY5 were found 15 days apart in two towns 280 kilometers distant in 2013. Within four adjacent counties there was a pattern of overlap, where four had NY5, two adjacent counties had NY6, two adjacent counties had NY7, and one county had NY5, NY6, and NY7, reducible to a Euler diagram. Virus in phylogenetic group NY5, found within an 11-kilometer wide area in New York State, was related to FL4 found in Florida 1,398 kilometers distant. This was consistent with a phylogenetic group originating in Florida, then being moved to a specific location in New York State, by migratory birds in consecutive years 2013 and 2014.
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Affiliation(s)
- JoAnne Oliver
- Central New York Regional Office, Department of Health, State of New York, Syracuse, NY, USA
- Department of Environmental Sciences, School of Agriculture and Natural Resources, College of Agriculture and Technology, State University of New York, Morrisville, NY, USA
| | - Yi Tan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Jamie D. Haight
- Vector Surveillance Unit, Bureau of Communicable Diseases, Department of Health, State of New York, Falconer, NY, USA
| | - Keith J. Tober
- Vector Surveillance Unit, Bureau of Communicable Diseases, Department of Health, State of New York, at State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Wayne K. Gall
- Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Steven D. Zink
- Arbovirus Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, Department of Health, State of New York, Slingerlands, NY, USA
| | - Laura D. Kramer
- Arbovirus Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, Department of Health, State of New York, Slingerlands, NY, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health, State University of New York, Rensselaer, NY, USA
| | - Scott R. Campbell
- Arthropod-Borne Disease Laboratory, Suffolk County Department of Health Services, Yaphank, NY, USA
| | - John J. Howard
- Central New York Regional Office, Department of Health, State of New York, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Suman R. Das
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - James A. Sherwood
- Central New York Regional Office, Department of Health, State of New York, Syracuse, NY, USA
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4
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Gold S, Donnelly CA, Nouvellet P, Woodroffe R. Rabies virus-neutralising antibodies in healthy, unvaccinated individuals: What do they mean for rabies epidemiology? PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0007933. [PMID: 32053628 PMCID: PMC7017994 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies has been a widely feared disease for thousands of years, with records of rabid dogs as early as ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian texts. The reputation of rabies as being inevitably fatal, together with its ability to affect all mammalian species, contributes to the fear surrounding this disease. However, the widely held view that exposure to the rabies virus is always fatal has been repeatedly challenged. Although survival following clinical infection in humans has only been recorded on a handful of occasions, a number of studies have reported detection of rabies-specific antibodies in the sera of humans, domestic animals, and wildlife that are apparently healthy and unvaccinated. These 'seropositive' individuals provide possible evidence of exposure to the rabies virus that has not led to fatal disease. However, the variability in methods of detecting these antibodies and the difficulties of interpreting serology tests have contributed to an unclear picture of their importance. In this review, we consider the evidence for rabies-specific antibodies in healthy, unvaccinated individuals as indicators of nonlethal rabies exposure and the potential implications of this for rabies epidemiology. Our findings indicate that whilst there is substantial evidence that nonlethal rabies exposure does occur, serology studies that do not use appropriate controls and cutoffs are unlikely to provide an accurate estimate of the true prevalence of nonlethal rabies exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susannah Gold
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christl A. Donnelly
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Statistics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Pierre Nouvellet
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, United Kingdom
| | - Rosie Woodroffe
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
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5
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Yu MA, Yu KM, Park SJ, Kim YI, Robles NJ, Si YJ, Kim EH, Kwon HI, Jeong HW, Song MS, Kim SY, Choi YK. Seroprevalence of Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome Phlebovirus in Domesticated Deer in South Korea. Virol Sin 2019; 34:501-507. [PMID: 31240618 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-019-00137-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome phlebovirus (SFTSV) has a wide host range. Not only has it been found in humans, but also in many wild and domesticated animals. The infection of breeding deer on farms is a particularly worrisome public health concern due to the large amount of human contact and the diverse use of deer products, including raw blood. To investigate the prevalence of breeding domesticated deer, we examined the SFTSV infection rate on deer farms in South Korea from 2015 to 2017. Of the 215 collected blood samples, 0.9% (2/215) were found to be positive for viral RNA by PCR, and sequence analysis showed the highest homology with the KADGH human isolate. Both SFTSV-specific recombinant N and Gn protein-based ELISAs revealed that 14.0% (30/215) and 7.9% (17/215) of collected blood specimens were positive for SFTSV antibody. These results demonstrate that the breeding farm deer are exposed to SFTSV and could be a potential infection source for humans through direct contact or consumption of byproducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Ah Yu
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.,Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Min Yu
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.,Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Su-Jin Park
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.,Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Il Kim
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.,Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Norbert John Robles
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.,Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Jae Si
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.,Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Ha Kim
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.,Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeok-Il Kwon
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.,Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Won Jeong
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.,Department of Internal Medicine, Chungbuk National University Hospital, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Suk Song
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.,Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Seok-Yong Kim
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Ki Choi
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine and Medical Research Institute, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea. .,Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.
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6
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Cho JJ, Wong JK, Henkel J, DeJesus RO, Nazario-Lopez B. Acute Seroconversion of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Coinfection With California Serogroup Encephalitis Virus. Front Neurol 2019; 10:242. [PMID: 30941092 PMCID: PMC6433933 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) is a severe arboviral neuroinvasive disease with high mortality and neurological sequelae. Treatment for EEE is primarily supportive. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) and high-dose steroids have been used as empirical therapy for EEE with some case reports of benefit. We report a case of a patient who presented with encephalopathy with initial cerebrospinal spinal fluid (CSF) serology analysis showing California serogroup encephalitis virus IgG positivity. However, the rapid clinical deterioration of the patient into a comatose state prompted a second CSF serology analysis that showed seroconversion of high titer Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus IgM and positive titer of California serogroup encephalitis virus IgG. The patient completed a 5-day course of empiric IVIg without concurrent corticosteroid therapy but did not show significant clinical improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J Cho
- Department of Neurology, McKnight Brain Institute, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.,Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Joshua K Wong
- Department of Neurology, McKnight Brain Institute, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Jacqueline Henkel
- Department of Radiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Reordan O DeJesus
- Department of Radiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Bernadette Nazario-Lopez
- Department of Neurology, McKnight Brain Institute, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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7
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Ducrocq J, Proulx JF, Lévesque B, De Serres G, Wood H, Lemire M. Assessment of naturally acquired neutralizing antibodies against rabies Lyssavirus in a subset of Nunavik's Inuit population considered most at risk of being exposed to rabid animals. Zoonoses Public Health 2019; 66:533-539. [PMID: 30688040 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Contact with infected saliva through the bite of a rabid animal is the main route of infection with the rabies Lyssavirus in humans. Although a few individuals have survived the infection, rabies remains the most lethal zoonotic infection worldwide. Over the last century, the dogma that rabies is invariably fatal has been challenged by the survival and recovery of infected animals. In humans, 11 studies have found rabies virus-specific antibodies in unvaccinated individuals exposed to rabies virus reservoir species, suggesting the possibility of asymptomatic rabies virus infection, contact with non-infectious virus or exposure to the virus without viral replication. Two of these studies were conducted in Arctic hunters. Considering the extensive exposure of Nunavik's Inuit to potentially infected animals through hunting, trapping, skinning and the preparation of Arctic carnivores, we analysed archived serum samples from the 2004 Nunavik Inuit Health Survey for the presence of rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies (rVNA) in this sub-population. A total of 196 participants who were considered at highest risk for exposure to rabies virus were targeted. Serum samples were tested for the presence of rVNA using a variation of the fluorescent antibody virus neutralization test, an assay recommended for the quantification of neutralizing antibody titres following vaccination. Our study identified two seropositive individuals among the 196 participants but a review of their medical record and a phone interview revealed previous vaccination. Our results do not provide evidence for naturally acquired rVNA in Nunavik's Inuit population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Ducrocq
- Département de médecine sociale et préventive, Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, Canada.,Axe des populations et pratiques optimales en santé, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec, Québec City, Québec, Canada
| | - Jean-François Proulx
- Direction de santé publique, Régie régionale de la santé et des services sociaux du Nunavik, Kuujjuaq, Québec, Canada
| | - Benoît Lévesque
- Département de médecine sociale et préventive, Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, Canada.,Axe des populations et pratiques optimales en santé, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec, Québec City, Québec, Canada.,Direction de la santé environnementale et de la toxicologie, Institut national de santé publique du Québec, Québec City, Québec, Canada
| | - Gaston De Serres
- Département de médecine sociale et préventive, Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, Canada.,Direction des risques biologiques et santé au travail, Institut national de santé publique du Québec, Québec City, Québec, Canada
| | - Heidi Wood
- Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Mélanie Lemire
- Département de médecine sociale et préventive, Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, Canada.,Axe des populations et pratiques optimales en santé, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec, Québec City, Québec, Canada
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8
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Realegeno S, Niezgoda M, Yager PA, Kumar A, Hoque L, Orciari L, Sambhara S, Olson VA, Satheshkumar PS. An ELISA-based method for detection of rabies virus nucleoprotein-specific antibodies in human antemortem samples. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0207009. [PMID: 30403742 PMCID: PMC6221316 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal encephalitic disease in humans and animals caused by lyssaviruses, most commonly rabies virus (RABV). Human antemortem diagnosis of rabies is a complex process involving multiple sample types and tests for the detection of antibodies, antigen (protein), and nucleic acids (genomic RNA). Serological diagnosis of human rabies includes the detection of either neutralizing or binding antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or serum samples from unimmunized individuals without prior rabies vaccination or passive immunization with purified immunoglobulins. While neutralizing antibodies are targeted against the surface-expressed glycoprotein (G protein), binding antibodies to viral antigens are predominantly against the nucleoprotein (N protein), although there can be antibodies against all RABV-expressed proteins. To determine N protein-specific antibody responses in the CSF and serum during RABV infection, we developed an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with purified recombinant N protein expressed in E. coli. N protein-specific immunoglobulin (Ig) subtypes IgG and IgM were detected in the CSF or serum of previously diagnosed human rabies cases. In addition, anti-N protein seroconversion was demonstrated over the course of illness in individual rabies cases. We compared the N protein ELISA results to those of an indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test, the current binding antibody assay used in diagnosis, and show that our ELISA is consistent with the IFA test. Sensitivity and specificity of the N protein ELISA ranged from 78.38-100% and 75.76-96.77% with respect to the IFA results. Our data provide evidence for the use of an N protein ELISA as an additional option for the detection of RABV-specific IgG or IgM antibodies in human CSF or serum specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Realegeno
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Michael Niezgoda
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Pamela A. Yager
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Amrita Kumar
- Immunology and Pathogenesis Branch, Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Laboni Hoque
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Lillian Orciari
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Suryaprakash Sambhara
- Immunology and Pathogenesis Branch, Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Victoria A. Olson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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9
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Warrell M, Warrell DA, Tarantola A. The Imperative of Palliation in the Management of Rabies Encephalomyelitis. Trop Med Infect Dis 2017; 2:E52. [PMID: 30270909 PMCID: PMC6082067 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed2040052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Revised: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this review is to guide clinicians in the practical management of patients suffering from rabies encephalomyelitis. This condition is eminently preventable by modern post-exposure vaccination, but is virtually always fatal in unvaccinated people. In the absence of any proven effective antiviral or other treatment, palliative care is an imperative to minimise suffering. Suspicion of rabies encephalomyelitis depends on recognising the classic symptomatology and eliciting a history of exposure to a possibly rabid mammal. Potentially treatable differential diagnoses must be eliminated, notably other infective encephalopathies. Laboratory confirmation of suspected rabies is not usually possible in many endemic areas, but is essential for public health surveillance. In a disease as agonising and terrifying as rabies encephalomyelitis, alleviation of distressing symptoms is the primary concern and overriding responsibility of medical staff. Calm, quiet conditions should be created, allowing relatives to communicate with the dying patient in safety and privacy. Palliative management must address thirst and dehydration, fever, anxiety, fear, restlessness, agitation, seizures, hypersecretion, and pain. As the infection progresses, coma and respiratory, cardiovascular, neurological, endocrine, or gastrointestinal complications will eventually ensue. When the facilities exist, the possibility of intensive care may arise, but although some patients may survive, they will be left with severe neurological sequelae. Recovery from rabies is extremely rare, and heroic measures with intensive care should be considered only in patients who have been previously vaccinated, develop rabies antibody within the first week of illness, or were infected by an American bat rabies virus. However, in most cases, clinicians must have the courage to offer compassionate palliation whenever the diagnosis of rabies encephalomyelitis is inescapable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Warrell
- Oxford Vaccine Group, University of Oxford, Centre for Clinical Vaccinology & Tropical Medicine, Churchill Hospital, Old Rd, Headington, Oxford, OX3 7LJ, UK.
| | - David A Warrell
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DW, UK.
| | - Arnaud Tarantola
- Institut Pasteur de Nouvelle-Calédonie, BP 61 ⁻ 98845 Nouméa cedex, New Caledonia.
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10
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Huang XY, Li XL, Wu SY, Gu YL, Lv XJ, Klena JD, Xu BL. Bites from the same dog, different outcomes for two patients: a case report. Infect Dis Poverty 2017; 6:107. [PMID: 28676127 PMCID: PMC5497382 DOI: 10.1186/s40249-017-0321-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rabies is a serious reemerging zoonosis in China. At present human rabies cases are primarily diagnosed based on clinical presentation. CASE PRESENTATION In August 2012, a woman and her son were attacked by a stray dog in Henan, China. The son received rabies postexposure prophylaxis (wound treatment followed by vaccine, no immunoglobulin), however, the mother did not. Rabies infection was subsequently laboratory confirmed in the mother and she died in December; her son is alive and healthy after 2 years of follow-up. CONCLUSION This report documents that the timely utilization of postexposure prophylaxis is a required measure in preventing rabies after exposure to an animal bite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Yong Huang
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Zhengzhou, China.,Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Molecular Diagnosis and Laboratory Medicine, Xinxiang, China
| | - Xing-Le Li
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Shu-Yu Wu
- International Emerging Infections Program, United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,Global Disease Detection Branch, Division of Global Health Protection, Center for Global Health, United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Yu-Lei Gu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xin-Jun Lv
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - John David Klena
- International Emerging Infections Program, United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.,Global Disease Detection Branch, Division of Global Health Protection, Center for Global Health, United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Bian-Li Xu
- Henan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhengzhou, China. .,Henan Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganisms, Zhengzhou, China.
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11
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Harvey AM, Watson JL, Brault SA, Edman JM, Moore SM, Kass PH, Wilson WD. Duration of serum antibody response to rabies vaccination in horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2017; 249:411-8. [PMID: 27479286 DOI: 10.2460/javma.249.4.411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the impact of age and inferred prior vaccination history on the persistence of vaccine-induced antibody against rabies in horses. DESIGN Serologic response evaluation. ANIMALS 48 horses with an undocumented vaccination history. PROCEDURES Horses were vaccinated against rabies once. Blood samples were collected prior to vaccination, 3 to 7 weeks after vaccination, and at 6-month intervals for 2 to 3 years. Serum rabies virus-neutralizing antibody (RVNA) values were measured. An RVNA value of ≥ 0.5 U/mL was used to define a predicted protective immune response on the basis of World Health Organization recommendations for humans. Values were compared between horses < 20 and ≥ 20 years of age and between horses inferred to have been previously vaccinated and those inferred to be immunologically naïve. RESULTS A protective RVNA value (≥ 0.5 U/mL) was maintained for 2 to 3 years in horses inferred to have been previously vaccinated on the basis of prevaccination RVNA values. No significant difference was evident in response to rabies vaccination or duration of protective RVNA values between horses < 20 and ≥ 20 years of age. Seven horses were poor responders to vaccination. Significant differences were identified between horses inferred to have been previously vaccinated and horses inferred to be naïve prior to the study. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE A rabies vaccination interval > 1 year may be appropriate for previously vaccinated horses but not for horses vaccinated only once. Additional research is required to confirm this finding and characterize the optimal primary dose series for rabies vaccination.
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Viral seroprevalence in northern pig-tailed macaques (Macaca leonina) derived from Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Primates 2016; 57:413-9. [PMID: 26993123 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-016-0531-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Non-human primates are natural virus reservoirs, whether wild or domestic. In this study, we determined the seroprevalence of common viruses by ELISA in a northern pig-tailed macaque (Macaca leonina) colony derived from Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. A total of 20 types of virus which are commonly selected as target microorganisms for specific-pathogen-free colonies, or which have zoonotic potential were included in this study. The results showed only 2 in 90 northern pig-tailed macaques were seronegative for all the detected viruses, and at least 16 out of the total 20 types of virus tested were prevalent in this colony, so these macaques were commonly infected by various viruses. These macaques should be carefully assessed for viral seroprevalence in order to prevent zoonotic diseases from being transferred to human beings.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Rabies is an acute fatal encephalitis caused by all members of the Lyssavirus genus. The first human rabies survivor without benefit of prior vaccination was reported from Milwaukee in 2005. We report a second unvaccinated patient who showed early recovery from rabies and then died accidentally during convalescence, providing an unparalleled opportunity to examine the histopathology as well as immune and virological correlates of early recovery from human rabies. METHODS Case report, rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, indirect and direct fluorescent antibody assays, reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, phylogenetic reconstruction, isolation in tissue culture, pathology and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS The 9 year old died 76 days after presenting with rabies of vampire bat phylogeny transmitted by cat bite. Antibody response in serum and cerebrospinal fluid was robust and associated with severe cerebral edema. No rabies virus was cultured at autopsy. Rabies virus antigen was atypical in size and distribution. Rabies virus genome was present in neocortex but absent in brainstem. CONCLUSIONS Clinical recovery was associated with detection of neutralizing antibody and clearance of infectious rabies virus in the central nervous system by 76 days but not clearance of detectable viral subcomponents such as nucleoprotein antigen or RNA in brain.
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Schatz J, Freuling CM, Auer E, Goharriz H, Harbusch C, Johnson N, Kaipf I, Mettenleiter TC, Mühldorfer K, Mühle RU, Ohlendorf B, Pott-Dörfer B, Prüger J, Ali HS, Stiefel D, Teubner J, Ulrich RG, Wibbelt G, Müller T. Enhanced passive bat rabies surveillance in indigenous bat species from Germany--a retrospective study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2835. [PMID: 24784117 PMCID: PMC4006713 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 03/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In Germany, rabies in bats is a notifiable zoonotic disease, which is caused by European bat lyssaviruses type 1 and 2 (EBLV-1 and 2), and the recently discovered new lyssavirus species Bokeloh bat lyssavirus (BBLV). As the understanding of bat rabies in insectivorous bat species is limited, in addition to routine bat rabies diagnosis, an enhanced passive surveillance study, i.e. the retrospective investigation of dead bats that had not been tested for rabies, was initiated in 1998 to study the distribution, abundance and epidemiology of lyssavirus infections in bats from Germany. A total number of 5478 individuals representing 21 bat species within two families were included in this study. The Noctule bat (Nyctalus noctula) and the Common pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pipistrellus) represented the most specimens submitted. Of all investigated bats, 1.17% tested positive for lyssaviruses using the fluorescent antibody test (FAT). The vast majority of positive cases was identified as EBLV-1, predominately associated with the Serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus). However, rabies cases in other species, i.e. Nathusius' pipistrelle bat (Pipistrellus nathusii), P. pipistrellus and Brown long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus) were also characterized as EBLV-1. In contrast, EBLV-2 was isolated from three Daubenton's bats (Myotis daubentonii). These three cases contribute significantly to the understanding of EBLV-2 infections in Germany as only one case had been reported prior to this study. This enhanced passive surveillance indicated that besides known reservoir species, further bat species are affected by lyssavirus infections. Given the increasing diversity of lyssaviruses and bats as reservoir host species worldwide, lyssavirus positive specimens, i.e. both bat and virus need to be confirmed by molecular techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Schatz
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Conrad Martin Freuling
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Ernst Auer
- Arbeitskreis Fledermäuse Bodensee-Oberschwaben, Naturschutzbund Deutschland e.V., Überlingen, Germany
| | - Hooman Goharriz
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Diseases Research Group, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency (AHVLA), Weybridge, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Christine Harbusch
- Naturschutzbund Saarland e.V., Arbeitsgemeinschaft Fledermausschutz, Perl-Kesslingen, Germany
| | - Nicholas Johnson
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Diseases Research Group, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency (AHVLA), Weybridge, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Ingrid Kaipf
- Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Christoph Mettenleiter
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | | | - Ralf-Udo Mühle
- University of Potsdam, Department of Animal Ecology, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Bernd Ohlendorf
- Biosphärenreservat Karstlandschaft Südharz, Landesreferenzstelle für Fledermausschutz Sachsen-Anhalt, Roβla, Germany
| | - Bärbel Pott-Dörfer
- Niedersächsischer Landesbetrieb für Wasserwirtschaft, Küsten- und Naturschutz, Hannover, Germany
| | - Julia Prüger
- Interessengemeinschaft für Fledermausschutz und -forschung in Thüringen e.V., Schweina, Germany
| | - Hanan Sheikh Ali
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Dagmar Stiefel
- Staatliche Vogelschutzwarte für Hessen, Rheinland-Pfalz und Saarland, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Jens Teubner
- Landesamt für Umwelt, Gesundheit und Verbraucherschutz Land Brandenburg, Naturschutzstation Zippelsförde, Zippelsförde, Germany
| | - Rainer Günter Ulrich
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Gudrun Wibbelt
- Leibniz-Institute for Zoo- und Wildlife Research, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Müller
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
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