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Chen N, Jin J, Zhang B, Meng Q, Lu Y, Liang B, Deng L, Qiao B, Zheng L. Viral strategies to antagonize the host antiviral innate immunity: an indispensable research direction for emerging virus-host interactions. Emerg Microbes Infect 2024; 13:2341144. [PMID: 38847579 PMCID: PMC11188965 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2024.2341144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2024]
Abstract
The public's health is gravely at risk due to the current global outbreak of emerging viruses, specifically SARS-CoV-2 and MPXV. Recent studies have shown that SARS-CoV-2 mutants (such as Omicron) exhibit a higher capability to antagonize the host innate immunity, increasing their human adaptability and transmissibility. Furthermore, current studies on the strategies for MPXV to antagonize the host innate immunity are still in the initial stages. These multiple threats from emerging viruses make it urgent to study emerging virus-host interactions, especially the viral antagonism of host antiviral innate immunity. Given this, we selected several representative viruses that significantly threatened human public health and interpreted the multiple strategies for these viruses to antagonize the host antiviral innate immunity, hoping to provide ideas for molecular mechanism research that emerging viruses antagonize the host antiviral innate immunity and accelerate the research progress. The IAV, SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, EBOV, DENV, ZIKV, and HIV are some of the typical viruses. Studies have shown that viruses could antagonize the host antiviral innate immunity by directly or indirectly blocking antiviral innate immune signaling pathways. Proviral host factors, host restriction factors, and ncRNAs (microRNAs, lncRNAs, circRNAs, and vtRNAs) are essential in indirectly blocking antiviral innate immune signaling pathways. Furthermore, via controlling apoptosis, ER stress, stress granule formation, and metabolic pathways, viruses may antagonize it. These regulatory mechanisms include transcriptional regulation, post-translational regulation, preventing complex formation, impeding nuclear translocation, cleavage, degradation, and epigenetic regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Chen
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunity of Jiangsu Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jiayu Jin
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunity of Jiangsu Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Baoge Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qi Meng
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunity of Jiangsu Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yuanlu Lu
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunity of Jiangsu Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Bing Liang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunity of Jiangsu Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lulu Deng
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunity of Jiangsu Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Bingchen Qiao
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunity of Jiangsu Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lucheng Zheng
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunity of Jiangsu Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China
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Shivaprasad S, Qiao W, Weng KF, Umashankar P, Carette JE, Sarnow P. CRISPR Screen Reveals PACT as a Pro-Viral Factor for Dengue Viral Replication. Viruses 2024; 16:725. [PMID: 38793607 PMCID: PMC11125577 DOI: 10.3390/v16050725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The dengue virus is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus that infects ~400 million people worldwide. Currently, there are no approved antivirals available. CRISPR-based screening methods have greatly accelerated the discovery of host factors that are essential for DENV infection and that can be targeted in host-directed antiviral interventions. In the present study, we performed a focused CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Palindromic Repeats) library screen to discover the key host factors that are essential for DENV infection in human Huh7 cells and identified the Protein Activator of Interferon-Induced Protein Kinase (PACT) as a novel pro-viral factor for DENV. PACT is a double-stranded RNA-binding protein generally known to activate antiviral responses in virus-infected cells and block viral replication. However, in our studies, we observed that PACT plays a pro-viral role in DENV infection and specifically promotes viral RNA replication. Knockout of PACT resulted in a significant decrease in DENV RNA and protein abundances in infected cells, which was rescued upon ectopic expression of full-length PACT. An analysis of global gene expression changes indicated that several ER-associated pro-viral genes such as ERN1, DDIT3, HERPUD1, and EIF2AK3 are not upregulated in DENV-infected PACT knockout cells as compared to infected wildtype cells. Thus, our study demonstrates a novel role for PACT in promoting DENV replication, possibly through modulating the expression of ER-associated pro-viral genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shwetha Shivaprasad
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University SOM, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (W.Q.); (J.E.C.); (P.S.)
- Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru 560064, Karnataka, India;
| | - Wenjie Qiao
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University SOM, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (W.Q.); (J.E.C.); (P.S.)
| | - Kuo-Feng Weng
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University SOM, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (W.Q.); (J.E.C.); (P.S.)
| | - Pavithra Umashankar
- Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru 560064, Karnataka, India;
| | - Jan E. Carette
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University SOM, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (W.Q.); (J.E.C.); (P.S.)
| | - Peter Sarnow
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University SOM, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (W.Q.); (J.E.C.); (P.S.)
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3
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Sharma N, Kessler P, Sen GC. Cell-type-specific need of Ddx3 and PACT for interferon induction by RNA viruses. J Virol 2023; 97:e0130423. [PMID: 37982645 PMCID: PMC10734550 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01304-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) are induced in response to interferon expression due to viral infections. Role of these ISGs can be variable in different cells or organs. Our study highlights such cell-specific role of an ISG, Ddx3, which regulates the translation of mRNAs essential for interferon induction (PACT) and interferon signaling (STAT1) in a cell-specific manner. Our study also highlights the role of PACT in RNA virus-induced RLR signaling. Our study depicts how Ddx3 regulates innate immune signaling pathways in an indirect manner. Such cell-specific behavior of ISGs helps us to better understand viral pathogenesis and highlights the complexities of viral tropism and innate immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikhil Sharma
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Patricia Kessler
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Ganes C. Sen
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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4
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Blake ME, Kleinpeter AB, Jureka AS, Petit CM. Structural Investigations of Interactions between the Influenza a Virus NS1 and Host Cellular Proteins. Viruses 2023; 15:2063. [PMID: 37896840 PMCID: PMC10612106 DOI: 10.3390/v15102063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The Influenza A virus is a continuous threat to public health that causes yearly epidemics with the ever-present threat of the virus becoming the next pandemic. Due to increasing levels of resistance, several of our previously used antivirals have been rendered useless. There is a strong need for new antivirals that are less likely to be susceptible to mutations. One strategy to achieve this goal is structure-based drug development. By understanding the minute details of protein structure, we can develop antivirals that target the most conserved, crucial regions to yield the highest chances of long-lasting success. One promising IAV target is the virulence protein non-structural protein 1 (NS1). NS1 contributes to pathogenicity through interactions with numerous host proteins, and many of the resulting complexes have been shown to be crucial for virulence. In this review, we cover the NS1-host protein complexes that have been structurally characterized to date. By bringing these structures together in one place, we aim to highlight the strength of this field for drug discovery along with the gaps that remain to be filled.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Chad M. Petit
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; (M.E.B.)
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5
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Zhu Y, Wang R, Zou J, Tian S, Yu L, Zhou Y, Ran Y, Jin M, Chen H, Zhou H. N6-methyladenosine reader protein YTHDC1 regulates influenza A virus NS segment splicing and replication. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011305. [PMID: 37053288 PMCID: PMC10146569 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/15/2023] Open
Abstract
N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification on viral RNAs has a profound impact on infectivity. m6A is also a highly pervasive modification for influenza viral RNAs. However, its role in virus mRNA splicing is largely unknown. Here, we identify the m6A reader protein YTHDC1 as a host factor that associates with influenza A virus NS1 protein and modulates viral mRNA splicing. YTHDC1 levels are enhanced by IAV infection. We demonstrate that YTHDC1 inhibits NS splicing by binding to an NS 3' splicing site and promotes IAV replication and pathogenicity in vitro and in vivo. Our results provide a mechanistic understanding of IAV-host interactions, a potential therapeutic target for blocking influenza virus infection, and a new avenue for the development of attenuated vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinxing Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Ruifang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Jiahui Zou
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Shan Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Luyao Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuanbao Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Ying Ran
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Meilin Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Huanchun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
| | - Hongbo Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, China
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6
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Jiang L, Chen H, Li C. Advances in deciphering the interactions between viral proteins of influenza A virus and host cellular proteins. CELL INSIGHT 2023; 2:100079. [PMID: 37193064 PMCID: PMC10134199 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellin.2023.100079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) poses a severe threat to the health of animals and humans. The genome of IAV consists of eight single-stranded negative-sense RNA segments, encoding ten essential proteins as well as certain accessory proteins. In the process of virus replication, amino acid substitutions continuously accumulate, and genetic reassortment between virus strains readily occurs. Due to this high genetic variability, new viruses that threaten animal and human health can emerge at any time. Therefore, the study on IAV has always been a focus of veterinary medicine and public health. The replication, pathogenesis, and transmission of IAV involve intricate interplay between the virus and host. On one hand, the entire replication cycle of IAV relies on numerous proviral host proteins that effectively allow the virus to adapt to its host and support its replication. On the other hand, some host proteins play restricting roles at different stages of the viral replication cycle. The mechanisms of interaction between viral proteins and host cellular proteins are currently receiving particular interest in IAV research. In this review, we briefly summarize the current advances in our understanding of the mechanisms by which host proteins affect virus replication, pathogenesis, or transmission by interacting with viral proteins. Such information about the interplay between IAV and host proteins could provide insights into how IAV causes disease and spreads, and might help support the development of antiviral drugs or therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Hualan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Chengjun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
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7
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Chen N, Zhang B, Deng L, Liang B, Ping J. Virus-host interaction networks as new antiviral drug targets for IAV and SARS-CoV-2. Emerg Microbes Infect 2022; 11:1371-1389. [PMID: 35476817 PMCID: PMC9132403 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2022.2071175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Currently, SARS-CoV-2, especially the Omicron strain, is ravaging the world and even co-infecting human beings with IAV, which is a serious threat to human public health. As of yet, no specific antiviral drug has been discovered for SARS-CoV-2. This requires deeper understandings of the molecular mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2-host interaction, to explore antiviral drug targets and provide theoretical basis for developing anti-SARS-CoV-2 drugs. This article discussed IAV, which has been comprehensively studied and is expected to provide the most important reference value for the SARS-CoV-2 study apart from members of the Coronaviridae family. We wish to establish a theoretical system for the studies on virus-host interaction. Previous studies have shown that host PRRs recognize RNAs of IAV or SARS-CoV-2 and then activate innate immune signaling pathways to induce the expression of host restriction factors, such as ISGs, to ultimately inhibit viral replication. Meanwhile, viruses have also evolved various regulatory mechanisms to antagonize host innate immunity at transcriptional, translational, post-translational modification, and epigenetic levels. Besides, viruses can hijack supportive host factors for their replication. Notably, the race between host antiviral innate immunity and viral antagonism of host innate immunity forms virus-host interaction networks. Additionally, the viral replication cycle is co-regulated by proteins, ncRNAs, sugars, lipids, hormones, and inorganic salts. Given this, we updated the mappings of antiviral drug targets based on virus-host interaction networks and proposed an innovative idea that virus-host interaction networks as new antiviral drug targets for IAV and SARS-CoV-2 from the perspectives of viral immunology and systems biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Chen
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunity of Jiangsu Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Baoge Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Lulu Deng
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunity of Jiangsu Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Bing Liang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunity of Jiangsu Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jihui Ping
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, Engineering Laboratory of Animal Immunity of Jiangsu Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
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8
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Vaughn LS, Frederick K, Burnett SB, Sharma N, Bragg DC, Camargos S, Cardoso F, Patel RC. DYT- PRKRA Mutation P222L Enhances PACT's Stimulatory Activity on Type I Interferon Induction. Biomolecules 2022; 12:713. [PMID: 35625640 PMCID: PMC9138762 DOI: 10.3390/biom12050713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
DYT-PRKRA (dystonia 16 or DYT-PRKRA) is caused by mutations in the PRKRA gene that encodes PACT, the protein activator of interferon (IFN)-induced double-stranded (ds) RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR). PACT participates in several cellular pathways, of which its role as a PKR activator protein during integrated stress response (ISR) is the best characterized. Previously, we have established that the DYT-PRKRA mutations cause enhanced activation of PKR during ISR to sensitize DYT-PRKRA cells to apoptosis. In this study, we evaluate if the most prevalent substitution mutation reported in DYT-PRKRA patients alters PACT's functional role in induction of type I IFNs via the retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) signaling. Our results indicate that the P222L mutation augments PACT's ability to induce IFN β in response to dsRNA and the basal expression of IFN β and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) is higher in DYT-PRKRA patient cells compared to cells from the unaffected controls. Additionally, IFN β and ISGs are also induced at higher levels in DYT-PRKRA cells in response to dsRNA. These results offer a new avenue for investigations directed towards understanding the underlying molecular pathomechanisms in DYT-PRKRA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren S. Vaughn
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, 700 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC 29208, USA; (L.S.V.); (K.F.); (S.B.B.)
| | - Kenneth Frederick
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, 700 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC 29208, USA; (L.S.V.); (K.F.); (S.B.B.)
| | - Samuel B. Burnett
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, 700 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC 29208, USA; (L.S.V.); (K.F.); (S.B.B.)
| | - Nutan Sharma
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA; (N.S.); (D.C.B.)
| | - D. Cristopher Bragg
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA; (N.S.); (D.C.B.)
| | - Sarah Camargos
- Department of Internal Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil; (S.C.); (F.C.)
| | - Francisco Cardoso
- Department of Internal Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil; (S.C.); (F.C.)
| | - Rekha C. Patel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, 700 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC 29208, USA; (L.S.V.); (K.F.); (S.B.B.)
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9
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Wang Q, Wang J, Xu Y, Li Z, Wang B, Li Y. The Interaction of Influenza A NS1 and Cellular TRBP Protein Modulates the Function of RNA Interference Machinery. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:859420. [PMID: 35558132 PMCID: PMC9087287 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.859420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV), one of the most prevalent respiratory diseases, causes pandemics around the world. The multifunctional non-structural protein 1 (NS1) of IAV is a viral antagonist that suppresses host antiviral response. However, the mechanism by which NS1 modulates the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway remains unclear. Here, we identified interactions between NS1 proteins of Influenza A/PR8/34 (H1N1; IAV-PR8) and Influenza A/WSN/1/33 (H1N1; IAV-WSN) and Dicer’s cofactor TAR-RNA binding protein (TRBP). We found that the N-terminal RNA binding domain (RBD) of NS1 and the first two domains of TRBP protein mediated this interaction. Furthermore, two amino acid residues (Arg at position 38 and Lys at position 41) in NS1 were essential for the interaction. We generated TRBP knockout cells and found that NS1 instead of NS1 mutants (two-point mutations within NS1, R38A/K41A) inhibited the process of microRNA (miRNA) maturation by binding with TRBP. PR8-infected cells showed masking of short hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated RNAi, which was not observed after mutant virus-containing NS1 mutation (R38A/K41A, termed PR8/3841) infection. Moreover, abundant viral small interfering RNAs (vsiRNAs) were detected in vitro and in vivo upon PR8/3841 infection. We identify, for the first time, the interaction between NS1 and TRBP that affects host RNAi machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaxin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhe Li
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Binbin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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10
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Chan CP, Jin DY. Cytoplasmic RNA sensors and their interplay with RNA-binding partners in innate antiviral response: theme and variations. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2022; 28:449-477. [PMID: 35031583 PMCID: PMC8925969 DOI: 10.1261/rna.079016.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Sensing of pathogen-associated molecular patterns including viral RNA by innate immunity represents the first line of defense against viral infection. In addition to RIG-I-like receptors and NOD-like receptors, several other RNA sensors are known to mediate innate antiviral response in the cytoplasm. Double-stranded RNA-binding protein PACT interacts with prototypic RNA sensor RIG-I to facilitate its recognition of viral RNA and induction of host interferon response, but variations of this theme are seen when the functions of RNA sensors are modulated by other RNA-binding proteins to impinge on antiviral defense, proinflammatory cytokine production and cell death programs. Their discrete and coordinated actions are crucial to protect the host from infection. In this review, we will focus on cytoplasmic RNA sensors with an emphasis on their interplay with RNA-binding partners. Classical sensors such as RIG-I will be briefly reviewed. More attention will be brought to new insights on how RNA-binding partners of RNA sensors modulate innate RNA sensing and how viruses perturb the functions of RNA-binding partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Ping Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences and State Key Laboratory of Liver Research, Faculty of Medicine Building, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Dong-Yan Jin
- School of Biomedical Sciences and State Key Laboratory of Liver Research, Faculty of Medicine Building, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
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11
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Locke M, Lythe G, López-García M, Muñoz-Fontela C, Carroll M, Molina-París C. Quantification of Type I Interferon Inhibition by Viral Proteins: Ebola Virus as a Case Study. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122441. [PMID: 34960709 PMCID: PMC8705787 DOI: 10.3390/v13122441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Type I interferons (IFNs) are cytokines with both antiviral properties and protective roles in innate immune responses to viral infection. They induce an antiviral cellular state and link innate and adaptive immune responses. Yet, viruses have evolved different strategies to inhibit such host responses. One of them is the existence of viral proteins which subvert type I IFN responses to allow quick and successful viral replication, thus, sustaining the infection within a host. We propose mathematical models to characterise the intra-cellular mechanisms involved in viral protein antagonism of type I IFN responses, and compare three different molecular inhibition strategies. We study the Ebola viral protein, VP35, with this mathematical approach. Approximate Bayesian computation sequential Monte Carlo, together with experimental data and the mathematical models proposed, are used to perform model calibration, as well as model selection of the different hypotheses considered. Finally, we assess if model parameters are identifiable and discuss how such identifiability can be improved with new experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Macauley Locke
- Department of Applied Mathematics, School of Mathematics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (M.L.); (G.L.); (M.L.-G.)
| | - Grant Lythe
- Department of Applied Mathematics, School of Mathematics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (M.L.); (G.L.); (M.L.-G.)
| | - Martín López-García
- Department of Applied Mathematics, School of Mathematics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (M.L.); (G.L.); (M.L.-G.)
| | - César Muñoz-Fontela
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Straße 74, 20359 Hamburg, Germany;
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hamburg, Bernhard Nocht Straße 74, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Miles Carroll
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK;
| | - Carmen Molina-París
- Department of Applied Mathematics, School of Mathematics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (M.L.); (G.L.); (M.L.-G.)
- T-6, Theoretical Biology and Biophysics, Theoretical Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
- Correspondence:
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12
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Chukwurah E, Farabaugh KT, Guan BJ, Ramakrishnan P, Hatzoglou M. A tale of two proteins: PACT and PKR and their roles in inflammation. FEBS J 2021; 288:6365-6391. [PMID: 33387379 PMCID: PMC9248962 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation is a pathological hallmark associated with bacterial and viral infections, autoimmune diseases, genetic disorders, obesity and diabetes, as well as environmental stresses including physical and chemical trauma. Among numerous proteins regulating proinflammatory signaling, very few such as Protein kinase R (PKR), have been shown to play an all-pervading role in inflammation induced by varied stimuli. PKR was initially characterized as an interferon-inducible gene activated by viral double-stranded RNA with a role in protein translation inhibition. However, it has become increasingly clear that PKR is involved in multiple pathways that promote inflammation in response to stress activation, both dependent on and independent of its cellular protein activator of PKR (PACT). In this review, we discuss the signaling pathways that contribute to the initiation of inflammation, including Toll-like receptor, interferon, and RIG-I-like receptor signaling, as well as inflammasome activation. We go on to discuss the specific roles that PKR and PACT play in such proinflammatory signaling, as well as in metabolic syndrome- and environmental stress-induced inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn Chukwurah
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106
| | - Kenneth T. Farabaugh
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106
| | - Bo-Jhih Guan
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106
| | | | - Maria Hatzoglou
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106
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13
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Tseng YY, Kuan CY, Mibayashi M, Chen CJ, Palese P, Albrecht RA, Hsu WL. Interaction between NS1 and Cellular MAVS Contributes to NS1 Mitochondria Targeting. Viruses 2021; 13:1909. [PMID: 34696339 PMCID: PMC8537625 DOI: 10.3390/v13101909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) plays an important role in evading host innate immunity. NS1 inhibits interferon (IFN) responses via multiple mechanisms, including sequestering dsRNA and suppressing retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) signaling by interacting with RIG-I and tripartite motif-containing protein 25 (TRIM25). In the current study, we demonstrated the mitochondrial localization of NS1 at the early stage of influenza virus infection. Since NS1 does not contain mitochondria-targeting signals, we suspected that there is an association between the NS1 and mitochondrial proteins. This hypothesis was tested by demonstrating the interaction of NS1 with mitochondrial antiviral-signaling protein (MAVS) in a RIG-I-independent manner. Importantly, the association with MAVS facilitated the mitochondrial localization of NS1 and thereby significantly impeded MAVS-mediated Type I IFN production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeu-Yang Tseng
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan; (Y.-Y.T.); (C.-Y.K.)
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Chih-Ying Kuan
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan; (Y.-Y.T.); (C.-Y.K.)
| | - Masaki Mibayashi
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (M.M.); (C.-J.C.); (P.P.); (R.A.A.)
| | - Chi-Jene Chen
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (M.M.); (C.-J.C.); (P.P.); (R.A.A.)
| | - Peter Palese
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (M.M.); (C.-J.C.); (P.P.); (R.A.A.)
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Randy A. Albrecht
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (M.M.); (C.-J.C.); (P.P.); (R.A.A.)
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Wei-Li Hsu
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan; (Y.-Y.T.); (C.-Y.K.)
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14
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Onomoto K, Onoguchi K, Yoneyama M. Regulation of RIG-I-like receptor-mediated signaling: interaction between host and viral factors. Cell Mol Immunol 2021; 18:539-555. [PMID: 33462384 PMCID: PMC7812568 DOI: 10.1038/s41423-020-00602-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 62.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs) are RNA sensor molecules that play essential roles in innate antiviral immunity. Among the three RLRs encoded by the human genome, RIG-I and melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5, which contain N-terminal caspase recruitment domains, are activated upon the detection of viral RNAs in the cytoplasm of virus-infected cells. Activated RLRs induce downstream signaling via their interactions with mitochondrial antiviral signaling proteins and activate the production of type I and III interferons and inflammatory cytokines. Recent studies have shown that RLR-mediated signaling is regulated by interactions with endogenous RNAs and host proteins, such as those involved in stress responses and posttranslational modifications. Since RLR-mediated cytokine production is also involved in the regulation of acquired immunity, the deregulation of RLR-mediated signaling is associated with autoimmune and autoinflammatory disorders. Moreover, RLR-mediated signaling might be involved in the aberrant cytokine production observed in coronavirus disease 2019. Since the discovery of RLRs in 2004, significant progress has been made in understanding the mechanisms underlying the activation and regulation of RLR-mediated signaling pathways. Here, we review the recent advances in the understanding of regulated RNA recognition and signal activation by RLRs, focusing on the interactions between various host and viral factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Onomoto
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8673, Japan
| | - Kazuhide Onoguchi
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8673, Japan
| | - Mitsutoshi Yoneyama
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8673, Japan.
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15
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Roles of the Non-Structural Proteins of Influenza A Virus. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9100812. [PMID: 33023047 PMCID: PMC7600879 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9100812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) is a segmented, negative single-stranded RNA virus that causes seasonal epidemics and has a potential for pandemics. Several viral proteins are not packed in the IAV viral particle and only expressed in the infected host cells. These proteins are named non-structural proteins (NSPs), including NS1, PB1-F2 and PA-X. They play a versatile role in the viral life cycle by modulating viral replication and transcription. More importantly, they also play a critical role in the evasion of the surveillance of host defense and viral pathogenicity by inducing apoptosis, perturbing innate immunity, and exacerbating inflammation. Here, we review the recent advances of these NSPs and how the new findings deepen our understanding of IAV–host interactions and viral pathogenesis.
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16
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Sha TW, Weber M, Kasumba DM, Noda T, Nakano M, Kato H, Fujita T. Influenza A virus NS1 optimises virus infectivity by enhancing genome packaging in a dsRNA-binding dependent manner. Virol J 2020; 17:107. [PMID: 32677963 PMCID: PMC7367362 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-020-01357-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The non-structural protein 1 (NS1) of influenza A virus (IAV) is a key player in inhibiting antiviral response in host cells, thereby facilitating its replication. However, other roles of NS1, which are independent of antagonising host cells’ antiviral response, are less characterised. Methods To investigate these unidentified roles, we used a recombinant virus, which lacks NS1 expression, and observed its phenotypes during the infection of antiviral defective cells (RIG-I KO cells) in the presence or absence of exogeneous NS1. Moreover, we used virus-like particle (VLP) production system to further support our findings. Results Our experiments demonstrated that IAV deficient in NS1 replicates less efficiently than wild-type IAV in RIG-I KO cells and this replication defect was complemented by ectopic expression of NS1. As suggested previously, NS1 is incorporated in the virion and participates in the regulation of viral transcription and translation. Using the VLP production system, in which minigenome transcription or viral protein production was unaffected by NS1, we demonstrated that NS1 facilitates viral genome packaging into VLP, leading to efficient minigenome transfer by VLP. Furthermore, the incorporation of NS1 and the minigenome into VLP were impaired by introducing a point mutation (R38A) in the double stranded RNA-binding domain of NS1. Conclusion These results suggest a novel function of NS1 in improving genome packaging in a dsRNA binding-dependent manner. Taken together, NS1 acts as an essential pro-viral regulator, not only by antagonizing host immunity but also by facilitating viral replication and genome packaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Wai Sha
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Immunology, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Michaela Weber
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Immunology, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Dacquin M Kasumba
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Immunology, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Takeshi Noda
- Laboratory of Ultrastructural Virology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan.,Laboratory of Ultrastructural Virology, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Masahiro Nakano
- Laboratory of Ultrastructural Virology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan.,Laboratory of Ultrastructural Virology, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Hiroki Kato
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Immunology, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Institute of Cardiovascular Immunology, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Takashi Fujita
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan. .,Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Immunology, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
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17
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Guo S, Bao L, Li C, Sun J, Zhao R, Cui X. Antiviral activity of iridoid glycosides extracted from Fructus Gardeniae against influenza A virus by PACT-dependent suppression of viral RNA replication. Sci Rep 2020; 10:1897. [PMID: 32024921 PMCID: PMC7002373 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58443-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemic and pandemic influenza A virus (IAV) poses a significant threat to human populations worldwide. Iridoid glycosides are principal bioactive components from the Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis fruit that exhibit antiviral activity against several strains of IAV. In the present study, we evaluated the protective effect of Fructus Gardeniae iridoid glycoside extracts (IGEs) against IAV by cytopathogenic effect(CPE), MTT and a plaque formation assay in vitro and examined the reduction in the pulmonary index (PI), restoration of body weight, reduction in mortality and increases in survival time in vivo. As a host factor, PACT provides protection against the pathogenic influenza A virus by interacting with IAV polymerase and activating the IFN-I response. To verify the whether IGEs suppress IAV replication in a PACT-dependent manner, IAV RNA replication, expression of PACT and the phosphorylation of eIF2α in A549 cells were detected; the levels of IFNβ, PACT and PKR in mouse lung tissues were determined; and the activity of IAV polymerase was evaluated in PACT-compromised cells. The results indicated that IGEs sufficiently alleviated cell damage and suppressed IAV replication in vitro, protecting mice from IAV-induced injury and lethal IAV infection. These anti-IAV effects might be related to disrupted interplay between IVA polymerase and PACT and/or prevention of a PACT-dependent overactivated IFN-I antiviral response. Taken together, our findings reveal a new facet of the mechanisms by which IGEs fight the influenza A virus in a PACT-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Guo
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.4 Yinghua East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Lei Bao
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.4 Yinghua East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Chun Li
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.4 Yinghua East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Jing Sun
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.4 Yinghua East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Ronghua Zhao
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.4 Yinghua East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Xiaolan Cui
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.4 Yinghua East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China.
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18
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Differential Immune Responses to Hemorrhagic Fever-Causing Arenaviruses. Vaccines (Basel) 2019; 7:vaccines7040138. [PMID: 31581720 PMCID: PMC6963578 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines7040138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The family Arenaviridae contains several pathogens of major clinical importance. The Old World (OW) arenavirus Lassa virus is endemic in West Africa and is estimated to cause up to 300,000 infections each year. The New World (NW) arenaviruses Junín and Machupo periodically cause hemorrhagic fever outbreaks in South America. While these arenaviruses are highly pathogenic in humans, recent evidence indicates that pathogenic OW and NW arenaviruses interact with the host immune system differently, which may have differential impacts on viral pathogenesis. Severe Lassa fever cases are characterized by profound immunosuppression. In contrast, pathogenic NW arenavirus infections are accompanied by elevated levels of Type I interferon and pro-inflammatory cytokines. This review aims to summarize recent findings about interactions of these pathogenic arenaviruses with the innate immune machinery and the subsequent effects on adaptive immunity, which may inform the development of vaccines and therapeutics against arenavirus infections.
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19
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Brisse ME, Ly H. Hemorrhagic Fever-Causing Arenaviruses: Lethal Pathogens and Potent Immune Suppressors. Front Immunol 2019; 10:372. [PMID: 30918506 PMCID: PMC6424867 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemorrhagic fevers (HF) resulting from pathogenic arenaviral infections have traditionally been neglected as tropical diseases primarily affecting African and South American regions. There are currently no FDA-approved vaccines for arenaviruses, and treatments have been limited to supportive therapy and use of non-specific nucleoside analogs, such as Ribavirin. Outbreaks of arenaviral infections have been limited to certain geographic areas that are endemic but known cases of exportation of arenaviruses from endemic regions and socioeconomic challenges for local control of rodent reservoirs raise serious concerns about the potential for larger outbreaks in the future. This review synthesizes current knowledge about arenaviral evolution, ecology, transmission patterns, life cycle, modulation of host immunity, disease pathogenesis, as well as discusses recent development of preventative and therapeutic pursuits against this group of deadly viral pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan E Brisse
- Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics Graduate Program, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States.,Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
| | - Hinh Ly
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
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20
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Global Interactomics Connect Nuclear Mitotic Apparatus Protein NUMA1 to Influenza Virus Maturation. Viruses 2018; 10:v10120731. [PMID: 30572664 PMCID: PMC6316800 DOI: 10.3390/v10120731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) infections remain a major human health threat. IAV has enormous genetic plasticity and can rapidly escape virus-targeted anti-viral strategies. Thus, there is increasing interest to identify host proteins and processes the virus requires for replication and maturation. The IAV non-structural protein 1 (NS1) is a critical multifunctional protein that is expressed to high levels in infected cells. Host proteins that interact with NS1 may serve as ideal targets for attenuating IAV replication. We previously developed and characterized broadly cross-reactive anti-NS1 monoclonal antibodies. For the current study, we used these mAbs to co-immunoprecipitate native IAV NS1 and interacting host proteins; 183 proteins were consistently identified in this NS1 interactome study, 124 of which have not been previously reported. RNAi screens identified 11 NS1-interacting host factors as vital for IAV replication. Knocking down one of these, nuclear mitotic apparatus protein 1 (NUMA1), dramatically reduced IAV replication. IAV genomic transcription and translation were not inhibited but transport of viral structural proteins to the cell membrane was hindered during maturation steps in NUMA1 knockdown (KD) cells.
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21
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Unterholzner L, Almine JF. Camouflage and interception: how pathogens evade detection by intracellular nucleic acid sensors. Immunology 2018; 156:217-227. [PMID: 30499584 PMCID: PMC6376273 DOI: 10.1111/imm.13030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Revised: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracellular DNA and RNA sensors play a vital part in the innate immune response to viruses and other intracellular pathogens, causing the secretion of type I interferons, cytokines and chemokines from infected cells. Pathogen RNA can be detected by retinoic-acid inducible gene I-like receptors in the cytosol, whereas cytosolic DNA is recognized by DNA sensors such as cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS). The resulting local immune response, which is initiated within hours of infection, is able to eliminate many pathogens before they are able to establish an infection in the host. For this reason, all viruses, and some intracellular bacteria and protozoa, need to evade detection by nucleic acid sensors. Immune evasion strategies include the sequestration and modification of nucleic acids, and the inhibition or degradation of host factors involved in innate immune signalling. Large DNA viruses, such as herpesviruses, often use multiple viral proteins to inhibit signalling cascades at several different points; for instance herpes simplex virus 1 targets both DNA sensors cGAS and interferon-γ-inducible protein 16, as well as the adaptor protein STING (stimulator of interferon genes) and other signalling factors in the pathway. Viruses with a small genome encode only a few immunomodulatory proteins, but these are often multifunctional, such as the NS1 protein from influenza A virus, which inhibits RNA sensing in multiple ways. Intracellular bacteria and protozoa can also be detected by nucleic acid sensors. However, as the type I interferon response is not always beneficial for the host under these circumstances, some bacteria subvert, rather than evade, these signalling cascades for their own gain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonie Unterholzner
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
| | - Jessica F Almine
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
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22
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Nogales A, Martinez-Sobrido L, Topham DJ, DeDiego ML. Modulation of Innate Immune Responses by the Influenza A NS1 and PA-X Proteins. Viruses 2018; 10:v10120708. [PMID: 30545063 PMCID: PMC6315843 DOI: 10.3390/v10120708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Revised: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 12/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAV) can infect a broad range of animal hosts, including humans. In humans, IAV causes seasonal annual epidemics and occasional pandemics, representing a serious public health and economic problem, which is most effectively prevented through vaccination. The defense mechanisms that the host innate immune system provides restrict IAV replication and infection. Consequently, to successfully replicate in interferon (IFN)-competent systems, IAV has to counteract host antiviral activities, mainly the production of IFN and the activities of IFN-induced host proteins that inhibit virus replication. The IAV multifunctional proteins PA-X and NS1 are virulence factors that modulate the innate immune response and virus pathogenicity. Notably, these two viral proteins have synergistic effects in the inhibition of host protein synthesis in infected cells, although using different mechanisms of action. Moreover, the control of innate immune responses by the IAV NS1 and PA-X proteins is subject to a balance that can determine virus pathogenesis and fitness, and recent evidence shows co-evolution of these proteins in seasonal viruses, indicating that they should be monitored for enhanced virulence. Importantly, inhibition of host gene expression by the influenza NS1 and/or PA-X proteins could be explored to develop improved live-attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIV) by modulating the ability of the virus to counteract antiviral host responses. Likewise, both viral proteins represent a reasonable target for the development of new antivirals for the control of IAV infections. In this review, we summarize the role of IAV NS1 and PA-X in controlling the antiviral response during viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aitor Nogales
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, NY 14642, USA.
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA)-INIA, Valdeolmos, 28130 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Luis Martinez-Sobrido
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, NY 14642, USA.
| | - David J Topham
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, NY 14642, USA.
- David H. Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, NY 14642, USA.
| | - Marta L DeDiego
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, NY 14642, USA.
- David H. Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, NY 14642, USA.
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Campus Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
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23
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Ippagunta SK, Pollock JA, Sharma N, Lin W, Chen T, Tawaratsumida K, High AA, Min J, Chen Y, Guy RK, Redecke V, Katzenellenbogen JA, Häcker H. Identification of Toll-like receptor signaling inhibitors based on selective activation of hierarchically acting signaling proteins. Sci Signal 2018; 11:11/543/eaaq1077. [PMID: 30108181 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.aaq1077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize various pathogen- and host tissue-derived molecules and initiate inflammatory immune responses. Exaggerated or prolonged TLR activation, however, can lead to etiologically diverse diseases, such as bacterial sepsis, metabolic and autoimmune diseases, or stroke. Despite the apparent medical need, no small-molecule drugs against TLR pathways are clinically available. This may be because of the complex signaling mechanisms of TLRs, which are governed by a series of protein-protein interactions initiated by Toll/interleukin-1 receptor homology domains (TIR) found in TLRs and the cytoplasmic adaptor proteins TIRAP and MyD88. Oligomerization of TLRs with MyD88 or TIRAP leads to the recruitment of members of the IRAK family of kinases and the E3 ubiquitin ligase TRAF6. We developed a phenotypic drug screening system based on the inducible homodimerization of either TIRAP, MyD88, or TRAF6, that ranked hits according to their hierarchy of action. From a bioactive compound library, we identified methyl-piperidino-pyrazole (MPP) as a TLR-specific inhibitor. Structure-activity relationship analysis, quantitative proteomics, protein-protein interaction assays, and cellular thermal shift assays suggested that MPP targets the TIR domain of MyD88. Chemical evolution of the original MPP scaffold generated compounds with selectivity for distinct TLRs that interfered with specific TIR interactions. Administration of an MPP analog to mice protected them from TLR4-dependent inflammation. These results validate this phenotypic screening approach and suggest that the MPP scaffold could serve as a starting point for the development of anti-inflammatory drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sirish K Ippagunta
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Julie A Pollock
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Naina Sharma
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Wenwei Lin
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Taosheng Chen
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Kazuki Tawaratsumida
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Anthony A High
- St. Jude Proteomics Facility, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Jaeki Min
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Yizhe Chen
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - R Kiplin Guy
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Vanessa Redecke
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | | | - Hans Häcker
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105, USA.
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Klemm C, Boergeling Y, Ludwig S, Ehrhardt C. Immunomodulatory Nonstructural Proteins of Influenza A Viruses. Trends Microbiol 2018; 26:624-636. [PMID: 29373257 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2017.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Influenza epidemics and pandemics still represent a severe public health threat and cause significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. As intracellular parasites, influenza viruses are strongly dependent on the host cell machinery. To ensure efficient production of progeny viruses, viral proteins extensively interfere with cellular signalling pathways to inhibit antiviral responses or to activate virus-supportive functions. Here, we review various functions of the influenza virus nonstructural proteins NS1, PB1-F2, and PA-X in infected cells and how post-transcriptional modifications of these proteins affect the viral life cycle. Furthermore, we discuss newly discovered interactions between these proteins and the antiviral interferon response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Klemm
- Institute of Virology Muenster (IVM), Westfaelische Wilhelms-University Muenster, Von-Esmarch-Str. 56, D-48149 Muenster, Germany
| | - Yvonne Boergeling
- Institute of Virology Muenster (IVM), Westfaelische Wilhelms-University Muenster, Von-Esmarch-Str. 56, D-48149 Muenster, Germany
| | - Stephan Ludwig
- Institute of Virology Muenster (IVM), Westfaelische Wilhelms-University Muenster, Von-Esmarch-Str. 56, D-48149 Muenster, Germany
| | - Christina Ehrhardt
- Institute of Virology Muenster (IVM), Westfaelische Wilhelms-University Muenster, Von-Esmarch-Str. 56, D-48149 Muenster, Germany.
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25
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Arenaviral Nucleoproteins Suppress PACT-Induced Augmentation of RIG-I Function To Inhibit Type I Interferon Production. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.00482-18. [PMID: 29669840 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00482-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
RIG-I is a major cytoplasmic sensor of viral pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) RNA and induces type I interferon (IFN) production upon viral infection. A double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-binding protein, PACT, plays an important role in potentiating RIG-I function. We have shown previously that arenaviral nucleoproteins (NPs) suppress type I IFN production via their RNase activity to degrade PAMP RNA. We report here that NPs of arenaviruses block the PACT-induced enhancement of RIG-I function to mediate type I IFN production and that this inhibition is dependent on the RNase function of NPs, which is different from that of a known mechanism of other viral proteins to abolish the interaction between PACT and RIG-I. To understand the biological roles of PACT and RIG-I in authentic arenavirus infection, we analyze growth kinetics of recombinant Pichinde virus (PICV), a prototypical arenavirus, in RIG-I knockout (KO) and PACT KO mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells. Wild-type (WT) PICV grew at higher titers in both KO MEF lines than in normal MEFs, suggesting the important roles of these cellular proteins in restricting virus replication. PICV carrying the NP RNase catalytically inactive mutation could not grow in normal MEFs but could replicate to some extent in both KO MEF lines. The level of virus growth was inversely correlated with the amount of type I IFNs produced. These results suggest that PACT plays an important role in potentiating RIG-I function to produce type I IFNs in order to restrict arenavirus replication and that viral NP RNase activity is essential for optimal viral replication by suppressing PACT-induced RIG-I activation.IMPORTANCE We report here a new role of the nucleoproteins of arenaviruses that can block type I IFN production via their specific inhibition of the cellular protein sensors of virus infection (RIG-I and PACT). Our results suggest that PACT plays an important role in potentiating RIG-I function to produce type I IFNs in order to restrict arenavirus replication. This new knowledge can be exploited for the development of novel antiviral treatments and/or vaccines against some arenaviruses that can cause severe and lethal hemorrhagic fever diseases in humans.
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26
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Ding Z, Fang L, Yuan S, Zhao L, Wang X, Long S, Wang M, Wang D, Foda MF, Xiao S. The nucleocapsid proteins of mouse hepatitis virus and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus share the same IFN-β antagonizing mechanism: attenuation of PACT-mediated RIG-I/ MDA5 activation. Oncotarget 2018; 8:49655-49670. [PMID: 28591694 PMCID: PMC5564796 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses (CoVs) are a huge threat to both humans and animals and have evolved elaborate mechanisms to antagonize interferons (IFNs). Nucleocapsid (N) protein is the most abundant viral protein in CoV-infected cells, and has been identified as an innate immunity antagonist in several CoVs, including mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-CoV. However, the underlying molecular mechanism(s) remain unclear. In this study, we found that MHV N protein inhibited Sendai virus and poly(I:C)-induced IFN-β production by targeting a molecule upstream of retinoic acid-induced gene I (RIG-I) and melanoma differentiation gene 5 (MDA5). Further studies showed that both MHV and SARS-CoV N proteins directly interacted with protein activator of protein kinase R (PACT), a cellular dsRNA-binding protein that can bind to RIG-I and MDA5 to activate IFN production. The N–PACT interaction sequestered the association of PACT and RIG-I/MDA5, which in turn inhibited IFN-β production. However, the N proteins from porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), which are also classified in the order Nidovirales, did not interact and counteract with PACT. Taken together, our present study confirms that both MHV and SARS-CoV N proteins can perturb the function of cellular PACT to circumvent the innate antiviral response. However, this strategy does not appear to be used by all CoVs N proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Liurong Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Shuangling Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Ling Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Xunlei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Siwen Long
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Mohan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Dang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Mohamed Frahat Foda
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Shaobo Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
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27
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Chan CP, Yuen CK, Cheung PHH, Fung SY, Lui PY, Chen H, Kok KH, Jin DY. Antiviral activity of double-stranded RNA-binding protein PACT against influenza A virus mediated via suppression of viral RNA polymerase. FASEB J 2018. [PMID: 29513570 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201701361r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
PACT is a double-stranded RNA-binding protein that has been implicated in host-influenza A virus (IAV) interaction. PACT facilitates the action of RIG-I in the activation of the type I IFN response, which is suppressed by the viral nonstructural protein NS1. PACT is also known to interact with the IAV RNA polymerase subunit PA. Exactly how PACT exerts its antiviral activity during IAV infection remains to be elucidated. In the current study, we demonstrated the interplay between PACT and IAV polymerase. Induction of IFN-β by the IAV RNP complex was most robust when both RIG-I and PACT were expressed. PACT-dependent activation of IFN-β production was suppressed by the IAV polymerase subunits, polymerase acidic protein, polymerase basic protein 1 (PB1), and PB2. PACT associated with PA, PB1, and PB2. Compromising PACT in IAV-infected A549 cells resulted in the augmentation of viral RNA (vRNA) transcription and replication and IFN-β production. Furthermore, vRNA replication was boosted by knockdown of PACT in both A549 cells and IFN-deficient Vero cells. Thus, the antiviral activity of PACT is mediated primarily via its interaction with and inhibition of IAV polymerase. Taken together, our findings reveal a new facet of the host-IAV interaction in which the interplay between PACT and IAV polymerase affects the outcome of viral infection and antiviral response.-Chan, C.-P., Yuen, C.-K., Cheung, P.-H. H., Fung, S.-Y., Lui, P.-Y., Chen, H., Kok, K.-H., Jin, D.-Y. Antiviral activity of double-stranded RNA-binding protein PACT against influenza A virus mediated via suppression of viral RNA polymerase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Ping Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Chun-Kit Yuen
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | | | - Sin-Yee Fung
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Pak-Yin Lui
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Honglin Chen
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Kin-Hang Kok
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Dong-Yan Jin
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
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28
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Golovko AO, Koroleva ON, Drutsa VL. Heterologous Expression and Isolation of Influenza A Virus Nuclear Export Protein NEP. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2018; 82:1529-1537. [PMID: 29486703 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297917120124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Influenza A virus nuclear export protein NEP (NS2, 14.4 kDa) plays a key role in various steps of the virus life cycle. Highly purified protein preparations are required for structural and functional studies. In this study, we designed a series of Escherichia coli plasmid constructs for highly efficient expression of the NEP gene under control of the constitutive trp promoter. An efficient method for extraction of NEP from inclusion bodies based on dodecyl sulfate treatment was developed. Preparations of purified NEP with either N- or C-terminal (His)6-tag were obtained using Ni-NTA agarose affinity chromatography with yield of more than 20 mg per liter of culture. According to CD data, the secondary structure of the proteins matched that of natural NEP. A high propensity of NEP to aggregate over a wide range of conditions was observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A O Golovko
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Moscow, 119991, Russia.
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29
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Structure-Guided Functional Annotation of the Influenza A Virus NS1 Protein Reveals Dynamic Evolution of the p85β-Binding Site during Circulation in Humans. J Virol 2017; 91:JVI.01081-17. [PMID: 28814525 PMCID: PMC5640874 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01081-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Rational characterization of virulence and host-adaptive markers in the multifunctional influenza A virus NS1 protein is hindered by a lack of comprehensive knowledge about NS1-host protein protein interfaces. Here, we surveyed the impact of amino acid variation in NS1 at its structurally defined binding site for host p85β, a regulator of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling. Structure-guided alanine scanning of all viral residues at this interface defined 10 positions contributing to the interaction, with residues 89, 95, 98, 133, 145, and 162 being the most important. A bioinformatic study of >24,000 publicly available NS1 sequences derived from viruses infecting different hosts highlighted several prevalent amino acid variants at the p85β interface that either enhanced (I95) or weakened (N135, T145, L161, Y161, S164) p85β binding. Interestingly, analysis of viruses circulating in humans since the 1918 pandemic revealed the temporal acquisition of functionally relevant variants at this interface. I95 (which enhanced p85β binding) quickly became prevalent in the 1940s and experimentally conferred a fitness advantage to a recombinant 1930s-based H1N1 virus in human lung epithelial cells. Surprisingly, H1N1 and H3N2 viruses recently acquired T145 or N135, respectively, which diminished p85β binding but apparently not the overall fitness in the human population. Evolutionary analyses revealed covariation of the NS1-p85β binding phenotype in humans with functional changes at multiple residues in other viral proteins, suggesting an unexplored compensatory or synergistic interplay between phenotypes in vivo. Overall, our data provide a resource to understand the consequences of the NS1-p85β binding spectrum of different influenza viruses and highlight the dynamic evolution of this property in viruses circulating in humans. IMPORTANCE In humans, influenza A viruses are responsible for causing seasonal epidemics and occasional pandemics. These viruses also circulate and evolve in other animal species, creating a reservoir from which novel viruses with distinct properties can emerge. The viral nonstructural protein NS1 is an important host range determinant and virulence factor that exhibits strain-specific interactions with several host factors, although few have been characterized extensively. In the study described here, we comprehensively surveyed the impact of natural and unnatural NS1 variations on the binding of NS1 to host p85β, a subunit of phosphoinositide 3-kinase that regulates intracellular metabolism and contributes to virus replication and virulence. We define the p85β-binding site on NS1 and provide a predictive resource to assess this ability of NS1 in viruses from different hosts. Strikingly, we uncover a spectrum of p85β binding by different NS1 proteins and reveal that viruses evolving in humans have undergone dynamic changes in this NS1 function over the last century.
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30
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Molecular basis of mammalian transmissibility of avian H1N1 influenza viruses and their pandemic potential. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:11217-11222. [PMID: 28874549 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1713974114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
North American wild birds are an important reservoir of influenza A viruses, yet the potential of viruses in this reservoir to transmit and cause disease in mammals is not well understood. Our surveillance of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) at Delaware Bay, USA, revealed a group of similar H1N1 AIVs isolated in 2009, some of which were airborne-transmissible in the ferret model without prior adaptation. Comparison of the genomes of these viruses revealed genetic markers of airborne transmissibility in the Polymerase Basic 2 (PB2), PB1, PB1-F2, Polymerase Acidic-X (PA-X), Nonstructural Protein 1 (NS1), and Nuclear Export Protein (NEP) genes. We studied the role of NS1 in airborne transmission and found that NS1 mutants that were not airborne-transmissible caused limited tissue pathology in the upper respiratory tract (URT). Viral maturation was also delayed, evident as strong intranuclear staining and little virus at the mucosa. Our study of this naturally occurring constellation of genetic markers has provided insights into the poorly understood phenomenon of AIV airborne transmissibility by revealing a role for NS1 and characteristics of viral replication in the URT that were associated with airborne transmission. The transmissibility of these viruses further highlights the pandemic potential of AIVs in the wild bird reservoir and the need to maintain surveillance.
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31
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Zhao M, Wang L, Li S. Influenza A Virus-Host Protein Interactions Control Viral Pathogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18081673. [PMID: 28763020 PMCID: PMC5578063 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18081673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2017] [Revised: 07/27/2017] [Accepted: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The influenza A virus (IAV), a member of the Orthomyxoviridae family, is a highly transmissible respiratory pathogen and represents a continued threat to global health with considerable economic and social impact. IAV is a zoonotic virus that comprises a plethora of strains with different pathogenic profiles. The different outcomes of viral pathogenesis are dependent on the engagement between the virus and the host cellular protein interaction network. The interactions may facilitate virus hijacking of host molecular machinery to fulfill the viral life cycle or trigger host immune defense to eliminate the virus. In recent years, much effort has been made to discover the virus–host protein interactions and understand the underlying mechanisms. In this paper, we review the recent advances in our understanding of IAV–host interactions and how these interactions contribute to host defense and viral pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengmeng Zhao
- 156 McElroy Hall, Department of Physiological Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA.
| | - Lingyan Wang
- 156 McElroy Hall, Department of Physiological Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA.
| | - Shitao Li
- 156 McElroy Hall, Department of Physiological Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA.
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32
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Lui PY, Wong LYR, Ho TH, Au SWN, Chan CP, Kok KH, Jin DY. PACT Facilitates RNA-Induced Activation of MDA5 by Promoting MDA5 Oligomerization. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 199:1846-1855. [PMID: 28760879 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1601493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
MDA5 is a RIG-I-like cytoplasmic sensor of dsRNA and certain RNA viruses, such as encephalomyocarditis virus, for the initiation of the IFN signaling cascade in the innate antiviral response. The affinity of MDA5 toward dsRNA is low, and its activity becomes optimal in the presence of unknown cellular coactivators. In this article, we report an essential coactivator function of dsRNA-binding protein PACT in mediating the MDA5-dependent type I IFN response. Virus-induced and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid-induced activation of MDA5 were severely impaired in PACT-knockout cells and attenuated in PACT-knockdown cells, but they were potentiated when PACT was overexpressed. PACT augmented IRF3-dependent type I IFN production subsequent to dsRNA-induced activation of MDA5. In contrast, PACT had no influence on MDA5-mediated activation of NF-κB. PACT required dsRNA interaction for its action on MDA5 and promoted dsRNA-induced oligomerization of MDA5. PACT had little stimulatory effect on MDA5 mutants deficient for oligomerization and filament assembly. PACT colocalized with MDA5 in the cytoplasm and potentiated MDA5 recruitment to the dsRNA ligand. Taken together, these findings suggest that PACT functions as an essential cellular coactivator of RIG-I, as well as MDA5, and it facilitates RNA-induced formation of MDA5 oligomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pak-Yin Lui
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.,Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation, The University of Hong Kong, Nanshan, Shenzhen, China 518057
| | - Lok-Yin Roy Wong
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.,Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation, The University of Hong Kong, Nanshan, Shenzhen, China 518057
| | - Ting-Hin Ho
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.,Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation, The University of Hong Kong, Nanshan, Shenzhen, China 518057
| | - Shannon Wing Ngor Au
- School of Life Sciences, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong; and
| | - Chi-Ping Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.,Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation, The University of Hong Kong, Nanshan, Shenzhen, China 518057
| | - Kin-Hang Kok
- Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation, The University of Hong Kong, Nanshan, Shenzhen, China 518057; .,Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Dong-Yan Jin
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong; .,Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation, The University of Hong Kong, Nanshan, Shenzhen, China 518057
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Li CC, Dong HJ, Wang P, Meng W, Chi XJ, Han SC, Ning S, Wang C, Wang XJ. Cellular protein GLTSCR2: A valuable target for the development of broad-spectrum antivirals. Antiviral Res 2017; 142:1-11. [PMID: 28286234 PMCID: PMC7113796 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2017.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Revised: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Viral infection induces translocation of the nucleolar protein GLTSCR2 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, resulting in attenuation of the type I interferon IFN-β. Addressing the role of GLTSCR2 in viral replication, we detect that knocking down GLTSCR2 by shRNAs results in significant suppression of viral replication in mammalian and chicken cells. Injection of chicken embryo with the GLTSCR2-specific shRNA-1370 simultaneously or 24 h prior to infection with Newcastle disease virus (NDV) substantially reduces viral replication in chicken embryo fibroblasts. Injection of shRNA-1370 into chicken embryo also reduces the replication of avian influenza virus (AIV). In contrast, GLTSCR2-derived protein G4-T, forming α-helical dimers, increases replication of seven various DNA and RNA viruses in cells. Our studies reveal that alteration of the function of cellular GLTSCR2 plays a role in supporting viral replication. GLTSCR2 should be seriously considered as a therapeutic target for developing broad spectrum antiviral agents to effectively control viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui-Cui Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Hui-Jun Dong
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Wen Meng
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao-Jing Chi
- Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shi-Chong Han
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Shuo Ning
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Chuang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao-Jia Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China.
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Vidotto A, Morais ATS, Ribeiro MR, Pacca CC, Terzian ACB, Gil LHVG, Mohana-Borges R, Gallay P, Nogueira ML. Systems Biology Reveals NS4B-Cyclophilin A Interaction: A New Target to Inhibit YFV Replication. J Proteome Res 2017; 16:1542-1555. [PMID: 28317380 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.6b00933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Yellow fever virus (YFV) replication is highly dependent on host cell factors. YFV NS4B is reported to be involved in viral replication and immune evasion. Here interactions between NS4B and human proteins were determined using a GST pull-down assay and analyzed using 1-DE and LC-MS/MS. We present a total of 207 proteins confirmed using Scaffold 3 Software. Cyclophilin A (CypA), a protein that has been shown to be necessary for the positive regulation of flavivirus replication, was identified as a possible NS4B partner. 59 proteins were found to be significantly increased when compared with a negative control, and CypA exhibited the greatest difference, with a 22-fold change. Fisher's exact test was significant for 58 proteins, and the p value of CypA was the most significant (0.000000019). The Ingenuity Systems software identified 16 pathways, and this analysis indicated sirolimus, an mTOR pathway inhibitor, as a potential inhibitor of CypA. Immunofluorescence and viral plaque assays showed a significant reduction in YFV replication using sirolimus and cyclosporine A (CsA) as inhibitors. Furthermore, YFV replication was strongly inhibited in cells treated with both inhibitors using reporter BHK-21-rep-YFV17D-LucNeoIres cells. Taken together, these data suggest that CypA-NS4B interaction regulates YFV replication. Finally, we present the first evidence that YFV inhibition may depend on NS4B-CypA interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Vidotto
- Laboratório de Virologia, Faculdade de Medicina de José do Rio Preto , São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo 15090-000, Brazil
| | - Ana T S Morais
- Laboratório de Virologia, Faculdade de Medicina de José do Rio Preto , São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo 15090-000, Brazil
| | - Milene R Ribeiro
- Laboratório de Virologia, Faculdade de Medicina de José do Rio Preto , São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo 15090-000, Brazil
| | - Carolina C Pacca
- Laboratório de Virologia, Faculdade de Medicina de José do Rio Preto , São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo 15090-000, Brazil
| | - Ana C B Terzian
- Laboratório de Virologia, Faculdade de Medicina de José do Rio Preto , São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo 15090-000, Brazil
| | - Laura H V G Gil
- Departamento de Virologia, Centro de Pesquisa Aggeu Magalhães , Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ) - Recife, Pernambuco 50740-465, Brazil
| | - Ronaldo Mohana-Borges
- Laboratório de Genômica Estrutural, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro - UFRJ , Rio de Janeiro RJ 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Philippe Gallay
- Department of Immunology & Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute - La Jolla , San Diego, California 92037, United States
| | - Mauricio L Nogueira
- Laboratório de Virologia, Faculdade de Medicina de José do Rio Preto , São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo 15090-000, Brazil
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ADAR1 and PACT contribute to efficient translation of transcripts containing HIV-1 trans-activating response (TAR) element. Biochem J 2017; 474:1241-1257. [PMID: 28167698 PMCID: PMC5363390 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20160964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) has evolved various measures to counter the host cell's innate antiviral response during the course of infection. Interferon (IFN)-stimulated gene products are produced following HIV-1 infection to limit viral replication, but viral proteins and RNAs counteract their effect. One such mechanism is specifically directed against the IFN-induced Protein Kinase PKR, which is centrally important to the cellular antiviral response. In the presence of viral RNAs, PKR is activated and phosphorylates the translation initiation factor eIF2α. This shuts down the synthesis of both host and viral proteins, allowing the cell to mount an effective antiviral response. PACT (protein activator of PKR) is a cellular protein activator of PKR, primarily functioning to activate PKR in response to cellular stress. Recent studies have indicated that during HIV-1 infection, PACT's normal cellular function is compromised and that PACT is unable to activate PKR. Using various reporter systems and in vitro kinase assays, we establish in this report that interactions between PACT, ADAR1 and HIV-1-encoded Tat protein diminish the activation of PKR in response to HIV-1 infection. Our results highlight an important pathway by which HIV-1 transcripts subvert the host cell's antiviral activities to enhance their translation.
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Abstract
At every step of their replication cycle influenza viruses depend heavily on their host cells. The multifaceted interactions that occur between the virus and its host cell determine the outcome of the infection, including efficiency of progeny virus production, tropism, and pathogenicity. In order to understand viral disease and develop therapies for influenza it is therefore pertinent to study the intricate interplay between influenza viruses and their required host factors. Here, we review the current knowledge on host cell factors required by influenza virus at the different stages of the viral replication cycle. We also discuss the roles of host factors in zoonotic transmission of influenza viruses and their potential for developing novel antivirals.
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Kaewborisuth C, Zanin M, Häcker H, Webby RJ, Lekcharoensuk P. G45R mutation in the nonstructural protein 1 of A/Puerto Rico/8/1934 (H1N1) enhances viral replication independent of dsRNA-binding activity and type I interferon biology. Virol J 2016; 13:127. [PMID: 27405392 PMCID: PMC4942902 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-016-0585-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) of influenza A viruses can act as a viral replication enhancer by antagonizing type I interferon (IFN) induction and response in infected cells. We previously reported that A/Puerto Rico/8/1934 (H1N1) (PR8) containing the NS1 gene derived from A/swine/IA/15/1930 (H1N1) (IA30) replicated more efficiently than the wild type virus. Here, we identified amino acids in NS1 critical for enhancing viral replication. Methods To identify a key amino acid in NS1 which can increase the virus replication, growth kinetics of PR8 viruses encoding single mutation in NS1 were compared in A549 cells. NS1 mutant functions were studied using dsRNA-protein pull down, RIG-I mediated IFNβ-promoter activity assays and growth curve analysis in murine lung epithelial type I (Let1) cells. Results The G45R mutation in the NS1 of PR8 (G45R/NS1) virus is critical for the enhanced viral replication in A549 cells. G45R/NS1 slightly decreased NS1 binding to dsRNA but did not interfere with its suppression of RIG-I-mediated type I IFN production. Likewise, replication of G45R/NS1 virus was increased in comparison to wild type virus in both wild type and type I interferon receptor null Let1 cells. Conclusions The non-conserved amino acid, R45, enhances viral replication which is apparently independent of dsRNA binding and suppression of type I IFN, suggesting a non-characterized function of NS1 for the enhanced viral replication. As G45R/NS1 virus induced the type I IFN induction and response in infected A549 cells, it is also interesting to investigate virus virulence for further studies. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12985-016-0585-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Challika Kaewborisuth
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Genetic Engineering, The Graduate School, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Virology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, 38105-2794, TN, USA
| | - Mark Zanin
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Virology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, 38105-2794, TN, USA
| | - Hans Häcker
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, 38105-2794, TN, USA
| | - Richard J Webby
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Virology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, 38105-2794, TN, USA
| | - Porntippa Lekcharoensuk
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Genetic Engineering, The Graduate School, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand. .,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, 50th Ngamwongwan Rd., Chatuchak, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand. .,Center for Advances Studies in Agriculture and Food, KU Institute for Advanced Studies, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand.
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Abstract
The co-evolution of viruses with their hosts has led to the emergence of viral pathogens that are adept at evading or actively suppressing host immunity. Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are key components of antiviral immunity that detect conserved molecular features of viral pathogens and initiate signalling that results in the expression of antiviral genes. In this Review, we discuss the strategies that viruses use to escape immune surveillance by key intracellular sensors of viral RNA or DNA, with a focus on RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs), cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) and interferon-γ (IFNγ)-inducible protein 16 (IFI16). Such viral strategies include the sequestration or modification of viral nucleic acids, interference with specific post-translational modifications of PRRs or their adaptor proteins, the degradation or cleavage of PRRs or their adaptors, and the sequestration or relocalization of PRRs. An understanding of viral immune-evasion mechanisms at the molecular level may guide the development of vaccines and antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Kai Chan
- grid.38142.3c000000041936754XDepartment of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, 02115 Massachusetts USA
| | - Michaela U. Gack
- grid.170205.10000 0004 1936 7822Department of Microbiology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, 60637 Illinois USA
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Thulasi Raman SN, Zhou Y. Networks of Host Factors that Interact with NS1 Protein of Influenza A Virus. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:654. [PMID: 27199973 PMCID: PMC4855030 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pigs are an important host of influenza A viruses due to their ability to generate reassortant viruses with pandemic potential. NS1 protein of influenza A viruses is a key virulence factor and a major antagonist of innate immune responses. It is also involved in enhancing viral mRNA translation and regulation of virus replication. Being a protein with pleiotropic functions, NS1 has a variety of cellular interaction partners. Hence, studies on swine influenza viruses (SIV) and identification of swine influenza NS1-interacting host proteins is of great interest. Here, we constructed a recombinant SIV carrying a Strep-tag in the NS1 protein and infected primary swine respiratory epithelial cells (SRECs) with this virus. The Strep-tag sequence in the NS1 protein enabled us to purify intact, the NS1 protein and its interacting protein complex specifically. We identified cellular proteins present in the purified complex by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and generated a dataset of these proteins. 445 proteins were identified by LC-MS/MS and among them 192 proteins were selected by setting up a threshold based on MS parameters. The selected proteins were analyzed by bioinformatics and were categorized as belonging to different functional groups including translation, RNA processing, cytoskeleton, innate immunity, and apoptosis. Protein interaction networks were derived using these data and the NS1 interactions with some of the specific host factors were verified by immunoprecipitation. The novel proteins and the networks revealed in our study will be the potential candidates for targeted study of the molecular interaction of NS1 with host proteins, which will provide insights into the identification of new therapeutic targets to control influenza infection and disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathya N Thulasi Raman
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization - International Vaccine Centre, University of Saskatchewan, SaskatoonSK, Canada; Vaccinology and Immunotherapeutics Program, School of Public Health, University of Saskatchewan, SaskatoonSK, Canada
| | - Yan Zhou
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization - International Vaccine Centre, University of Saskatchewan, SaskatoonSK, Canada; Vaccinology and Immunotherapeutics Program, School of Public Health, University of Saskatchewan, SaskatoonSK, Canada
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41
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Kuo RL, Li ZH, Li LH, Lee KM, Tam EH, Liu HM, Liu HP, Shih SR, Wu CC. Interactome Analysis of the NS1 Protein Encoded by Influenza A H1N1 Virus Reveals a Positive Regulatory Role of Host Protein PRP19 in Viral Replication. J Proteome Res 2016; 15:1639-48. [PMID: 27096427 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.6b00103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Influenza A virus, which can cause severe respiratory illnesses in infected individuals, is responsible for worldwide human pandemics. The NS1 protein encoded by this virus plays a crucial role in regulating the host antiviral response through various mechanisms. In addition, it has been reported that NS1 can modulate cellular pre-mRNA splicing events. To investigate the biological processes potentially affected by the NS1 protein in host cells, NS1-associated protein complexes in human cells were identified using coimmunoprecipitation combined with GeLC-MS/MS. By employing software to build biological process and protein-protein interaction networks, NS1-interacting cellular proteins were found to be related to RNA splicing/processing, cell cycle, and protein folding/targeting cellular processes. By monitoring spliced and unspliced RNAs of a reporter plasmid, we further validated that NS1 can interfere with cellular pre-mRNA splicing. One of the identified proteins, pre-mRNA-processing factor 19 (PRP19), was confirmed to interact with the NS1 protein in influenza A virus-infected cells. Importantly, depletion of PRP19 in host cells reduced replication of influenza A virus. In summary, the interactome of influenza A virus NS1 in host cells was comprehensively profiled, and our findings reveal a novel regulatory role for PRP19 in viral replication.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Helene M Liu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences and Medical Technology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University , Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Hao-Ping Liu
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University , Taichung 40227, Taiwan
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42
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Wang Q, Li Q, Liu R, Zheng M, Wen J, Zhao G. Host cell interactome of PA protein of H5N1 influenza A virus in chicken cells. J Proteomics 2016; 136:48-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2016.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Revised: 01/18/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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43
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Ho TH, Kew C, Lui PY, Chan CP, Satoh T, Akira S, Jin DY, Kok KH. PACT- and RIG-I-Dependent Activation of Type I Interferon Production by a Defective Interfering RNA Derived from Measles Virus Vaccine. J Virol 2016; 90:1557-68. [PMID: 26608320 PMCID: PMC4719617 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02161-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The live attenuated measles virus vaccine is highly immunostimulatory. Identification and characterization of its components that activate the innate immune response might provide new strategies and agents for the rational design and development of chemically defined adjuvants. In this study, we report on the activation of type I interferon (IFN) production by a defective interfering (DI) RNA isolated from the Hu-191 vaccine strain of measles virus. We found that the Hu-191 virus induced IFN-β much more potently than the Edmonston strain. In the search for IFN-inducing species in Hu-191, we identified a DI RNA specifically expressed by this strain. This DI RNA, which was of the copy-back type, was predicted to fold into a hairpin structure with a long double-stranded stem region of 206 bp, and it potently induced the expression of IFN-β. Its IFN-β-inducing activity was further enhanced when both cytoplasmic RNA sensor RIG-I and its partner, PACT, were overexpressed. On the contrary, this activity was abrogated in cells deficient in PACT or RIG-I. The DI RNA was found to be associated with PACT in infected cells. In addition, both the 5'-di/triphosphate end and the double-stranded stem region on the DI RNA were essential for its activation of PACT and RIG-I. Taken together, our findings support a model in which a viral DI RNA is sensed by PACT and RIG-I to initiate an innate antiviral response. Our work might also provide a foundation for identifying physiological PACT ligands and developing novel adjuvants or antivirals. IMPORTANCE The live attenuated measles virus vaccine is one of the most successful human vaccines and has largely contained the devastating impact of a highly contagious virus. Identifying the components in this vaccine that stimulate the host immune response and understanding their mechanism of action might help to design and develop better adjuvants, vaccines, antivirals, and immunotherapeutic agents. We identified and characterized a defective interfering RNA from the Hu-191 vaccine strain of measles virus which has safely been used in millions of people for many years. We further demonstrated that this RNA potently induces an antiviral immune response through cellular sensors of viral RNA known as PACT and RIG-I. Similar types of viral RNA that bind with and activate PACT and RIG-I might retain the immunostimulatory property of measles virus vaccines but would not induce adaptive immunity. They are potentially useful as chemically defined vaccine adjuvants, antivirals, and immunostimulatory agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Hin Ho
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Chun Kew
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Pak-Yin Lui
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Chi-Ping Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Takashi Satoh
- Department of Host Defense, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shizuo Akira
- Department of Host Defense, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Dong-Yan Jin
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
| | - Kin-Hang Kok
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
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44
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Shen S, Li J, Hilchey S, Shen X, Tu C, Qiu X, Ng A, Ghaemmaghami S, Wu H, Zand MS, Qu J. Ion-Current-Based Temporal Proteomic Profiling of Influenza-A-Virus-Infected Mouse Lungs Revealed Underlying Mechanisms of Altered Integrity of the Lung Microvascular Barrier. J Proteome Res 2016; 15:540-53. [PMID: 26650791 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.5b00927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Investigation of influenza-A-virus (IAV)-infected lung proteomes will greatly promote our understanding on the virus-host crosstalk. Using a detergent-cocktail extraction and digestion procedure and a reproducible ion-current-based method, we performed the first comprehensive temporal analysis of mouse IAV infection. Mouse lung tissues at three time points post-inoculation were compared with controls (n = 4/group), and >1600 proteins were quantified without missing value in any animal. Significantly changed proteins were identified at 4 days (n = 144), 7 days (n = 695), and 10 days (n = 396) after infection, with low false altered protein rates (1.73-8.39%). Functional annotation revealed several key biological processes involved in the systemic host responses. Intriguingly, decreased levels of several cell junction proteins as well as increased levels of tissue metalloproteinase MMP9 were observed, reflecting the IAV-induced structural breakdown of lung epithelial barrier. Supporting evidence of MMP9 activation came from immunoassays examining the abundance and phosphorylation states of all MAPKs and several relevant molecules. Importantly, IAV-induced MMP gelatinase expression was suggested to be specific to MMP9, and p38 MAPK may contribute predominantly to MMP9 elevation. These findings help to resolve the long-lasting debate regarding the signaling pathways of IAV-induced MMP9 expression and shed light on the molecular mechanisms underlying pulmonary capillary-alveolar leak syndrome that can occur during influenza infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shichen Shen
- New York State Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics & Life Sciences , 701 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, New York 14203, United States.,Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, SUNY at Buffalo , South Campus, Buffalo, New York 14214, United States
| | - Jun Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, SUNY at Buffalo , South Campus, Buffalo, New York 14214, United States.,New York State Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics & Life Sciences , 701 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
| | - Shannon Hilchey
- Division of Nephrology, University of Rochester Medical Center , 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, New York 14642, United States
| | - Xiaomeng Shen
- New York State Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics & Life Sciences , 701 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, New York 14203, United States.,Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, SUNY at Buffalo , South Campus, Buffalo, New York 14214, United States
| | - Chengjian Tu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, SUNY at Buffalo , South Campus, Buffalo, New York 14214, United States.,New York State Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics & Life Sciences , 701 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
| | - Xing Qiu
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, University of Rochester , 265 Crittenden Boulevard, Rochester, New York 14642, United States
| | - Andrew Ng
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, SUNY at Buffalo , South Campus, Buffalo, New York 14214, United States
| | - Sina Ghaemmaghami
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester , 402 Hutchison Hall, Rochester, New York 14627, United States
| | - Hulin Wu
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston , 1200 Pressler Street, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Martin S Zand
- Division of Nephrology, University of Rochester Medical Center , 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, New York 14642, United States
| | - Jun Qu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, SUNY at Buffalo , South Campus, Buffalo, New York 14214, United States.,New York State Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics & Life Sciences , 701 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
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45
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Chan YK, Gack MU. RIG-I-like receptor regulation in virus infection and immunity. Curr Opin Virol 2015; 12:7-14. [PMID: 25644461 PMCID: PMC5076476 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2015.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian cells have the intrinsic capacity to detect viral pathogens and to initiate an antiviral response that is characterized by the induction of interferons (IFNs) and proinflammatory cytokines. A delicate regulation of the signaling pathways that lead to cytokine production is needed to ensure effective clearance of the virus, while preventing tissue damage caused by excessive cytokine release. Here, we focus on the mechanisms that modulate the signal transduction triggered by RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) and their adaptor protein MAVS, key components of the host machinery for sensing foreign RNA. Specifically, we summarize recent advances in understanding how RLR signaling is regulated by posttranslational and posttranscriptional mechanisms, microRNAs (miRNAs) and autophagy. We further discuss how viruses target these regulatory mechanisms for immune evasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Kai Chan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Michaela U Gack
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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46
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Ma DY, Suthar MS. Mechanisms of innate immune evasion in re-emerging RNA viruses. Curr Opin Virol 2015; 12:26-37. [PMID: 25765605 PMCID: PMC4470747 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2015.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Revised: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
RNA viruses passively evade host detection by masking viral PAMPs and replicating within vesicles. Many emerging viruses harbor multiple strategies for innate immune evasion. Viral antagonists have been found to target the pattern recognition receptor and interferon signaling pathways. Knowledge of host–pathogen interactions is essential for vaccine/therapeutic development and understanding innate immunity.
Recent outbreaks of Ebola, West Nile, Chikungunya, Middle Eastern Respiratory and other emerging/re-emerging RNA viruses continue to highlight the need to further understand the virus–host interactions that govern disease severity and infection outcome. As part of the early host antiviral defense, the innate immune system mediates pathogen recognition and initiation of potent antiviral programs that serve to limit virus replication, limit virus spread and activate adaptive immune responses. Concordantly, viral pathogens have evolved several strategies to counteract pathogen recognition and cell-intrinsic antiviral responses. In this review, we highlight the major mechanisms of innate immune evasion by emerging and re-emerging RNA viruses, focusing on pathogens that pose significant risk to public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daphne Y Ma
- Department of Pediatrics and Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Mehul S Suthar
- Department of Pediatrics and Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Emory Vaccine Center, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.
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47
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de Chassey B, Meyniel-Schicklin L, Vonderscher J, André P, Lotteau V. Virus-host interactomics: new insights and opportunities for antiviral drug discovery. Genome Med 2014; 6:115. [PMID: 25593595 PMCID: PMC4295275 DOI: 10.1186/s13073-014-0115-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The current therapeutic arsenal against viral infections remains limited, with often poor efficacy and incomplete coverage, and appears inadequate to face the emergence of drug resistance. Our understanding of viral biology and pathophysiology and our ability to develop a more effective antiviral arsenal would greatly benefit from a more comprehensive picture of the events that lead to viral replication and associated symptoms. Towards this goal, the construction of virus-host interactomes is instrumental, mainly relying on the assumption that a viral infection at the cellular level can be viewed as a number of perturbations introduced into the host protein network when viral proteins make new connections and disrupt existing ones. Here, we review advances in interactomic approaches for viral infections, focusing on high-throughput screening (HTS) technologies and on the generation of high-quality datasets. We show how these are already beginning to offer intriguing perspectives in terms of virus-host cell biology and the control of cellular functions, and we conclude by offering a summary of the current situation regarding the potential development of host-oriented antiviral therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Patrice André
- />Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
- />CIRI, Université de Lyon, Lyon, 69365 France
- />Inserm, U1111, Lyon, 69365 France
| | - Vincent Lotteau
- />CIRI, Université de Lyon, Lyon, 69365 France
- />Inserm, U1111, Lyon, 69365 France
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48
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Marc D. Influenza virus non-structural protein NS1: interferon antagonism and beyond. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:2594-2611. [PMID: 25182164 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.069542-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Most viruses express one or several proteins that counter the antiviral defences of the host cell. This is the task of non-structural protein NS1 in influenza viruses. Absent in the viral particle, but highly expressed in the infected cell, NS1 dramatically inhibits cellular gene expression and prevents the activation of key players in the IFN system. In addition, NS1 selectively enhances the translation of viral mRNAs and may regulate the synthesis of viral RNAs. Our knowledge of the virus and of NS1 has increased dramatically during the last 15 years. The atomic structure of NS1 has been determined, many cellular partners have been identified and its multiple activities have been studied in depth. This review presents our current knowledge, and attempts to establish relationships between the RNA sequence, the structure of the protein, its ligands, its activities and the pathogenicity of the virus. A better understanding of NS1 could help in elaborating novel antiviral strategies, based on either live vaccines with altered NS1 or on small-compound inhibitors of NS1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Marc
- Université François Rabelais, UMR1282 Infectiologie et Santé Publique, 37000 Tours, France.,Pathologie et Immunologie Aviaire, INRA, UMR1282 Infectiologie et Santé Publique, 37380 Nouzilly, France
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49
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GASPARINI R, AMICIZIA D, LAI PL, BRAGAZZI NL, PANATTO D. Compounds with anti-influenza activity: present and future of strategies for the optimal treatment and management of influenza. Part I: Influenza life-cycle and currently available drugs. JOURNAL OF PREVENTIVE MEDICINE AND HYGIENE 2014; 55:69-85. [PMID: 25902573 PMCID: PMC4718311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Influenza is a contagious respiratory acute viral disease characterized by a short incubation period, high fever and respiratory and systemic symptoms. The burden of influenza is very heavy. Indeed, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that annual epidemics affect 5-15% of the world's population, causing up to 4-5 million severe cases and from 250,000 to 500,000 deaths. In order to design anti-influenza molecules and compounds, it is important to understand the complex replication cycle of the influenza virus. Replication is achieved through various stages. First, the virus must engage the sialic acid receptors present on the free surface of the cells of the respiratory tract. The virus can then enter the cells by different routes (clathrin-mediated endocytosis or CME, caveolae-dependent endocytosis or CDE, clathrin-caveolae-independent endocytosis, or macropinocytosis). CME is the most usual pathway; the virus is internalized into an endosomal compartment, from which it must emerge in order to release its nucleic acid into the cytosol. The ribonucleoprotein must then reach the nucleus in order to begin the process of translation of its genes and to transcribe and replicate its nucleic acid. Subsequently, the RNA segments, surrounded by the nucleoproteins, must migrate to the cell membrane in order to enable viral assembly. Finally, the virus must be freed to invade other cells of the respiratory tract. All this is achieved through a synchronized action of molecules that perform multiple enzymatic and catalytic reactions, currently known only in part, and for which many inhibitory or competitive molecules have been studied. Some of these studies have led to the development of drugs that have been approved, such as Amantadine, Rimantadine, Oseltamivir, Zanamivir, Peramivir, Laninamivir, Ribavirin and Arbidol. This review focuses on the influenza life-cycle and on the currently available drugs, while potential antiviral compounds for the prevention and treatment of influenza are considered in the subsequent review.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. GASPARINI
- Department of Health Sciences of Genoa University, Genoa, Italy Inter-University Centre for Research on Influenza and Other Transmitted Diseases (CIRI-IT)
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