1
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Qu B, Miskey C, Gömer A, Kleinert RDV, Ibanez SC, Eberle R, Ebenig A, Postmus D, Nocke MK, Herrmann M, Itotia TK, Herrmann ST, Heinen N, Höck S, Hastert FD, von Rhein C, Schürmann C, Li X, van Zandbergen G, Widera M, Ciesek S, Schnierle BS, Tarr AW, Steinmann E, Goffinet C, Pfaender S, Locker JK, Mühlebach MD, Todt D, Brown RJP. TMPRSS2-mediated SARS-CoV-2 uptake boosts innate immune activation, enhances cytopathology, and drives convergent virus evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2407437121. [PMID: 38814864 PMCID: PMC11161796 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2407437121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
The accessory protease transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) enhances severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) uptake into ACE2-expressing cells, although how increased entry impacts downstream viral and host processes remains unclear. To investigate this in more detail, we performed infection assays in engineered cells promoting ACE2-mediated entry with and without TMPRSS2 coexpression. Electron microscopy and inhibitor experiments indicated TMPRSS2-mediated cell entry was associated with increased virion internalization into endosomes, and partially dependent upon clathrin-mediated endocytosis. TMPRSS2 increased panvariant uptake efficiency and enhanced early rates of virus replication, transcription, and secretion, with variant-specific profiles observed. On the host side, transcriptional profiling confirmed the magnitude of infection-induced antiviral and proinflammatory responses were linked to uptake efficiency, with TMPRSS2-assisted entry boosting early antiviral responses. In addition, TMPRSS2-enhanced infections increased rates of cytopathology, apoptosis, and necrosis and modulated virus secretion kinetics in a variant-specific manner. On the virus side, convergent signatures of cell-uptake-dependent innate immune induction were recorded in viral genomes, manifesting as switches in dominant coupled Nsp3 residues whose frequencies were correlated to the magnitude of the cellular response to infection. Experimentally, we demonstrated that selected Nsp3 mutations conferred enhanced interferon antagonism. More broadly, we show that TMPRSS2 orthologues from evolutionarily diverse mammals facilitate panvariant enhancement of cell uptake. In summary, our study uncovers previously unreported associations, linking cell entry efficiency to innate immune activation kinetics, cell death rates, virus secretion dynamics, and convergent selection of viral mutations. These data expand our understanding of TMPRSS2's role in the SARS-CoV-2 life cycle and confirm its broader significance in zoonotic reservoirs and animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingqian Qu
- Division of Veterinary Medicine, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
- European Virus Bioinformatics Center, 07743Jena, Germany
| | - Csaba Miskey
- Division of Medical Biotechnology, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
| | - André Gömer
- Department of Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801Bochum, Germany
| | | | - Sara Calvo Ibanez
- Electron Microscopy of Pathogens, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
| | - Regina Eberle
- Electron Microscopy of Pathogens, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
| | - Aileen Ebenig
- Division of Veterinary Medicine, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
| | - Dylan Postmus
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Maximilian K. Nocke
- Department of Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801Bochum, Germany
| | - Maike Herrmann
- Division of Veterinary Medicine, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
| | - Tabitha K. Itotia
- Division of Veterinary Medicine, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
- Department of Physical Sciences, Chuka University, 60400Chuka, Kenya
| | - Simon T. Herrmann
- Department of Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801Bochum, Germany
| | - Natalie Heinen
- Department of Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801Bochum, Germany
| | - Sebastian Höck
- Division of Veterinary Medicine, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
| | | | | | - Christoph Schürmann
- Division of Veterinary Medicine, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
| | - Xue Li
- Department of Cardiology, Medical University Hospital, 69120Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ger van Zandbergen
- Division of Immunology, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
- Institute for Immunology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, 55131Mainz, Germany
- Research Center for Immunotherapy, University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, 55131Mainz, Germany
| | - Marek Widera
- Institute for Medical Virology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60596Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Sandra Ciesek
- Institute for Medical Virology, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60596Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology, 60596Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research, 38124Braunschweig, Germany
| | | | - Alexander W. Tarr
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Nottingham, NottinghamNG7 2UH, United Kingdom
- School of Life Sciences and National Institute for Health and Care Research, Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham, NottinghamNG7 2UH, United Kingdom
| | - Eike Steinmann
- Department of Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801Bochum, Germany
| | - Christine Goffinet
- Department of Tropical Disease Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, LiverpoolL3 5QA, United Kingdom
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Stephanie Pfaender
- Department of Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801Bochum, Germany
- Research Unit Emerging Viruses, Leibniz Institute of Virology, 20251Hamburg, Germany
- University of Lübeck, 23562Lübeck, Germany
| | - Jacomina Krijnse Locker
- Electron Microscopy of Pathogens, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
- Justus Liebig University Geissen, 35390Giessen, Germany
| | - Michael D. Mühlebach
- Division of Veterinary Medicine, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research, 63225Giessen-Marburg-Langen, Germany
| | - Daniel Todt
- European Virus Bioinformatics Center, 07743Jena, Germany
- Department of Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801Bochum, Germany
| | - Richard J. P. Brown
- Division of Veterinary Medicine, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, 63225Langen, Germany
- Department of Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801Bochum, Germany
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2
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Hart PA, Osypchuk Y, Hovbakh I, Shah RJ, Nieto J, Cote GA, Avgaitis S, Kremzer O, Buxbaum J, Inamdar S, Fass R, Phillips RW, Yadav D, Ladd AM, Al-Assi MT, Gardner T, Conwell DL, Irani S, Sheikh A, Nuttall J. A Randomized Controlled Phase 2 Dose-Finding Trial to Evaluate the Efficacy and Safety of Camostat in the Treatment of Painful Chronic Pancreatitis: The TACTIC Study. Gastroenterology 2024; 166:658-666.e6. [PMID: 38103842 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2023.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Chronic pancreatitis (CP) causes an abdominal pain syndrome associated with poor quality of life. We conducted a clinical trial to further investigate the efficacy and safety of camostat, an oral serine protease inhibitor that has been used to alleviate pain in CP. METHODS This was a double-blind randomized controlled trial that enrolled adults with CP with a baseline average daily worst pain score ≥4 on a numeric rating system. Participants were randomized (1:1:1:1) to receive camostat at 100, 200, or 300 mg 3 times daily or placebo. The primary end point was a 4-week change from baseline in the mean daily worst pain intensity score (0-10 on a numeric rating system) using a mixed model repeated measure analysis. Secondary end points included changes in alternate pain end points, quality of life, and safety. RESULTS A total of 264 participants with CP were randomized. Changes in pain from baseline were similar between the camostat groups and placebo, with differences of least squares means of -0.11 (95% CI, -0.90 to 0.68), -0.04 (95% CI, -0.85 to 0.78), and -0.11 (95% CI, -0.94 to 0.73) for the 100 mg, 200 mg, and 300 mg groups, respectively. Multiple subgroup analyses were similar for the primary end point, and no differences were observed in any of the secondary end points. Treatment-emergent adverse events attributed to the study drug were identified in 42 participants (16.0%). CONCLUSION We were not able to reject the null hypothesis of no difference in improvements in pain or quality of life outcomes in participants with painful CP who received camostat compared with placebo. Studies are needed to further define mechanisms of pain in CP to guide future clinical trials, including minimizing placebo responses and selecting targeted therapies. CLINICALTRIALS gov, Number: NCT02693093.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phil A Hart
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio.
| | - Yurii Osypchuk
- Department of General Surgery, Odesa Regional Hospital, Odesa, Ukraine
| | - Iryna Hovbakh
- Department of General Practice-Family Medicine, Kharkov Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Raj J Shah
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Jose Nieto
- Advanced Therapeutic Endoscopy Center, Borland Groover Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
| | - Gregory A Cote
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | | | | | - James Buxbaum
- University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California
| | - Sumant Inamdar
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas
| | - Ronnie Fass
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, MetroHealth Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
| | | | - Dhiraj Yadav
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Antonio Mendoza Ladd
- Division of Gastroenterology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, El Paso, Texas
| | | | - Timothy Gardner
- Division of Gastroenterology, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, New Hampshire
| | - Darwin L Conwell
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Shayna Irani
- Division of Gastroenterology, Virginia Mason Hospital and Medical Center, Seattle, Washington
| | - Aasim Sheikh
- Gastrointestinal Specialists of Georgia, Marietta, Georgia
| | - Janet Nuttall
- Kangen Pharmaceuticals, America LLC, Kansas City, Kansas
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3
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Roy AV, Chan M, Banadyga L, He S, Zhu W, Chrétien M, Mbikay M. Quercetin inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection and prevents syncytium formation by cells co-expressing the viral spike protein and human ACE2. Virol J 2024; 21:29. [PMID: 38273400 PMCID: PMC10811921 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-024-02299-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several in silico studies have determined that quercetin, a plant flavonol, could bind with strong affinity and low free energy to SARS-CoV-2 proteins involved in viral entry and replication, suggesting it could block infection of human cells by the virus. In the present study, we examined the ex vivo ability of quercetin to inhibit of SARS-CoV-2 replication and explored the mechanisms of this inhibition. METHODS Green monkey kidney Vero E6 cells and in human colon carcinoma Caco-2 cells were infected with SARS-CoV-2 and incubated in presence of quercetin; the amount of replicated viral RNA was measured in spent media by RT-qPCR. Since the formation of syncytia is a mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 propagation, a syncytialization model was set up using human embryonic kidney HEK293 co-expressing SARS-CoV-2 Spike (S) protein and human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), [HEK293(S + ACE2) cells], to assess the effect of quercetin on this cytopathic event by microscopic imaging and protein immunoblotting. RESULTS Quercetin inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replication in Vero E6 cells and Caco-2 cells in a concentration-dependent manner with a half inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 166.6 and 145.2 µM, respectively. It also inhibited syncytialization of HEK293(S + ACE2) cells with an IC50 of 156.7 µM. Spike and ACE2 co-expression was associated with decreased expression, increased proteolytic processing of the S protein, and diminished production of the fusogenic S2' fragment of S. Furin, a proposed protease for this processing, was inhibited by quercetin in vitro with an IC50 of 116 µM. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that at low 3-digit micromolar concentrations of quercetin could impair SARS-CoV-2 infection of human cells partly by blocking the fusion process that promotes its propagation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annie V Roy
- Functional Endoproteolysis Laboratory, Montreal Clinical Research Institute, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Michael Chan
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Logan Banadyga
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Shihua He
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Wenjun Zhu
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Michel Chrétien
- Functional Endoproteolysis Laboratory, Montreal Clinical Research Institute, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Majambu Mbikay
- Functional Endoproteolysis Laboratory, Montreal Clinical Research Institute, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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4
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Müller P, Zimmer C, Frey A, Holzmann G, Weldert AC, Schirmeister T. Ligand-Based Design of Selective Peptidomimetic uPA and TMPRSS2 Inhibitors with Arg Bioisosteres. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1375. [PMID: 38338655 PMCID: PMC10855164 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25031375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Trypsin-like serine proteases are involved in many important physiological processes like blood coagulation and remodeling of the extracellular matrix. On the other hand, they are also associated with pathological conditions. The urokinase-pwlasminogen activator (uPA), which is involved in tissue remodeling, can increase the metastatic behavior of various cancer types when overexpressed and dysregulated. Another member of this protease class that received attention during the SARS-CoV 2 pandemic is TMPRSS2. It is a transmembrane serine protease, which enables cell entry of the coronavirus by processing its spike protein. A variety of different inhibitors have been published against both proteases. However, the selectivity over other trypsin-like serine proteases remains a major challenge. In the current study, we replaced the arginine moiety at the P1 site of peptidomimetic inhibitors with different bioisosteres. Enzyme inhibition studies revealed that the phenylguanidine moiety in the P1 site led to strong affinity for TMPRSS2, whereas the cyclohexylguanidine derivate potently inhibited uPA. Both inhibitors exhibited high selectivity over other structurally similar and physiologically important proteases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Tanja Schirmeister
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Staudinger Weg 5, D-55128 Mainz, Germany; (P.M.); (C.Z.); (A.F.); (G.H.); (A.C.W.)
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5
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Jilg N, Chew KW, Giganti MJ, Daar ES, Wohl DA, Javan AC, Kantor A, Moser C, Coombs RW, Neytman G, Hoover K, Jana A, Hart PA, Greninger AL, Szurgot B, Eron JJ, Currier JS, Hughes MD, Smith DM, Li JZ. One Week of Oral Camostat Versus Placebo in Nonhospitalized Adults With Mild-to-Moderate Coronavirus Disease 2019: A Randomized Controlled Phase 2 Trial. Clin Infect Dis 2023; 77:941-949. [PMID: 37279602 PMCID: PMC10552586 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciad342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 05/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Camostat inhibits severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in vitro. We studied the safety and efficacy of camostat in ACTIV-2/A5401, a phase 2/3 platform trial of therapeutics for COVID-19 in nonhospitalized adults. METHODS We conducted a phase 2 study in adults with mild-to-moderate COVID-19 randomized to oral camostat for 7 days or a pooled placebo arm. Primary outcomes were time to improvement in COVID-19 symptoms through day 28, proportion of participants with SARS-CoV-2 RNA below the lower limit of quantification (LLoQ) from nasopharyngeal swabs through day 14, and grade ≥3 treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) through day 28. RESULTS Of 216 participants (109 randomized to camostat, 107 to placebo) who initiated study intervention, 45% reported ≤5 days of symptoms at study entry and 26% met the protocol definition of higher risk of progression to severe COVID-19. Median age was 37 years. Median time to symptom improvement was 9 days in both arms (P = .99). There were no significant differences in the proportion of participants with SARS-CoV-2 RNA CONCLUSIONS In a phase 2 study of nonhospitalized adults with mild-to-moderate COVID-19, oral camostat did not accelerate viral clearance or time to symptom improvement, or reduce hospitalizations or deaths. Clinical Trials Registration. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04518410.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaus Jilg
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Department of Medicine, Brigham Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kara W Chew
- Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Mark J Giganti
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Eric S Daar
- Department of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles Center, Torrance, California, USA
| | - David A Wohl
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Amy Kantor
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Carlee Moser
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Robert W Coombs
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Gene Neytman
- Quantum Clinical Trials, Miami Beach, Florida, USA
| | | | - Atasi Jana
- Sagent Pharmaceuticals, Schaumburg, Illinois, USA
| | - Phil A Hart
- Department of Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | | | - Bob Szurgot
- Sagent Pharmaceuticals, Schaumburg, Illinois, USA
| | - Joseph J Eron
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Judith S Currier
- Department of Medicine, University of Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Michael D Hughes
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Davey M Smith
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Jonathan Z Li
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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6
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Kim G, Moon HK, Kim T, Yun SH, Yun HY, Hong JH, Kim DD. Safety Evaluation and Population Pharmacokinetics of Camostat Mesylate and Its Major Metabolites Using a Phase I Study. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2357. [PMID: 37765325 PMCID: PMC10534584 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15092357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Camostat mesylate is expected to be promising as a treatment option for COVID-19, in addition to other indications for which it is currently used. Furthermore, in vitro experiments have confirmed the potential of camostat and its metabolites to be effective against COVID-19. Therefore, clinical trials were conducted to evaluate the safety and pharmacokinetic characteristics of camostat after single-dose administration. Additionally, we aim to predict the pharmacokinetics of repeated dosing through modeling and simulation based on clinical trials. Clinical trials were conducted on healthy Korean adults, and an analysis was carried out of the metabolites of camostat, GBPA, and GBA. Pharmacokinetic modeling and simulation were performed using Monolix. There were no safety issues (AEs, physical examinations, clinical laboratory tests, vital sign measurements, and ECG) during the clinical trial. The pharmacokinetic characteristics at various doses were identified. It was confirmed that AUC last and Cmax increased in proportion to dose in both GBPA and GBA, and linearity was also confirmed in log-transformed power model regression. Additionally, the accumulation index was predicted (1.12 and 1.08 for GBPA and GBA). The pharmacokinetics of camostat for various dose administrations and indications can be predicted prior to clinical trials using the developed camostat model. Furthermore, it can be used for various indications by connecting it with pharmacodynamic information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwanyoung Kim
- Life Science Research Institute, Daewoong Pharmaceuticals, Yongin-si 17028, Republic of Korea; (G.K.); (H.-k.M.); (T.K.); (S.-h.Y.)
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-ki Moon
- Life Science Research Institute, Daewoong Pharmaceuticals, Yongin-si 17028, Republic of Korea; (G.K.); (H.-k.M.); (T.K.); (S.-h.Y.)
| | - Taeheon Kim
- Life Science Research Institute, Daewoong Pharmaceuticals, Yongin-si 17028, Republic of Korea; (G.K.); (H.-k.M.); (T.K.); (S.-h.Y.)
| | - So-hye Yun
- Life Science Research Institute, Daewoong Pharmaceuticals, Yongin-si 17028, Republic of Korea; (G.K.); (H.-k.M.); (T.K.); (S.-h.Y.)
| | - Hwi-yeol Yun
- College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea
- Department of Bio-AI Convergence, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea
| | - Jang Hee Hong
- Department of Pharmacology, Chungnam National University College of Medicine, Daejeon 35015, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae-Duk Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
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7
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Synowiec A, Dąbrowska A, Pachota M, Baouche M, Owczarek K, Niżański W, Pyrc K. Feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1) enters the cell by receptor-mediated endocytosis. J Virol 2023; 97:e0068123. [PMID: 37493545 PMCID: PMC10506464 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00681-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) is an enveloped dsDNA virus belonging to the Herpesviridae family and is considered one of the two primary viral etiological factors of feline upper respiratory tract disease. In this study, we investigated the entry of FHV-1 into host cells using two models: the AK-D cell line and primary feline skin fibroblasts (FSFs). We employed confocal microscopy, siRNA silencing, and selective inhibitors of various entry pathways. Our observations revealed that the virus enters cells via pH and dynamin-dependent endocytosis, as the infection was significantly inhibited by NH4Cl, bafilomycin A1, dynasore, and mitmab. Additionally, genistein, nystatin, and filipin treatments, siRNA knock-down of caveolin-1, as well as FHV-1 and caveolin-1 colocalization suggest the involvement of caveolin-mediated endocytosis during the entry process. siRNA knock-down of clathrin heavy chain and analysis of virus particle colocalization with clathrin indicated that clathrin-mediated endocytosis also takes part in the primary cells. This is the first study to systematically examine FHV-1 entry into host cells, and for the first time, we describe FHV-1 replication in AK-D and FSFs. IMPORTANCE Feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1) is one of the most prevalent viruses in cats, causing feline viral rhinotracheitis, which is responsible for over half of viral upper respiratory diseases in cats and can lead to ocular lesions resulting in loss of sight. Although the available vaccine reduces the severity of the disease, it does not prevent infection or limit virus shedding. Despite the clinical relevance, the entry mechanisms of FHV-1 have not been thoroughly studied. Considering the limitations of commonly used models based on immortalized cells, we sought to verify our findings using primary feline skin fibroblasts, the natural target for infection in cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Synowiec
- ViroGenetics - BSL3 Laboratory of Virology, Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
- Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Dąbrowska
- ViroGenetics - BSL3 Laboratory of Virology, Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Magdalena Pachota
- ViroGenetics - BSL3 Laboratory of Virology, Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Meriem Baouche
- Department of Reproduction and Clinic of Farm Animals, University of Environmental Science, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Owczarek
- ViroGenetics - BSL3 Laboratory of Virology, Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wojciech Niżański
- Department of Reproduction and Clinic of Farm Animals, University of Environmental Science, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Pyrc
- ViroGenetics - BSL3 Laboratory of Virology, Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
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8
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C AM, Wessler S, Ponnuraj K. Inhibition of Listeria Monocytogenes HtrA Protease with Camostat, Gabexate and Nafamostat Mesylates and the Binding Mode of the Inhibitors. Protein J 2023:10.1007/s10930-023-10114-8. [PMID: 37093417 PMCID: PMC10123570 DOI: 10.1007/s10930-023-10114-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
In many bacteria, the High Temperature requirement A (HtrA) protein functions as a chaperone and protease. HtrA is an important factor in stress tolerance and plays a significant role in the virulence of several pathogenic bacteria. Camostat, gabexate and nafamostat mesylates are serine protease inhibitors and have recently shown a great impact in the inhibition studies of SARS-CoV2. In this study, the inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes HtrA (LmHtrA) protease activity was analysed using these three inhibitors. The cleavage assay, using human fibrinogen and casein as substrates, revealed that the three inhibitors effectively inhibit the protease activity of LmHtrA. The agar plate assay and spectrophotometric analysis concluded that the inhibition of nafamostat (IC50 value of 6.6 ± 0.4 µM) is more effective compared to the other two inhibitors. Previous studies revealed that at the active site of the protease, these inhibitors are hydrolysed and one of the hydrolysates is covalently bound to the active site serine. To understand the mode of binding of these inhibitors at the active site of LmHtrA, docking of the inhibitors followed by molecular dynamics simulations were carried out. Analysis of the LmHtrA-inhibitor complex structures revealed that the covalently bound inhibitor is unable to occupy the S1 pocket of the LmHtrA which is in contrast to the previously determined camostat and nafamostat complex structures. This observation provides the first glimpse of the substrate specificity of LmHtrA which is not known. The obtained results also suggest that the development of novel inhibitors of LmHtrA and its homologs with active site architecture similar to LmHtrA can be pursued with suitable modification of these inhibitors. To date, only a very few studies have been carried out on identifying the inhibitors of HtrA proteolytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amrutha M C
- Centre of Advanced Study in Crystallography and Biophysics, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai, 600 025, India
| | - Silja Wessler
- Department of Biosciences and Medical Biology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunner Str. 34, Salzburg, A-5020, Austria
| | - Karthe Ponnuraj
- Centre of Advanced Study in Crystallography and Biophysics, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai, 600 025, India.
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9
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Pozzi C, Vanet A, Francesconi V, Tagliazucchi L, Tassone G, Venturelli A, Spyrakis F, Mazzorana M, Costi MP, Tonelli M. Antitarget, Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Leads, Drugs, and the Drug Discovery-Genetics Alliance Perspective. J Med Chem 2023; 66:3664-3702. [PMID: 36857133 PMCID: PMC10005815 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2023]
Abstract
The most advanced antiviral molecules addressing major SARS-CoV-2 targets (Main protease, Spike protein, and RNA polymerase), compared with proteins of other human pathogenic coronaviruses, may have a short-lasting clinical efficacy. Accumulating knowledge on the mechanisms underlying the target structural basis, its mutational progression, and the related biological significance to virus replication allows envisaging the development of better-targeted therapies in the context of COVID-19 epidemic and future coronavirus outbreaks. The identification of evolutionary patterns based solely on sequence information analysis for those targets can provide meaningful insights into the molecular basis of host-pathogen interactions and adaptation, leading to drug resistance phenomena. Herein, we will explore how the study of observed and predicted mutations may offer valuable suggestions for the application of the so-called "synthetic lethal" strategy to SARS-CoV-2 Main protease and Spike protein. The synergy between genetics evidence and drug discovery may prioritize the development of novel long-lasting antiviral agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Pozzi
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy,
University of Siena, via Aldo Moro 2, 53100 Siena,
Italy
| | - Anne Vanet
- Université Paris Cité,
CNRS, Institut Jacques Monod, F-75013 Paris,
France
| | - Valeria Francesconi
- Department of Pharmacy, University of
Genoa, viale Benedetto XV n.3, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Tagliazucchi
- Department of Life Science, University of
Modena and Reggio Emilia, via Campi 103, 41125 Modena,
Italy
- Doctorate School in Clinical and Experimental Medicine
(CEM), University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287,
41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Giusy Tassone
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy,
University of Siena, via Aldo Moro 2, 53100 Siena,
Italy
| | - Alberto Venturelli
- Department of Life Science, University of
Modena and Reggio Emilia, via Campi 103, 41125 Modena,
Italy
| | - Francesca Spyrakis
- Department of Drug Science and Technology,
University of Turin, Via Giuria 9, 10125 Turin,
Italy
| | - Marco Mazzorana
- Diamond Light Source, Harwell Science and
Innovation Campus, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0DE,
U.K.
| | - Maria P. Costi
- Department of Life Science, University of
Modena and Reggio Emilia, via Campi 103, 41125 Modena,
Italy
| | - Michele Tonelli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of
Genoa, viale Benedetto XV n.3, 16132 Genoa, Italy
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10
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Rabaan AA, Al-Ahmed SH, Albayat H, Alwarthan S, Alhajri M, Najim MA, AlShehail BM, Al-Adsani W, Alghadeer A, Abduljabbar WA, Alotaibi N, Alsalman J, Gorab AH, Almaghrabi RS, Zaidan AA, Aldossary S, Alissa M, Alburaiky LM, Alsalim FM, Thakur N, Verma G, Dhawan M. Variants of SARS-CoV-2: Influences on the Vaccines' Effectiveness and Possible Strategies to Overcome Their Consequences. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2023; 59:507. [PMID: 36984508 PMCID: PMC10051174 DOI: 10.3390/medicina59030507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
Abstract
The immune response elicited by the current COVID-19 vaccinations declines with time, especially among the immunocompromised population. Furthermore, the emergence of novel SARS-CoV-2 variants, particularly the Omicron variant, has raised serious concerns about the efficacy of currently available vaccines in protecting the most vulnerable people. Several studies have reported that vaccinated people get breakthrough infections amid COVID-19 cases. So far, five variants of concern (VOCs) have been reported, resulting in successive waves of infection. These variants have shown a variable amount of resistance towards the neutralising antibodies (nAbs) elicited either through natural infection or the vaccination. The spike (S) protein, membrane (M) protein, and envelope (E) protein on the viral surface envelope and the N-nucleocapsid protein in the core of the ribonucleoprotein are the major structural vaccine target proteins against COVID-19. Among these targets, S Protein has been extensively exploited to generate effective vaccines against COVID-19. Hence, amid the emergence of novel variants of SARS-CoV-2, we have discussed their impact on currently available vaccines. We have also discussed the potential roles of S Protein in the development of novel vaccination approaches to contain the negative consequences of the variants' emergence and acquisition of mutations in the S Protein of SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, the implications of SARS-CoV-2's structural proteins were also discussed in terms of their variable potential to elicit an effective amount of immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali A. Rabaan
- Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Johns Hopkins Aramco Healthcare, Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia
- College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Public Health and Nutrition, The University of Haripur, Haripur 22610, Pakistan
| | - Shamsah H. Al-Ahmed
- Specialty Paediatric Medicine, Qatif Central Hospital, Qatif 32654, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hawra Albayat
- Infectious Disease Department, King Saud Medical City, Riyadh 7790, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sara Alwarthan
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam 34212, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mashael Alhajri
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam 34212, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mustafa A. Najim
- Department of Medical Laboratories Technology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Madinah 41411, Saudi Arabia
| | - Bashayer M. AlShehail
- Pharmacy Practice Department, College of Clinical Pharmacy, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia
| | - Wasl Al-Adsani
- Department of Medicine, Infectious Diseases Hospital, Kuwait City 63537, Kuwait
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hampton Veterans Administration Medical Center, Hampton, VA 23667, USA
| | - Ali Alghadeer
- Department of Anesthesia, Dammam Medical Complex, Dammam 32245, Saudi Arabia
| | - Wesam A. Abduljabbar
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Fakeeh College for Medical Science, Jeddah 21134, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nouf Alotaibi
- Clinical Pharmacy Department, College of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jameela Alsalman
- Infection Disease Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Salmaniya Medical Complex, Ministry of Health, Kingdom of Bahrain, Manama 435, Bahrain
| | - Ali H. Gorab
- Al Kuzama Primary Health Care Center, Al Khobar Health Network, Eastern Health Cluster, Al Khobar 34446, Saudi Arabia
| | - Reem S. Almaghrabi
- Organ Transplant Center of Excellence, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ali A. Zaidan
- Gastroenterology Department, King Fahad Armed Forces Hospital, Jeddah 23831, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sahar Aldossary
- Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Women and Children’s Health Institute, Johns Hopkins Aramco Healthcare, Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Alissa
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia
| | - Lamees M. Alburaiky
- Pediatric Department, Safwa General Hospital, Eastern Health Cluster, Safwa 31921, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fatimah Mustafa Alsalim
- Department of Family Medicine, Primary Health Care, Qatif Health Cluster, Qatif 32434, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nanamika Thakur
- University Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Biotechnology, Chandigarh University, Mohali 140413, India
| | - Geetika Verma
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh 160012, India
| | - Manish Dhawan
- Department of Microbiology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, India
- Trafford College, Altrincham, Manchester WA14 5PQ, UK
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11
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Alam MS. Insight into SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant immune escape possibility and variant independent potential therapeutic opportunities. Heliyon 2023; 9:e13285. [PMID: 36744070 PMCID: PMC9886571 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Omicron, the latest variant of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was first detected in November 2021 in Botswana, South Africa. Compared to other variants of SARS-CoV-2, the Omicron is the most highly mutated, with 50 mutations throughout the genome, most of which are in the spike (S) protein. These mutations may help the Omicron to evade host immunity against the vaccine. Epidemiological studies suggest that Omicron is highly infectious and spreads rapidly, but causes significantly less severe disease than the wild-type strain and the other variants of SARS-CoV-2. With the increased transmissibility and a higher rate of re-infection, Omicron has now become a dominant variant worldwide and is predicted to be able to evade vaccine-induced immunity. Several clinical studies using plasma samples from individuals receiving two doses of US Food and Drugs Administration (FDA)-approved COVID-19 vaccines have shown reduced humoral immune response against Omicron infection, but T cell-mediated immunity was well preserved. In fact, T cell-mediated immunity protects against severe disease, and thus the disease caused by Omicron remains mild. In this review, I surveyed the current status of Omicron variant mutations and mechanisms of immune response in the context of immune escape from COVID-19 vaccines. I also discuss the potential implications of therapeutic opportunities that are independent of SARS-CoV-2 variants, including Omicron. A better understanding of vaccine-induced immune responses and variant-independent therapeutic interventions that include potent antiviral, antioxidant, and anti-cytokine activities may pave the way to reducing Omicron-related COVID-19 complications, severity, and mortality. Collectively, these insights point to potential research gaps and will aid in the development of new-generation COVID-19 vaccines and antiviral drugs to combat Omicron, its sublineages, or upcoming new variants of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Shah Alam
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur 1706, Bangladesh
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12
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Lei S, Chen X, Wu J, Duan X, Men K. Small molecules in the treatment of COVID-19. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7:387. [PMID: 36464706 PMCID: PMC9719906 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-022-01249-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The outbreak of COVID-19 has become a global crisis, and brought severe disruptions to societies and economies. Until now, effective therapeutics against COVID-19 are in high demand. Along with our improved understanding of the structure, function, and pathogenic process of SARS-CoV-2, many small molecules with potential anti-COVID-19 effects have been developed. So far, several antiviral strategies were explored. Besides directly inhibition of viral proteins such as RdRp and Mpro, interference of host enzymes including ACE2 and proteases, and blocking relevant immunoregulatory pathways represented by JAK/STAT, BTK, NF-κB, and NLRP3 pathways, are regarded feasible in drug development. The development of small molecules to treat COVID-19 has been achieved by several strategies, including computer-aided lead compound design and screening, natural product discovery, drug repurposing, and combination therapy. Several small molecules representative by remdesivir and paxlovid have been proved or authorized emergency use in many countries. And many candidates have entered clinical-trial stage. Nevertheless, due to the epidemiological features and variability issues of SARS-CoV-2, it is necessary to continue exploring novel strategies against COVID-19. This review discusses the current findings in the development of small molecules for COVID-19 treatment. Moreover, their detailed mechanism of action, chemical structures, and preclinical and clinical efficacies are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibei Lei
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaohua Chen
- grid.54549.390000 0004 0369 4060Department of Pharmacy, Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences & Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610072 China
| | - Jieping Wu
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xingmei Duan
- grid.54549.390000 0004 0369 4060Department of Pharmacy, Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences & Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610072 China
| | - Ke Men
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041 People’s Republic of China
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13
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Pesei ZG, Jancsó Z, Demcsák A, Németh BC, Vajda S, Sahin-Tóth M. Preclinical testing of dabigatran in trypsin-dependent pancreatitis. JCI Insight 2022; 7:161145. [PMID: 36136430 PMCID: PMC9675574 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.161145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Pancreatitis, the inflammatory disorder of the pancreas, has no specific therapy. Genetic, biochemical, and animal model studies revealed that trypsin plays a central role in the onset and progression of pancreatitis. Here, we performed biochemical and preclinical mouse experiments to offer proof of concept that orally administered dabigatran etexilate can inhibit pancreatic trypsins and shows therapeutic efficacy in trypsin-dependent pancreatitis. We found that dabigatran competitively inhibited all human and mouse trypsin isoforms (Ki range 10-79 nM) and dabigatran plasma concentrations in mice given oral dabigatran etexilate well exceeded the Ki of trypsin inhibition. In the T7K24R trypsinogen mutant mouse model, a single oral gavage of dabigatran etexilate was effective against cerulein-induced progressive pancreatitis, with a high degree of histological normalization. In contrast, spontaneous pancreatitis in T7D23A mice, which carry a more aggressive trypsinogen mutation, was not ameliorated by dabigatran etexilate, given either as daily gavages or by mixing it with solid chow. Taken together, our observations showed that benzamidine derivatives such as dabigatran are potent trypsin inhibitors and show therapeutic activity against trypsin-dependent pancreatitis in T7K24R mice. Lack of efficacy in T7D23A mice is probably related to the more severe pathology and insufficient drug concentrations in the pancreas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsófia Gabriella Pesei
- Department of Surgery, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Zsanett Jancsó
- Department of Surgery, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Alexandra Demcsák
- Department of Surgery, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Balázs Csaba Németh
- Department of Surgery, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Sandor Vajda
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Miklós Sahin-Tóth
- Department of Surgery, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
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14
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Zhou Y, Wu J, Xue G, Li J, Jiang L, Huang M. Structural study of the uPA-nafamostat complex reveals a covalent inhibitory mechanism of nafamostat. Biophys J 2022; 121:3940-3949. [PMID: 36039386 PMCID: PMC9674978 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2022.08.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Nafamostat mesylate (NM) is a synthetic compound that inhibits various serine proteases produced during the coagulation cascade and inflammation. Previous studies showed that NM was a highly safe drug for the treatment of different cancers, but the precise functions and mechanisms of NM are not clear. In this study, we determined a series of crystal structures of NM and its hydrolysates in complex with a serine protease (urokinase-type plasminogen activator [uPA]). These structures reveal that NM was cleaved by uPA and that a hydrolyzed product (4-guanidinobenzoic acid [GBA]) remained covalently linked to Ser195 of uPA, and the other hydrolyzed product (6-amidino-2-naphthol [6A2N]) released from uPA. Strikingly, in the inactive uPA (uPA-S195A):NM structure, the 6A2N side of intact NM binds to the specific pocket of uPA. Molecular dynamics simulations and end-point binding free-energy calculations show that the conf1 of NM (6A2N as P1 group) in the uPA-S195A:NM complex may be more stable than conf2 of NM (GBA as P1 group). Moreover, in the structure of uPA:NM complex, the imidazole group of His57 flips further away from Ser195 and disrupts the stable canonical catalytic triad conformation. These results not only reveal the inhibitory mechanism of NM as an efficient serine protease inhibitor but also might provide the structural basis for the further development of serine protease inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhou
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, P.R. China
| | - Juhong Wu
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, P.R. China
| | - Guangpu Xue
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, P.R. China
| | - Jinyu Li
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, P.R. China
| | - Longguang Jiang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, P.R. China; Fujian Key Laboratory of Marine Enzyme Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, P.R. China.
| | - Mingdong Huang
- College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian, P.R. China.
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15
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Park T, Hwang H, Moon S, Kang SG, Song S, Kim YH, Kim H, Ko EJ, Yoon SD, Kang SM, Hwang HS. Vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 variants and future pandemics. Expert Rev Vaccines 2022; 21:1363-1376. [PMID: 35924678 PMCID: PMC9979704 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2022.2110075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Vaccination continues to be the most effective method for controlling COVID-19 infectious diseases. Nonetheless, SARS-CoV-2 variants continue to evolve and emerge, resulting in significant public concerns worldwide, even after more than 2 years since the COVID-19 pandemic. It is important to better understand how different COVID-19 vaccine platforms work, why SARS-CoV-2 variants continue to emerge, and what options for improving COVID-19 vaccines can be considered to fight against SARS-CoV-2 variants and future pandemics. AREA COVERED Here, we reviewed the innate immune sensors in the recognition of SARS-CoV-2 virus, innate and adaptive immunity including neutralizing antibodies by different COVID-19 vaccines. Efficacy comparison of the several COVID-19 vaccine platforms approved for use in humans, concerns about SARS-CoV-2 variants and breakthrough infections, and the options for developing future COIVD-19 vaccines were also covered. EXPERT OPINION Owing to the continuous emergence of novel pathogens and the reemergence of variants, safer and more effective new vaccines are needed. This review also aims to provide the knowledge basis for the development of next-generation COVID-19 and pan-coronavirus vaccines to provide cross-protection against new SARS-CoV-2 variants and future coronavirus pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taeyoung Park
- Department of Biology, College of Life Science and Industry, Sunchon National University (SCNU), Suncheon, South Korea
| | - Hyogyeong Hwang
- Department of Biology, College of Life Science and Industry, Sunchon National University (SCNU), Suncheon, South Korea
| | - Suhyeong Moon
- Department of Biology, College of Life Science and Industry, Sunchon National University (SCNU), Suncheon, South Korea
| | - Sang Gu Kang
- Department of Biology, College of Life Science and Industry, Sunchon National University (SCNU), Suncheon, South Korea
| | - Seunghyup Song
- Department of Biology, College of Life Science and Industry, Sunchon National University (SCNU), Suncheon, South Korea
| | - Young Hun Kim
- Department of Biology, College of Life Science and Industry, Sunchon National University (SCNU), Suncheon, South Korea
| | - Hanbi Kim
- Department of Biology, College of Life Science and Industry, Sunchon National University (SCNU), Suncheon, South Korea
| | - Eun-Ju Ko
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Advanced Convergence Technology and Science, Jeju National University, Jeju, South Korea
| | - Soon-Do Yoon
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Chonnam National University, Yeosu, South Korea
| | - Sang-Moo Kang
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Hye Suk Hwang
- Department of Biology, College of Life Science and Industry, Sunchon National University (SCNU), Suncheon, South Korea
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16
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Dhawan M, Saied AA, Mitra S, Alhumaydhi FA, Emran TB, Wilairatana P. Omicron variant (B.1.1.529) and its sublineages: What do we know so far amid the emergence of recombinant variants of SARS-CoV-2? Biomed Pharmacother 2022; 154:113522. [PMID: 36030585 PMCID: PMC9376347 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous variants of SARS-CoV-2 have been reported worldwide. The advent of variants of concern (VOCs) raises severe concerns amid the serious containment efforts against COVID-19 that include physical measures, pharmacological repurposing, immunization, and genomic/community surveillance. Omicron variant (B.1.1.529) has been identified as a highly modified, contagious, and crucial variant among the five VOCs of SARS-CoV-2. The increased affinity of the spike protein (S-protein), and host receptor, angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE-2), due to a higher number of mutations in the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the S-protein has been proposed as the primary reason for the decreased efficacy of majorly available vaccines against the Omicron variant and the increased transmissible nature of the Omicron variant. Because of its significant competitive advantage, the Omicron variant and its sublineages swiftly surpassed other variants to become the dominant circulating lineages in a number of nations. The Omicron variant has been identified as a prevalent strain in the United Kingdom and South Africa. Furthermore, the emergence of recombinant variants through the conjunction of the Omicron variant with other variants or by the mixing of the Omicron variant's sublineages/subvariants poses a major threat to humanity. This raises various issues and hazards regarding the Omicron variant and its sublineages, such as an Omicron variant breakout in susceptible populations among fully vaccinated persons. As a result, understanding the features and genetic implications of this variant is crucial. Hence, we explained in depth the evolution and features of the Omicron variant and analyzed the repercussions of spike mutations on infectiousness, dissemination ability, viral entry mechanism, and immune evasion. We also presented a viewpoint on feasible strategies for precluding and counteracting any future catastrophic emergence and spread of the omicron variant and its sublineages that could result in a detrimental wave of COVID-19 cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Dhawan
- Department of Microbiology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, Punjab, India; Trafford College, Altrincham, Manchester WA14 5PQ, UK.
| | - AbdulRahman A Saied
- National Food Safety Authority (NFSA), Aswan Branch, Aswan 81511, Egypt; Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Aswan Office, Aswan 81511, Egypt
| | - Saikat Mitra
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Fahad A Alhumaydhi
- Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Buraydah 52571, Saudi Arabia
| | - Talha Bin Emran
- Department of Pharmacy, BGC Trust University Bangladesh, Chittagong 4381, Bangladesh; Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh.
| | - Polrat Wilairatana
- Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
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17
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Camostat mesilate, a serine protease inhibitor, exerts aquaretic effects and decreases urinary exosomal AQP2 levels. J Pharmacol Sci 2022; 150:204-210. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2022.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Komiyama M. Molecular Mechanisms of the Medicines for COVID-19. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2022. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.20220179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Komiyama
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology (RCAST), The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro, Tokyo 153-8904, Japan
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19
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Teixeira LC, Coimbra JT, Ramos MJ, Fernandes PA. Transmembrane Protease Serine 2 Proteolytic Cleavage of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein: A Mechanistic Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics Study to Inspire the Design of New Drugs To Fight the COVID-19 Pandemic. J Chem Inf Model 2022; 62:2510-2521. [PMID: 35549216 PMCID: PMC9113003 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.1c01561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Despite the development of vaccines against the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus, there is an urgent need for efficient drugs to treat infected patients. An attractive drug target is the human transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) because of its vital role in the viral infection mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 by activation of the virus spike protein (S protein). Having in mind that the information derived from quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) studies could be an important tool in the design of transition-state (TS) analogue inhibitors, we resorted to adiabatic QM/MM calculations to determine the mechanism of the first step (acylation) of proteolytic cleavage of the S protein with atomistic details. Acylation occurred in two stages: (i) proton transfer from Ser441 to His296 concerted with the nucleophilic attack of Ser441 to the substrate's P1-Arg and (ii) proton transfer from His296 to the P1'-Ser residue concerted with the cleavage of the ArgP1-SerP1' peptide bond, with a Gibbs activation energy of 17.1 and 15.8 kcal mol-1, relative to the reactant. An oxyanion hole composed of two hydrogen bonds stabilized the rate-limiting TS by 8 kcal mol-1. An analysis of the TMPRSS2 interactions with the high-energy, short-lived tetrahedral intermediate highlighted the limitations of current clinical inhibitors and pointed out specific ways to develop higher-affinity TS analogue inhibitors. The results support the development of more efficient drugs against SARS-CoV-2 using a human target, free from resistance development.
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Kosinsky Y, Peskov K, Stanski DR, Wetmore D, Vinetz J. Semi-Mechanistic Pharmacokinetic-Pharmacodynamic Model of Camostat Mesylate-Predicted Efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0216721. [PMID: 35412356 PMCID: PMC9047529 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02167-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, which causes COVID-19, uses a viral surface spike protein for host cell entry and the human cell-surface transmembrane serine protease, TMPRSS2, to process the spike protein. Camostat mesylate, an orally available and clinically used serine protease inhibitor, inhibits TMPRSS2, supporting clinical trials to investigate its use in COVID-19. A one-compartment pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) model for camostat and the active metabolite FOY-251 was developed, incorporating TMPRSS2 reversible covalent inhibition by FOY-251, and empirical equations linking TMPRSS2 inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 cell entry. The model predicts that 95% inhibition of TMPRSS2 is required for 50% inhibition of viral entry efficiency. For camostat 200 mg dosed four times daily, 90% inhibition of TMPRSS2 is predicted to occur but with only about 40% viral entry inhibition. For 3-fold higher camostat dosing, marginal improvement of viral entry rate inhibition, up to 54%, is predicted. Because respiratory tract viral load may be associated with negative outcome, even modestly reducing viral entry and respiratory tract viral load may reduce disease progression. This modeling also supports medicinal chemistry approaches to enhancing PK/PD and potency of the camostat molecule. IMPORTANCE Strategies to repurpose already-approved drugs for the treatment of COVID-19 has been attractive since the beginning of the pandemic. Camostat mesylate, a serine protease inhibitor approved in Japan for the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic pancreatitis, inhibits TMPRSS1, a host cell surface serine protease essential for SARS-CoV-2 viral entry. In vitro experiments provided data suggesting that camostat might be effective in the treatment of COVID-19. Multiple clinical trials were planned to test the hypothesis that camostat would be beneficial for treating COVID-19 (for example, clinicaltrials.gov, NCT04353284). The present work used a one-compartment pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) mathematical model for camostat and the active metabolite FOY-251, incorporating TMPRSS2 reversible covalent inhibition by FOY-251, and empirical equations linking TMPRSS2 inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 cell entry. This work is valuable to guide further development of camostat mesylate and possible medicinal chemistry derivatives for the treatment of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kirill Peskov
- M&S Decisions LLC, Moscow, Russia
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
- STU “Sirius,” Sochi, Russia
| | | | - Diana Wetmore
- Harrington Discovery Institute, University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Joseph Vinetz
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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21
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Fujimoto KJ, Hobbs DCF, Umeda M, Nagata A, Yamaguchi R, Sato Y, Sato A, Ohmatsu K, Ooi T, Yanai T, Kimura H, Murata T. In Silico Analysis and Synthesis of Nafamostat Derivatives and Evaluation of Their Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Activity. Viruses 2022; 14:v14020389. [PMID: 35215982 PMCID: PMC8876814 DOI: 10.3390/v14020389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) is expected to block the spike protein-mediated fusion of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Nafamostat, a potent TMPRSS2 inhibitor as well as a candidate for anti-SARS-CoV-2 drug, possesses the same acyl substructure as camostat, but is known to have a greater antiviral effect. A unique aspect of the molecular binding of nafamostat has been recently reported to be the formation of a covalent bond between its acyl substructure and Ser441 in TMPRSS2. In this study, we investigated crucial elements that cause the difference in anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity of nafamostat and camostat. In silico analysis showed that Asp435 significantly contributes to the binding of nafamostat and camostat to TMPRSS2, while Glu299 interacts strongly only with nafamostat. The estimated binding affinity for each compound with TMPRSS2 was actually consistent with the higher activity of nafamostat; however, the evaluation of the newly synthesized nafamostat derivatives revealed that the predicted binding affinity did not correlate with their anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity measured by the cytopathic effect (CPE) inhibition assay. It was further shown that the substitution of the ester bond with amide bond in nafamostat resulted in significantly weakened anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity. These results strongly indicate that the ease of covalent bond formation with Ser441 in TMPRSS2 possibly plays a major role in the anti-SARS-CoV-2 effect of nafamostat and its derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro J. Fujimoto
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (WPI-ITbM), Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan; (A.N.); (R.Y.); (A.S.); (K.O.); (T.O.); (T.Y.)
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan;
- Correspondence: (K.J.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Daniel C. F. Hobbs
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan;
| | - Miki Umeda
- Department of Virology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan; (M.U.); (Y.S.); (H.K.)
| | - Akihiro Nagata
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (WPI-ITbM), Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan; (A.N.); (R.Y.); (A.S.); (K.O.); (T.O.); (T.Y.)
- Department of Molecular and Macromolecular Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Rie Yamaguchi
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (WPI-ITbM), Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan; (A.N.); (R.Y.); (A.S.); (K.O.); (T.O.); (T.Y.)
- Department of Molecular and Macromolecular Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Sato
- Department of Virology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan; (M.U.); (Y.S.); (H.K.)
- PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan
| | - Ayato Sato
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (WPI-ITbM), Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan; (A.N.); (R.Y.); (A.S.); (K.O.); (T.O.); (T.Y.)
| | - Kohsuke Ohmatsu
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (WPI-ITbM), Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan; (A.N.); (R.Y.); (A.S.); (K.O.); (T.O.); (T.Y.)
- Department of Molecular and Macromolecular Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Takashi Ooi
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (WPI-ITbM), Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan; (A.N.); (R.Y.); (A.S.); (K.O.); (T.O.); (T.Y.)
- Department of Molecular and Macromolecular Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Takeshi Yanai
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (WPI-ITbM), Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan; (A.N.); (R.Y.); (A.S.); (K.O.); (T.O.); (T.Y.)
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan;
| | - Hiroshi Kimura
- Department of Virology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan; (M.U.); (Y.S.); (H.K.)
| | - Takayuki Murata
- Department of Virology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan; (M.U.); (Y.S.); (H.K.)
- Department of Virology and Parasitology, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake 470-1192, Japan
- Correspondence: (K.J.F.); (T.M.)
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22
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Urokinase plasminogen activator as an anti-metastasis target: inhibitor design principles, recent amiloride derivatives, and issues with human/mouse species selectivity. Biophys Rev 2022; 14:277-301. [PMID: 35340592 PMCID: PMC8921380 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-021-00921-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) is a widely studied anticancer drug target with multiple classes of inhibitors reported to date. Many of these inhibitors contain amidine or guanidine groups, while others lacking these groups show improved oral bioavailability. Most of the X-ray co-crystal structures of small molecule uPA inhibitors show a key salt bridge with the side chain carboxylate of Asp189 in the S1 pocket of uPA. This review summarises the different classes of uPA inhibitors, their binding interactions and experimentally measured inhibitory potencies and highlights species selectivity issues with attention to recently described 6-substituted amiloride and 5‑N,N-(hexamethylene)amiloride (HMA) derivatives.
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23
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Causton HC. SARS-CoV2 Infection and the Importance of Potassium Balance. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8:744697. [PMID: 34778307 PMCID: PMC8578622 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.744697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV2 infection results in a range of symptoms from mild pneumonia to cardiac arrhythmias, hyperactivation of the immune response, systemic organ failure and death. However, the mechanism of action has been hard to establish. Analysis of symptoms associated with COVID-19, the activity of repurposed drugs associated with lower death rates or antiviral activity in vitro and a small number of studies describing interventions, point to the importance of electrolyte, and particularly potassium, homeostasis at both the cellular, and systemic level. Elevated urinary loss of potassium is associated with disease severity, and the response to electrolyte replenishment correlates with progression toward recovery. These findings suggest possible diagnostic opportunities and therapeutic interventions. They provide insights into comorbidities and mechanisms associated with infection by SARS-CoV2 and other RNA viruses that target the ACE2 receptor, and/or activate cytokine-mediated immune responses in a potassium-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen C Causton
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
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