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Douglass N. Borealpox (Alaskapox) virus: will there be more emerging zoonotic orthopoxviruses? THE LANCET. MICROBE 2024:S2666-5247(24)00106-X. [PMID: 38735304 DOI: 10.1016/s2666-5247(24)00106-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Douglass
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory, 7925 Cape Town, South Africa.
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2
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Brien SC, LeBreton M, Doty JB, Mauldin MR, Morgan CN, Pieracci EG, Ritter JM, Matheny A, Tafon BG, Tamoufe U, Missoup AD, Nwobegahay J, Takuo JM, Nkom F, Mouiche MMM, Feussom JMK, Wilkins K, Wade A, McCollum AM. Clinical Manifestations of an Outbreak of Monkeypox Virus in Captive Chimpanzees in Cameroon, 2016. J Infect Dis 2024; 229:S275-S284. [PMID: 38164967 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiad601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is a reemerging virus of global concern. An outbreak of clade I MPXV affected 20 captive chimpanzees in Cameroon in 2016. We describe the epidemiology, virology, phylogenetics, and clinical progression of this outbreak. Clinical signs included exanthema, facial swelling, perilaryngeal swelling, and eschar. Mpox can be lethal in captive chimpanzees, with death likely resulting from respiratory complications. We advise avoiding anesthesia in animals with respiratory signs to reduce the likelihood of death. This outbreak presented a risk to animal care staff. There is a need for increased awareness and a One Health approach to preparation for outbreaks in wildlife rescue centers in primate range states where MPXV occurs. Control measures should include quarantining affected animals, limiting human contacts, surveillance of humans and animals, use of personal protective equipment, and regular decontamination of enclosures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie C Brien
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and the Roslin Institute, Easter Bush Campus, The University of Edinburgh, Roslin, United Kingdom
- Ape Action Africa, Mefou Park, Cameroon
| | | | - Jeffrey B Doty
- Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Matthew R Mauldin
- Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Clint N Morgan
- Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Emily G Pieracci
- Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jana M Ritter
- Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Audrey Matheny
- Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | | | - Alain D Missoup
- Zoology Unit, Laboratory of Biology and Physiology of Animal Organisms, Faculty of Science, University of Douala, Cameroon
| | | | | | | | - Moctar M M Mouiche
- Mosaic, Yaoundé, Cameroon
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Sciences, University of Ngaounderé, Cameroon
| | - Jean Marc K Feussom
- Cameroon Epidemiological Network for Animal Diseases, Directorate of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Kimberly Wilkins
- Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Abel Wade
- National Veterinary Laboratory, Garoua, Cameroon
| | - Andrea M McCollum
- Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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3
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Subissi L, Stefanelli P, Rezza G. Human mpox: global trends, molecular epidemiology and options for vaccination. Pathog Glob Health 2024; 118:25-32. [PMID: 37715739 PMCID: PMC10769137 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2023.2258641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The eradication of smallpox and the cessation of vaccination have led to the growth of the susceptible human population to poxviruses. This has led to the increasing detection of zoonotic orthopoxviruses. Among those viruses, monkeypox virus (MPV) is the most commonly detected in Western and Central African regions. Since 2022, MPV is causing local transmission in newly affected countries all over the world. While the virus causing the current outbreak remains part of clade II (historically referred to as West African clade), it has a significant number of mutations as compared to other clade II sequences and is therefore referred to as clade IIb. It remains unclear whether those mutations may have caused a change in the virus phenotype. Vaccine effectiveness data show evidence of a high cross-protection of vaccines designed to prevent smallpox against mpox. These vaccines therefore represent a great opportunity to control human-to-human transmission, provided that their availability has short time-frames and that mistakes from the recent past (vaccine inequity) will not be reiterated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Subissi
- Health Emergencies Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Paola Stefanelli
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Roma, Italy
| | - Giovanni Rezza
- Health Prevention Directorate, Ministry of Health, Roma, Italy
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4
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Babkin IV, Babkina IN, Tikunova NV. An Update of Orthopoxvirus Molecular Evolution. Viruses 2022; 14:v14020388. [PMID: 35215981 PMCID: PMC8875945 DOI: 10.3390/v14020388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Although variola virus (VARV) has been eradicated through widespread vaccination, other orthopoxviruses pathogenic for humans circulate in nature. Recently, new orthopoxviruses, including some able to infect humans, have been found and their complete genomes have been sequenced. Questions about the orthopoxvirus mutation rate and the emergence of new threats to humankind as a result of the evolution of circulating orthopoxviruses remain open. Based on contemporary data on ancient VARV DNA and DNA of new orthopoxvirus species, an analysis of the molecular evolution of orthopoxviruses was carried out and the timescale of their emergence was estimated. It was calculated that the orthopoxviruses of the Old and New Worlds separated approximately 40,000 years ago; the recently discovered Akhmeta virus and Alaskapox virus separated from other orthopoxviruses approximately 10,000–20,000 years ago; the rest of modern orthopoxvirus species originated from 1700 to 6000 years ago, with the exception of VARV, which emerged in approximately 300 AD. Later, there was a separation of genetic variants of some orthopoxvirus species, so the monkeypox virus West African subtype originated approximately 600 years ago, and the VARV minor alastrim subtype emerged approximately 300 years ago.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor V. Babkin
- Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
- Correspondence: (I.V.B.); (N.V.T.)
| | | | - Nina V. Tikunova
- Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
- Correspondence: (I.V.B.); (N.V.T.)
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5
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Priyamvada L, Burgado J, Baker-Wagner M, Kitaygorodskyy A, Olson V, Lingappa VR, Satheshkumar PS. New methylene blue derivatives suggest novel anti-orthopoxviral strategies. Antiviral Res 2021; 191:105086. [PMID: 33992710 PMCID: PMC9629033 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2021.105086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Decades after the eradication of smallpox and the discontinuation of routine smallpox vaccination, over half of the world's population is immunologically naïve to variola virus and other orthopoxviruses (OPXVs). Even in those previously vaccinated against smallpox, protective immunity wanes over time. As such, there is a concomitant increase in the incidence of human OPXV infections worldwide. To identify novel antiviral compounds with potent anti-OPXV potential, we characterized the inhibitory activity of PAV-866 and other methylene blue derivatives against the prototypic poxvirus, vaccinia virus (VACV). These compounds inactivated virions prior to infection and consequently inhibited viral binding, fusion and entry. The compounds exhibited strong virucidal activity at non-cytotoxic concentrations, and inhibited VACV infection when added before, during or after viral adsorption. The compounds were effective against other OPXVs including monkeypox virus, cowpox virus and the newly identified Akhmeta virus. Altogether, these findings reveal a novel mode of inhibition that has not previously been demonstrated for small molecule compounds against VACV. Additional studies are in progress to determine the in vivo efficacy of these compounds against OPXVs and further characterize the anti-viral effects of these derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lalita Priyamvada
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Jillybeth Burgado
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | | | | | - Victoria Olson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
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Hemida MG, Alhammadi M, Almathen F, Alnaeem A. Exploring the potential roles of some rodents in the transmission of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Med Virol 2021; 93:5328-5332. [PMID: 33851740 PMCID: PMC8251124 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.27023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is one of the recently identified zoonotic coronaviruses. The one-hump camels are believed to play important roles in the evolution and transmission of the virus. The animal-to-animal, as well as the animal-to-human transmission in the context of MERS-CoV infection, were reported. The camels shed the virus in some of their secretions, especially the nasal tract. However, there are many aspects of the transmission cycle of the virus from animals to humans that are still not fully understood. Rodents played important roles in the transmission of many pathogens, including viruses and bacteria. They have been implicated in the evolution of many human coronaviruses, especially HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-HKU1. However, the role of rodents in the transmission of MERS-CoV still requires more exploration. To achieve this goal, we identified MERS-CoV that naturally infected dromedary camel by molecular surveillance. We captured 15 of the common rodents (rats, mice, and jerboa) sharing the habitat with these animals. We collected both oral and rectal swabs from these animals and then tested them by the commercial MERS-CoV real-time-PCR kits using two targets. Despite the detection of the viral shedding in the nasal swabs of some of the dromedary camels, none of the rodents tested positive for the virus during the tenure of this study. We concluded that these species of rodents did not harbor the virus and are most unlikely to contribute to the transmission of the MERS-CoV. However, further large-scale studies are required to confirm the potential roles of rodents in the context of the MERS-CoV transmission cycle, if any.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maged Gomaa Hemida
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al-Ahasa, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
| | - Mohammed Alhammadi
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al-Ahasa, Saudi Arabia
| | - Faisal Almathen
- Department of Public Health and Animal Husbandry, Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al Hofuf, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdelmohsen Alnaeem
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al-Ahasa, Saudi Arabia
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7
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Silva NIO, de Oliveira JS, Kroon EG, Trindade GDS, Drumond BP. Here, There, and Everywhere: The Wide Host Range and Geographic Distribution of Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses. Viruses 2020; 13:E43. [PMID: 33396609 PMCID: PMC7823380 DOI: 10.3390/v13010043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The global emergence of zoonotic viruses, including poxviruses, poses one of the greatest threats to human and animal health. Forty years after the eradication of smallpox, emerging zoonotic orthopoxviruses, such as monkeypox, cowpox, and vaccinia viruses continue to infect humans as well as wild and domestic animals. Currently, the geographical distribution of poxviruses in a broad range of hosts worldwide raises concerns regarding the possibility of outbreaks or viral dissemination to new geographical regions. Here, we review the global host ranges and current epidemiological understanding of zoonotic orthopoxviruses while focusing on orthopoxviruses with epidemic potential, including monkeypox, cowpox, and vaccinia viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Betânia Paiva Drumond
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais: Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil; (N.I.O.S.); (J.S.d.O.); (E.G.K.); (G.d.S.T.)
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8
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Morgan CN, Matheny AM, Nakazawa YJ, Kling C, Gallardo-Romero N, Seigler L, Barbosa Costa G, Hutson C, Maghlakelidze G, Olson V, Doty JB. Laboratory Infection of Novel Akhmeta Virus in CAST/EiJ Mice. Viruses 2020; 12:v12121416. [PMID: 33317132 PMCID: PMC7763702 DOI: 10.3390/v12121416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Akhmeta virus is a zoonotic Orthopoxvirus first identified in 2013 in the country of Georgia. Subsequent ecological investigations in Georgia have found evidence that this virus is widespread in its geographic distribution within the country and in its host-range, with rodents likely involved in its circulation in the wild. Yet, little is known about the pathogenicity of this virus in rodents. We conducted the first laboratory infection of Akhmeta virus in CAST/EiJ Mus musculus to further characterize this novel virus. We found a dose-dependent effect on mortality and weight loss (p < 0.05). Anti-orthopoxvirus antibodies were detected in the second- and third-highest dose groups (5 × 104 pfu and 3 × 102 pfu) at euthanasia by day 10, and day 14 post-infection, respectively. Anti-orthopoxvirus antibodies were not detected in the highest dose group (3 × 106 pfu), which were euthanized at day 7 post-infection and had high viral load in tissues, suggesting they succumbed to disease prior to mounting an effective immune response. In order of highest burden, viable virus was detected in the nostril, lung, tail, liver and spleen. All individuals tested in the highest dose groups were DNAemic. Akhmeta virus was highly pathogenic in CAST/EiJ Mus musculus, causing 100% mortality when ≥3 × 102 pfu was administered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clint N. Morgan
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-404-639-0844
| | - Audrey M. Matheny
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, CDC Fellowship Program, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Yoshinori J. Nakazawa
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
| | - Chantal Kling
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, CDC Fellowship Program, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Nadia Gallardo-Romero
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
| | - Laurie Seigler
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
- Kāpili Services, LLC, An Alaka’ina Foundation Company, Honolulu, HI 96814, USA
| | - Galileu Barbosa Costa
- Núcleo de Epidemiologia e Bioestatística, Centro de Pesquisas Gonçalo Moniz, Fiocruz, Bahia 40296-710, Brazil;
| | - Christina Hutson
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
| | - Giorgi Maghlakelidze
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, South Caucuses Office, Tbilisi 0177, Georgia;
| | - Victoria Olson
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
| | - Jeffrey B. Doty
- Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, National Center for Emerging Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (A.M.M.); (Y.J.N.); (C.K.); (N.G.-R.); (L.S.); (C.H.); (V.O.); (J.B.D.)
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9
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Bennett AJ, Paskey AC, Ebinger A, Pfaff F, Priemer G, Höper D, Breithaupt A, Heuser E, Ulrich RG, Kuhn JH, Bishop-Lilly KA, Beer M, Goldberg TL. Relatives of rubella virus in diverse mammals. Nature 2020; 586:424-428. [PMID: 33029010 PMCID: PMC7572621 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2812-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Since 1814, when rubella was first described, the origins of the disease and its causative agent, rubella virus (Matonaviridae: Rubivirus), have remained unclear1. Here we describe ruhugu virus and rustrela virus in Africa and Europe, respectively, which are, to our knowledge, the first known relatives of rubella virus. Ruhugu virus, which is the closest relative of rubella virus, was found in apparently healthy cyclops leaf-nosed bats (Hipposideros cyclops) in Uganda. Rustrela virus, which is an outgroup to the clade that comprises rubella and ruhugu viruses, was found in acutely encephalitic placental and marsupial animals at a zoo in Germany and in wild yellow-necked field mice (Apodemus flavicollis) at and near the zoo. Ruhugu and rustrela viruses share an identical genomic architecture with rubella virus2,3. The amino acid sequences of four putative B cell epitopes in the fusion (E1) protein of the rubella, ruhugu and rustrela viruses and two putative T cell epitopes in the capsid protein of the rubella and ruhugu viruses are moderately to highly conserved4-6. Modelling of E1 homotrimers in the post-fusion state predicts that ruhugu and rubella viruses have a similar capacity for fusion with the host-cell membrane5. Together, these findings show that some members of the family Matonaviridae can cross substantial barriers between host species and that rubella virus probably has a zoonotic origin. Our findings raise concerns about future zoonotic transmission of rubella-like viruses, but will facilitate comparative studies and animal models of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Bennett
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Adrian C Paskey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Leidos, Reston, VA, USA
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center-Frederick, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Arnt Ebinger
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Florian Pfaff
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Grit Priemer
- State Office for Agriculture, Food Safety and Fisheries, Rostock, Germany
| | - Dirk Höper
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Angele Breithaupt
- Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Elisa Heuser
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel-Insel Riems, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel-Insel Riems, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Jens H Kuhn
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Kimberly A Bishop-Lilly
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center-Frederick, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Tony L Goldberg
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
- Global Health Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
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