1
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Šenigl F, Soikkeli A, Prost S, Schatz DG, Slavková M, Hejnar J, Alinikula J. The SV40 virus enhancer functions as a somatic hypermutation-targeting element with potential oncogenic activity. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.09.574829. [PMID: 38260396 PMCID: PMC10802419 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.09.574829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Simian virus 40 (SV40) is a monkey virus associated with several types of human cancers. SV40 is most frequently detected in mesotheliomas, brain and bone tumors and lymphomas, but the mechanism for SV40 tumorigenesis in humans is not clear. SV40 relative Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) causes Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) in humans by expressing truncated large tumor antigen (LT) caused by APOBEC cytidine deaminase family enzymes induced mutations. AID (activation-induced cytidine deaminase), a member of the APOBEC family, is the initiator of the antibody diversification process known as somatic hypermutation (SHM) and its aberrant expression and targeting is a frequent source of lymphomagenesis. In this study, we investigated whether AID-induced mutations could cause truncation of SV40 LT. We demonstrate that the SV40 enhancer has strong SHM targeting activity in several cell types and that AID-induced mutations accumulate to SV40 LT in B cells and kidney cells and cause truncated LT expression in B cells. Our results argue that the ability of the SV40 enhancer to target SHM to LT is a potential source of LT truncation events in various cell types that could contribute to carcinogenesis.
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2
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Studstill CJ, Mac M, Moody CA. Interplay between the DNA damage response and the life cycle of DNA tumor viruses. Tumour Virus Res 2023; 16:200272. [PMID: 37918513 PMCID: PMC10685005 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvr.2023.200272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Approximately 20 % of human cancers are associated with virus infection. DNA tumor viruses can induce tumor formation in host cells by disrupting the cell's DNA replication and repair mechanisms. Specifically, these viruses interfere with the host cell's DNA damage response (DDR), which is a complex network of signaling pathways that is essential for maintaining the integrity of the genome. DNA tumor viruses can disrupt these pathways by expressing oncoproteins that mimic or inhibit various DDR components, thereby promoting genomic instability and tumorigenesis. Recent studies have highlighted the molecular mechanisms by which DNA tumor viruses interact with DDR components, as well as the ways in which these interactions contribute to viral replication and tumorigenesis. Understanding the interplay between DNA tumor viruses and the DDR pathway is critical for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat virally associated cancers. In this review, we discuss the current state of knowledge regarding the mechanisms by which human papillomavirus (HPV), merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) interfere with DDR pathways to facilitate their respective life cycles, and the consequences of such interference on genomic stability and cancer development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caleb J Studstill
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, United States
| | - Michelle Mac
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, United States
| | - Cary A Moody
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, United States; Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, United States.
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3
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Chowdhary S, Deka R, Panda K, Kumar R, Solomon AD, Das J, Kanoujiya S, Gupta AK, Sinha S, Ruokolainen J, Kesari KK, Gupta PK. Recent Updates on Viral Oncogenesis: Available Preventive and Therapeutic Entities. Mol Pharm 2023; 20:3698-3740. [PMID: 37486263 PMCID: PMC10410670 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.2c01080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
Human viral oncogenesis is a complex phenomenon and a major contributor to the global cancer burden. Several recent findings revealed cellular and molecular pathways that promote the development and initiation of malignancy when viruses cause an infection. Even, antiviral treatment has become an approach to eliminate the viral infections and prevent the activation of oncogenesis. Therefore, for a better understanding, the molecular pathogenesis of various oncogenic viruses like, hepatitis virus, human immunodeficiency viral (HIV), human papillomavirus (HPV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), could be explored, especially, to expand many potent antivirals that may escalate the apoptosis of infected malignant cells while sparing normal and healthy ones. Moreover, contemporary therapies, such as engineered antibodies antiviral agents targeting signaling pathways and cell biomarkers, could inhibit viral oncogenesis. This review elaborates the recent advancements in both natural and synthetic antivirals to control viral oncogenesis. The study also highlights the challenges and future perspectives of using antivirals in viral oncogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivam Chowdhary
- Department
of Industrial Microbiology, Sam Higginbottom
University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj 211007, Uttar Pradesh India
| | - Rahul Deka
- Department
of Bioengineering and Biotechnology, Birla
Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215, Jharkhand, India
| | - Kingshuk Panda
- Department
of Applied Microbiology, Vellore Institute
of Technology, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Rohit Kumar
- Department
of Life Sciences, Sharda School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Abhishikt David Solomon
- Department
of Molecular & Cellular Engineering, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj 211007, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Jimli Das
- Centre
for
Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Dibrugarh
University, Assam 786004, India
| | - Supriya Kanoujiya
- School
of
Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Ashish Kumar Gupta
- Department
of Biophysics, All India Institute of Medical
Sciences, New Delhi 110029, India
| | - Somya Sinha
- Department
of Biotechnology, Graphic Era Deemed to
Be University, Dehradun 248002, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Janne Ruokolainen
- Department
of Applied Physics, School of Science, Aalto
University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
| | - Kavindra Kumar Kesari
- Department
of Applied Physics, School of Science, Aalto
University, 02150 Espoo, Finland
- Division
of Research and Development, Lovely Professional
University, Phagwara 144411, Punjab, India
| | - Piyush Kumar Gupta
- Department
of Life Sciences, Sharda School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Department
of Biotechnology, Graphic Era Deemed to
Be University, Dehradun 248002, Uttarakhand, India
- Faculty
of Health and Life Sciences, INTI International
University, Nilai 71800, Malaysia
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4
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Yang JF, Liu W, You J. Characterization of molecular mechanisms driving Merkel cell polyomavirus oncogene transcription and tumorigenic potential. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011598. [PMID: 37647312 PMCID: PMC10468096 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is associated with approximately 80% of cases of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), an aggressive type of skin cancer. The incidence of MCC has tripled over the past twenty years, but there are currently very few effective targeted treatments. A better understanding of the MCPyV life cycle and its oncogenic mechanisms is needed to unveil novel strategies for the prevention and treatment of MCC. MCPyV infection and oncogenesis are reliant on the expression of the early viral oncoproteins, which drive the viral life cycle and MCPyV+ MCC tumor cell growth. To date, the molecular mechanisms regulating the transcription of the MCPyV oncogenes remain largely uncharacterized. In this study, we investigated how MCPyV early transcription is regulated to support viral infection and MCC tumorigenesis. Our studies established the roles of multiple cellular factors in the control of MCPyV gene expression. Inhibitor screening experiments revealed that the histone acetyltransferases p300 and CBP positively regulate MCPyV transcription. Their regulation of viral gene expression occurs through coactivation of the transcription factor NF-κB, which binds to the viral genome to drive MCPyV oncogene expression in a manner that is tightly controlled through a negative feedback loop. Furthermore, we discovered that small molecule inhibitors specifically targeting p300/CBP histone acetyltransferase activity are effective at blocking MCPyV tumor antigen expression and MCPyV+ MCC cell proliferation. Together, our work establishes key cellular factors regulating MCPyV transcription, providing the basis for understanding the largely unknown mechanisms governing MCPyV transcription that defines its infectious host cell tropism, viral life cycle, and oncogenic potential. Our studies also identify a novel therapeutic strategy against MCPyV+ MCC through specific blockage of MCPyV oncogene expression and MCC tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- June F. Yang
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Wei Liu
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jianxin You
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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5
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Passerini S, Prezioso C, Babini G, Ferlosio A, Cosio T, Campione E, Moens U, Ciotti M, Pietropaolo V. Detection of Merkel Cell Polyomavirus (MCPyV) DNA and Transcripts in Merkel Cell Carcinoma (MCC). Pathogens 2023; 12:894. [PMID: 37513741 PMCID: PMC10385104 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12070894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the etiological agent of the majority of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC): a rare skin tumor. To improve our understanding of the role of MCPyV in MCCs, the detection and analysis of MCPyV DNA and transcripts were performed on primary tumors and regional lymph nodes from two MCC patients: one metastatic and one non-metastatic. MCPyV-DNA was searched by a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), followed by the amplification of a Large T Antigen (LTAg), Viral Protein 1 (VP1) and Non-Coding Control Region (NCCR). LTAg and VP1 transcripts were investigated by reverse-transcription PCR (RT-PCR). Viral integration was also studied, and full-length LTAg sequencing was performed. qPCR revealed that the primary tumor of both patients and the lymph node of one patient was positive for the small t-antigen, with an average value of 7.0 × 102 copies/µg. The same samples harbored LTAg, NCCR and VP1 DNA. Sequencing results showed truncated LTAg with the conserved retinoblastoma (Rb) protein binding motif and VP1 and NCCR sequences identical to the MCC350 strain. RT-PCR detected LTAg but not VP1 transcripts. The MCPyV genome was integrated into the primary tumor of both patients. The results confirmed the connection between MCPyV and MCC, assuming integration, LTAg truncation and Rb sequestration as key players in MCPyV-mediated oncogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Passerini
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, "Sapienza" University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Carla Prezioso
- Laboratory of Microbiology of Chronic-Neurodegenerative Diseases, IRCCS San Raffaele Roma, 00166 Rome, Italy
| | - Giulia Babini
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, "Sapienza" University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Amedeo Ferlosio
- Anatomic Pathology, Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, Tor Vergata University of Rome, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Terenzio Cosio
- Dermatologic Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, 00133 Rome, Italy
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Elena Campione
- Dermatologic Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Ugo Moens
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Tromsø-The Arctic University of Norway, 9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Marco Ciotti
- Virology Unit, Polyclinic Tor Vergata Foundation, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Valeria Pietropaolo
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, "Sapienza" University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
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6
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Schmitt CA, Tchkonia T, Niedernhofer LJ, Robbins PD, Kirkland JL, Lee S. COVID-19 and cellular senescence. Nat Rev Immunol 2023; 23:251-263. [PMID: 36198912 PMCID: PMC9533263 DOI: 10.1038/s41577-022-00785-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The clinical severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is largely determined by host factors. Recent advances point to cellular senescence, an ageing-related switch in cellular state, as a critical regulator of SARS-CoV-2-evoked hyperinflammation. SARS-CoV-2, like other viruses, can induce senescence and exacerbates the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), which is comprised largely of pro-inflammatory, extracellular matrix-degrading, complement-activating and pro-coagulatory factors secreted by senescent cells. These effects are enhanced in elderly individuals who have an increased proportion of pre-existing senescent cells in their tissues. SASP factors can contribute to a 'cytokine storm', tissue-destructive immune cell infiltration, endothelialitis (endotheliitis), fibrosis and microthrombosis. SASP-driven spreading of cellular senescence uncouples tissue injury from direct SARS-CoV-2-inflicted cellular damage in a paracrine fashion and can further amplify the SASP by increasing the burden of senescent cells. Preclinical and early clinical studies indicate that targeted elimination of senescent cells may offer a novel therapeutic opportunity to attenuate clinical deterioration in COVID-19 and improve resilience following infection with SARS-CoV-2 or other pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clemens A Schmitt
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Medical Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumour Immunology, and Molekulares Krebsforschungszentrum-MKFZ, Campus Virchow Klinikum, Berlin, Germany.
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany.
- Faculty of Medicine, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria.
- Kepler University Hospital, Department of Hematology and Oncology, Linz, Austria.
- Deutsches Konsortium für Translationale Krebsforschung (German Cancer Consortium), Partner site Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Tamar Tchkonia
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Laura J Niedernhofer
- Institute on the Biology of Aging and Metabolism and the Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biochemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Paul D Robbins
- Institute on the Biology of Aging and Metabolism and the Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biochemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - James L Kirkland
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Soyoung Lee
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Medical Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumour Immunology, and Molekulares Krebsforschungszentrum-MKFZ, Campus Virchow Klinikum, Berlin, Germany.
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Berlin, Germany.
- Faculty of Medicine, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria.
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7
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Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Large T Antigen Induces Cellular Senescence for Host Growth Arrest and Viral Genome Persistence through Its Unique Domain. Cells 2023; 12:cells12030380. [PMID: 36766726 PMCID: PMC9913222 DOI: 10.3390/cells12030380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Senescent cells accumulate in the host during the aging process and are associated with age-related pathogeneses, including cancer. Although persistent senescence seems to contribute to many aspects of cellular pathways and homeostasis, the role of senescence in virus-induced human cancer is not well understood. Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive skin cancer induced by a life-long human infection of Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Here, we show that MCPyV large T (LT) antigen expression in human skin fibroblasts causes a novel nucleolar stress response, followed by p21-dependent senescence and senescence-associated secretory phenotypes (SASPs), which are required for MCPyV genome maintenance. Senolytic and navitoclax treatments result in decreased senescence and MCPyV genome levels, suggesting a potential therapeutic for MCC prevention. Our results uncover the mechanism of a host stress response regulating human polyomavirus genome maintenance in viral persistency, which may lead to targeted intervention for MCC.
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8
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Merkel Cell Polyomavirus: Infection, Genome, Transcripts and Its Role in Development of Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15020444. [PMID: 36672392 PMCID: PMC9857234 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15020444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The best characterized polyomavirus family member, i.e., simian virus 40 (SV40), can cause different tumors in hamsters and can transform murine and human cells in vitro. Hence, the SV40 contamination of millions of polio vaccine doses administered from 1955-1963 raised fears that this may cause increased tumor incidence in the vaccinated population. This is, however, not the case. Indeed, up to now, the only polyomavirus family member known to be the most important cause of a specific human tumor entity is Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). MCC is a highly deadly form of skin cancer for which the cellular origin is still uncertain, and which appears as two clinically very similar but molecularly highly different variants. While approximately 80% of cases are found to be associated with MCPyV the remaining MCCs carry a high mutational load. Here, we present an overview of the multitude of molecular functions described for the MCPyV encoded oncoproteins and non-coding RNAs, present the available MCC mouse models and discuss the increasing evidence that both, virus-negative and -positive MCC constitute epithelial tumors.
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9
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Soikkeli AI, Kyläniemi MK, Sihto H, Alinikula J. Oncogenic Merkel Cell Polyomavirus T Antigen Truncating Mutations are Mediated by APOBEC3 Activity in Merkel Cell Carcinoma. CANCER RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS 2022; 2:1344-1354. [PMID: 36970060 PMCID: PMC10035372 DOI: 10.1158/2767-9764.crc-22-0211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive skin cancer, which is frequently caused by Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). Mutations of MCPyV tumor (T) antigens are major pathologic events of virus-positive (MCPyV+) MCCs, but their source is unclear. Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID)/APOBEC family cytidine deaminases contribute to antiviral immunity by mutating viral genomes and are potential carcinogenic mutators. We studied the contribution of AID/APOBEC cytidine deaminases to MCPyV large T (LT) truncation events. The MCPyV LT area in MCCs was enriched with cytosine-targeting mutations, and a strong APOBEC3 mutation signature was observed in MCC sequences. AICDA and APOBEC3 expression were detected in the Finnish MCC sample cohort, and LT expression correlated with APOBEC3H and APOBEC3G. Marginal but statistically significant somatic hypermutation targeting activity was detected in the MCPyV regulatory region. Our results suggest that APOBEC3 cytidine deaminases are a plausible cause of the LT truncating mutations in MCPyV+ MCC, while the role of AID in MCC carcinogenesis is unlikely.
Significance:
We uncover APOBEC3 mutation signature in MCPyV LT that reveals the likely cause of mutations underlying MCPyV+ MCC. We further reveal an expression pattern of APOBECs in a large Finnish MCC sample cohort. Thus, the findings presented here suggest a molecular mechanism underlying an aggressive carcinoma with poor prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anni I. Soikkeli
- 1Unit of Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- 2Turku Doctoral Programme of Molecular Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Minna K. Kyläniemi
- 3Turku Bioscience Centre, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Harri Sihto
- 4Department of Pathology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jukka Alinikula
- 1Unit of Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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10
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Loke ASW, Lambert PF, Spurgeon ME. Current In Vitro and In Vivo Models to Study MCPyV-Associated MCC. Viruses 2022; 14:2204. [PMID: 36298759 PMCID: PMC9607385 DOI: 10.3390/v14102204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the only human polyomavirus currently known to cause human cancer. MCPyV is believed to be an etiological factor in at least 80% of cases of the rare but aggressive skin malignancy Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). In these MCPyV+ MCC tumors, clonal integration of the viral genome results in the continued expression of two viral proteins: the viral small T antigen (ST) and a truncated form of the viral large T antigen. The oncogenic potential of MCPyV and the functional properties of the viral T antigens that contribute to neoplasia are becoming increasingly well-characterized with the recent development of model systems that recapitulate the biology of MCPyV+ MCC. In this review, we summarize our understanding of MCPyV and its role in MCC, followed by the current state of both in vitro and in vivo model systems used to study MCPyV and its contribution to carcinogenesis. We also highlight the remaining challenges within the field and the major considerations related to the ongoing development of in vitro and in vivo models of MCPyV+ MCC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Megan E. Spurgeon
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, School of Medicine & Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, USA
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11
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Venuti A, Romero-Medina MC, Melita G, Ceraolo MG, Brancaccio RN, Sirand C, Taverniti V, Steenbergen R, Gheit T, Tommasino M. Lyon IARC Polyomavirus Displays Transforming Activities in Primary Human Cells. J Virol 2022; 96:e0206121. [PMID: 35770990 PMCID: PMC9327700 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02061-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Several studies reported the presence of a recently discovered polyomavirus (PyV), Lyon IARC PyV (LIPyV), in human and domestic animal specimens. LIPyV has some structural similarities to well-established animal and human oncogenic PyVs, such as raccoon PyV and Merkel cell PyV (MCPyV), respectively. In this study, we demonstrate that LIPyV early proteins immortalize human foreskin keratinocytes. LIPyV LT binds pRb, accordingly cell cycle checkpoints are altered in primary human fibroblasts and keratinocytes expressing LIPyV early genes. Mutation of the pRb binding site in LT strongly affected the ability of LIPyV ER to induced HFK immortalization. LIPyV LT also binds p53 and alters p53 functions activated by cellular stresses. Finally, LIPyV early proteins activate telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) gene expression, via accumulation of the Sp1 transcription factor. Sp1 recruitment to the hTERT promoter is controlled by its phosphorylation, which is mediated by ERK1 and CDK2. Together, these data highlight the transforming properties of LIPyV in in vitro experimental models, supporting its possible oncogenic nature. IMPORTANCE Lyon IARC PyV is a recently discovered polyomavirus that shows some structural similarities to well-established animal and human oncogenic PyVs, such as raccoon PyV and Merkel cell PyV, respectively. Here, we show the capability of LIPyV to efficiently promote cellular transformation of primary human cells, suggesting a possible oncogenic role of this virus in domestic animals and/or humans. Our study identified a novel virus-mediated mechanism of activation of telomerase reverse transcriptase gene expression, via accumulation of the Sp1 transcription factor. In addition, because the persistence of infection is a key event in virus-mediated carcinogenesis, it will be important to determine whether LIPyV can deregulate immune-related pathways, similarly to the well-established oncogenic viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Assunta Venuti
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), World Health Organization, Lyon Cedex, France
| | | | - Giusi Melita
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), World Health Organization, Lyon Cedex, France
| | - Maria Grazia Ceraolo
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), World Health Organization, Lyon Cedex, France
| | | | - Cecilia Sirand
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), World Health Organization, Lyon Cedex, France
| | - Valerio Taverniti
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), World Health Organization, Lyon Cedex, France
| | - Renske Steenbergen
- VU University Medical Center Amsterdam, Department of Pathology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tarik Gheit
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), World Health Organization, Lyon Cedex, France
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12
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Yang JF, You J. Merkel cell polyomavirus and associated Merkel cell carcinoma. Tumour Virus Res 2022; 13:200232. [PMID: 34920178 PMCID: PMC8715208 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvr.2021.200232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is a ubiquitous skin infection that can cause Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a highly lethal form of skin cancer with a nearly 50% mortality rate. Since the discovery of MCPyV in 2008, great advances have been made to improve our understanding of how the viral encoded oncoproteins contribute to MCC oncogenesis. However, our knowledge of the MCPyV infectious life cycle and its oncogenic mechanisms are still incomplete. The incidence of MCC has tripled over the past two decades, but effective treatments are lacking. Only recently have there been major victories in combatting metastatic MCC with the application of PD-1 immune checkpoint blockade. Still, these immune-based therapies are not ideal for patients with a medical need to maintain systemic immune suppression. As such, a better understanding of MCPyV's oncogenic mechanisms is needed in order to develop more effective and targeted therapies against virus-associated MCC. In this review, we discuss current areas of interest for MCPyV and MCC research and the progress made in elucidating both the natural host of MCPyV infection and the cell of origin for MCC. We also highlight the remaining gaps in our knowledge on the transcriptional regulation of MCPyV, which may be key to understanding and targeting viral oncogenesis for developing future therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- June F Yang
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-6076, USA
| | - Jianxin You
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-6076, USA.
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13
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Lee KA, Flores RR, Jang IH, Saathoff A, Robbins PD. Immune Senescence, Immunosenescence and Aging. FRONTIERS IN AGING 2022; 3:900028. [PMID: 35821850 PMCID: PMC9261375 DOI: 10.3389/fragi.2022.900028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
With aging, there is increased dysfunction of both innate and adaptive immune responses, which contributes to impaired immune responses to pathogens and greater mortality and morbidity. This age-related immune dysfunction is defined in general as immunosenescence and includes an increase in the number of memory T cells, loss of ability to respond to antigen and a lingering level of low-grade inflammation. However, certain features of immunosenescence are similar to cellular senescence, which is defined as the irreversible loss of proliferation in response to damage and stress. Importantly, senescence cells can develop an inflammatory senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), that also drives non-autonomous cellular senescence and immune dysfunction. Interestingly, viral infection can increase the extent of immune senescence both directly and indirectly, leading to increased immune dysfunction and inflammation, especially in the elderly. This review focuses on age-related immune dysfunction, cellular senescence and the impaired immune response to pathogens.
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14
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Tammaro A, Cantisani C, Chello C, Adebanjo GAR, Lilli L, Farnetani F, Filippi C, Covelli E, Rogges E, Pellacani G. A Challenging Nodular Lesion of the Ear. Medicina (B Aires) 2022; 58:medicina58020269. [PMID: 35208592 PMCID: PMC8877636 DOI: 10.3390/medicina58020269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin nodular lesion are really frequent, but rapidly growing ones needs to be quickly removed since they can hide really aggressive skin tumor. Among malignant lesion Merkel cell carcinoma arise. It is a rare neuroendocrine skin tumor highly aggressive, not easy to diagnose at first stage, since at first diagnosis it is already widespreading all over the body. In order to renew interest in this letal skin tumori is mandatory to remind high risk population which include elderly people, white skin, chronically exposed to UV immunocompromised. Our unhappy case was described to increase awareness on this kind of skin tumor, since new drug appeared in the market can give an hope to these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Tammaro
- NESMOS Dermatology Department, Sapienza Medical School of Rome, 00141 Rome, Italy; (A.T.); (C.C.); (G.A.R.A.); (E.C.)
| | - Carmen Cantisani
- UOC of Dermatology, Policlinico Umberto I Hospital, Sapienza Medical School of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy; (F.F.); (G.P.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0649976930
| | - Camilla Chello
- NESMOS Dermatology Department, Sapienza Medical School of Rome, 00141 Rome, Italy; (A.T.); (C.C.); (G.A.R.A.); (E.C.)
- Dermatology Department, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41124 Modena, Italy
| | | | - Lavinia Lilli
- Biological Science Department, “Roma Tre” University, 00154 Rome, Italy;
| | - Francesca Farnetani
- UOC of Dermatology, Policlinico Umberto I Hospital, Sapienza Medical School of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy; (F.F.); (G.P.)
| | - Chiara Filippi
- ENT Department, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Edoardo Covelli
- NESMOS Dermatology Department, Sapienza Medical School of Rome, 00141 Rome, Italy; (A.T.); (C.C.); (G.A.R.A.); (E.C.)
| | - Evelina Rogges
- Pathology Department, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Giovanni Pellacani
- UOC of Dermatology, Policlinico Umberto I Hospital, Sapienza Medical School of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy; (F.F.); (G.P.)
- Dermatology Department, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41124 Modena, Italy
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15
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Moore SA, Narayanan D, Simonette RA, Bartley BR, Doan HQ, Rady PL, Tyring SK. Selinexor as Novel Inhibitor of DNA Damage Response in Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Clin Exp Dermatol 2022; 47:1354-1357. [PMID: 35120268 DOI: 10.1111/ced.15120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a highly lethal cutaneous carcinoma etiologically linked to Merkel cell polyomavirus (MPCyV) in ~80% of cases in the U.S. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) can successfully treat ~50% of patients with metastatic MCC, but some MCC are refractory to ICI, possibly due to altered DNA damage response (DDR). Selinexor, a currently approved anti-cancer therapy in combination with chemotherapy for multiple myeloma, downregulates tumor antigens small T and large T in MCC through selective inhibition of nuclear exportin 1 (XPO1). Here, we examine the effect of varying doses of selinexor on DDR protein expression in MCPyV-positive and MCPyV-negative MCC cells. Selinexor was found to inhibit DDR protein expression in both MCPyV-positive and MCPyV-negative cells. Addition of selinexor alone or combined with ICI may be a promising treatment for MCC, but further research in vivo and clinical trials are required to validate these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen A Moore
- Department of Dermatology, The University of Texas McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA.,Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Deepika Narayanan
- Department of Dermatology, The University of Texas McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Rebecca A Simonette
- Department of Dermatology, The University of Texas McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Brooke R Bartley
- Department of Dermatology, The University of Texas McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Hung Q Doan
- Department of Dermatology, Division of Internal Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Peter L Rady
- Department of Dermatology, The University of Texas McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Stephen K Tyring
- Department of Dermatology, The University of Texas McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
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16
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Epigenetic Dysregulations in Merkel Cell Polyomavirus-Driven Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222111464. [PMID: 34768895 PMCID: PMC8584046 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is a small DNA virus with oncogenic potential. MCPyV is the causative agent of Merkel Cell Carcinoma (MCC), a rare but aggressive tumor of the skin. The role of epigenetic mechanisms, such as histone posttranslational modifications (HPTMs), DNA methylation, and microRNA (miRNA) regulation on MCPyV-driven MCC has recently been highlighted. In this review, we aim to describe and discuss the latest insights into HPTMs, DNA methylation, and miRNA regulation, as well as their regulative factors in the context of MCPyV-driven MCC, to provide an overview of current findings on how MCPyV is involved in the dysregulation of these epigenetic processes. The current state of the art is also described as far as potentially using epigenetic dysregulations and related factors as diagnostic and prognostic tools is concerned, in addition to targets for MCPyV-driven MCC therapy. Growing evidence suggests that the dysregulation of HPTMs, DNA methylation, and miRNA pathways plays a role in MCPyV-driven MCC etiopathogenesis, which, therefore, may potentially be clinically significant for this deadly tumor. A deeper understanding of these mechanisms and related factors may improve diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy for MCPyV-driven MCC.
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17
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Krump NA, You J. From Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Infection to Merkel Cell Carcinoma Oncogenesis. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:739695. [PMID: 34566942 PMCID: PMC8457551 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.739695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) infection causes near-ubiquitous, asymptomatic infection in the skin, but occasionally leads to an aggressive skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). Epidemiological evidence suggests that poorly controlled MCPyV infection may be a precursor to MCPyV-associated MCC. Clearer understanding of host responses that normally control MCPyV infection could inform prophylactic measures in at-risk groups. Similarly, the presence of MCPyV in most MCCs could imbue them with vulnerabilities that-if better characterized-could yield targeted intervention solutions for metastatic MCC cases. In this review, we discuss recent developments in elucidating the interplay between host cells and MCPyV within the context of viral infection and MCC oncogenesis. We also propose a model in which insufficient restriction of MCPyV infection in aging and chronically UV-damaged skin causes unbridled viral replication that licenses MCC tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jianxin You
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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18
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Katerji M, Duerksen-Hughes PJ. DNA damage in cancer development: special implications in viral oncogenesis. Am J Cancer Res 2021; 11:3956-3979. [PMID: 34522461 PMCID: PMC8414375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA lesions arise from a combination of physiological/metabolic sources and exogenous environmental influences. When left unrepaired, these alterations accumulate in the cells and can give rise to mutations that change the function of important proteins (i.e. tumor suppressors, oncoproteins), or cause chromosomal rearrangements (i.e. gene fusions) that also result in the deregulation of key cellular molecules. Progressive acquisition of such genetic changes promotes uncontrolled cell proliferation and evasion of cell death, and hence plays a key role in carcinogenesis. Another less-studied consequence of DNA damage accumulating in the host genome is the integration of oncogenic DNA viruses such as Human papillomavirus, Merkel cell polyomavirus, and Hepatitis B virus. This critical step of viral-induced carcinogenesis is thought to be particularly facilitated by DNA breaks in both viral and host genomes. Therefore, the impact of DNA damage on carcinogenesis is magnified in the case of such oncoviruses via the additional effect of increasing integration frequency. In this review, we briefly present the various endogenous and exogenous factors that cause different types of DNA damage. Next, we discuss the contribution of these lesions in cancer development. Finally, we examine the amplified effect of DNA damage in viral-induced oncogenesis and summarize the limited data existing in the literature related to DNA damage-induced viral integration. To conclude, additional research is needed to assess the DNA damage pathways involved in the transition from viral infection to cancer. Discovering that a certain DNA damaging agent increases the likelihood of viral integration will enable the development of prophylactic and therapeutic strategies designed specifically to prevent such integration, with an ultimate goal of reducing or eliminating these viral-induced malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghri Katerji
- Department of Basic Science, Loma Linda University School of Medicine Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA
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19
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Aravindhan S, Younus LA, Hadi Lafta M, Markov A, Ivanovna Enina Y, Yushchenkо NA, Thangavelu L, Mostafavi SM, Pokrovskii MV, Ahmadi M. P53 long noncoding RNA regulatory network in cancer development. Cell Biol Int 2021; 45:1583-1598. [PMID: 33760334 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.11600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The protein p53 as a transcription factor with strong tumor-suppressive activities is known to trigger apoptosis via multiple pathways and is directly involved in the recognition of DNA damage and DNA repair processes. P53 alteration is now recognized as a common event in the pathogenesis of many types of human malignancies. Deregulation of tumor suppressor p53 pathways plays an important role in the activation of cell proliferation or inactivation of apoptotic cell death during carcinogenesis and tumor progression. Mounting evidence indicates that the p53 status of tumors and also the regulatory functions of p53 may be relevant to the long noncoding RNAs (lncRNA)-dependent gene regulation programs. Besides coding genes, lncRNAs that do not encode for proteins are induced or suppressed by p53 transcriptional response and thus control cancer progression. LncRNAs also have emerged as key regulators that impinge on the p53 signaling network orchestrating global gene-expression profile. Studies have suggested that aberrant expression of lncRNAs as a molecular-genomic signature may play important roles in cancer biology. Accordingly, it is important to elucidate the mechanisms by which the crosstalk between lncRNAs and p53 occurs in the development of numerous cancers. Here, we review how several classes of lncRNAs and p53 pathways are linked together in controlling the cell cycle and apoptosis in various cancer cells in both human and mouse model systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surendar Aravindhan
- Department of Pharmacology, Saveetha Dental College and Hospital, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, chennai, India
| | - Laith A Younus
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jabir Ibn Hayyan Medical University, Al Najaf Al Ashraf, Najaf, Iraq
| | | | | | - Yulianna Ivanovna Enina
- Department of Propaedeutics of Dental Diseases, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Natalya A Yushchenkо
- Department of Legal Disciplines, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russian Federation
| | - Lakshmi Thangavelu
- Department of Pharmacology, Saveetha Dental College and Hospital, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, India
| | | | - Michail V Pokrovskii
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Medicine, Belgorod State National Research University, Belgorod, Russian Federation
| | - Majid Ahmadi
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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20
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Wu Z, Graf FE, Hirsch HH. Antivirals against human polyomaviruses: Leaving no stone unturned. Rev Med Virol 2021; 31:e2220. [PMID: 33729628 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.2220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Human polyomaviruses (HPyVs) encompass more than 10 species infecting 30%-90% of the human population without significant illness. Proven HPyV diseases with documented histopathology affect primarily immunocompromised hosts with manifestations in brain, skin and renourinary tract such as polyomavirus-associated nephropathy (PyVAN), polyomavirus-associated haemorrhagic cystitis (PyVHC), polyomavirus-associated urothelial cancer (PyVUC), progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), Trichodysplasia spinulosa (TS) and pruritic hyperproliferative keratinopathy. Although virus-specific immune control is the eventual goal of therapy and lasting cure, antiviral treatments are urgently needed in order to reduce or prevent HPyV diseases and thereby bridging the time needed to establish virus-specific immunity. However, the small dsDNA genome of only 5 kb of the non-enveloped HPyVs only encodes 5-7 viral proteins. Thus, HPyV replication relies heavily on host cell factors, thereby limiting both, number and type of specific virus-encoded antiviral targets. Lack of cost-effective high-throughput screening systems and relevant small animal models complicates the preclinical development. Current clinical studies are limited by small case numbers, poorly efficacious compounds and absence of proper randomized trial design. Here, we review preclinical and clinical studies that evaluated small molecules with presumed antiviral activity against HPyVs and provide an outlook regarding potential new antiviral strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zongsong Wu
- Transplantation & Clinical Virology, Department Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fabrice E Graf
- Transplantation & Clinical Virology, Department Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Hans H Hirsch
- Transplantation & Clinical Virology, Department Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.,Clinical Virology, Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland.,Infectious Diseases & Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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21
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Spurgeon ME, Liem A, Buehler D, Cheng J, DeCaprio JA, Lambert PF. The Merkel Cell Polyomavirus T Antigens Function as Tumor Promoters in Murine Skin. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13020222. [PMID: 33435392 PMCID: PMC7827793 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13020222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Merkel cell polyomavirus, a recently discovered human virus, is linked to the development of a rare form of skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma. The virus does not replicate in cancer cells, yet there is continued expression of viral proteins known as T antigens. The T antigens are believed to contribute to Merkel cell carcinoma development, yet how they do so remains an active area of research. In this study, we used transgenic mice expressing the viral T antigens in their skin to determine at which stage of skin cancer development these viral proteins function. We discovered that the Merkel cell polyomavirus T antigens function as tumor promoters, rather than tumor initiators, in the skin. These findings suggest that other tumor-initiating events may cooperate with the tumor-promoting activities of the viral T antigens, thus providing important insight into how Merkel cell polyomavirus can cause cancer in human skin. Abstract Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) causes the majority of human Merkel cell carcinomas (MCC), a rare but highly aggressive form of skin cancer. We recently reported that constitutive expression of MCC tumor-derived MCPyV tumor (T) antigens in the skin of transgenic mice leads to hyperplasia, increased proliferation, and spontaneous epithelial tumor development. We sought to evaluate how the MCPyV T antigens contribute to tumor formation in vivo using a classical, multi-stage model for squamous cell carcinoma development. In this model, two chemical carcinogens, DMBA and TPA, contribute to two distinct phases of carcinogenesis—initiation and promotion, respectively—that are required for tumors to develop. By treating the MCPyV transgenic mice with each chemical carcinogen, we determined how the viral oncogenes contributed to carcinogenesis. We observed that the MCPyV T antigens synergized with the tumor initiator DMBA, but not with the tumor promoter TPA, cause tumors. Therefore, the MCPyV tumor antigens function primarily as tumor promoters, similar to that seen with human papillomavirus (HPV) oncoproteins. These studies provide insight into the role of MCPyV T antigen expression in tumor formation in vivo and contribute to our understanding of how MCPyV may function as a human DNA tumor virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E. Spurgeon
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
- Correspondence: (M.E.S.); (P.F.L.)
| | - Amy Liem
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
| | - Darya Buehler
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
| | - Jingwei Cheng
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA;
| | - James A. DeCaprio
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA;
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Paul F. Lambert
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA;
- Correspondence: (M.E.S.); (P.F.L.)
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22
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Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the most recently discovered human oncogenic virus. MCPyV asymptomatically infects most of the human population. In the elderly and immunocompromised, however, it can cause a highly lethal form of human skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). Distinct from the productive MCPyV infection that replicates the viral genome as episomes, MCC tumors contain replication-incompetent, integrated viral genomes. Mutant MCPyV tumor antigen genes expressed from the integrated viral genomes are essential for driving the oncogenic development of MCPyV-associated MCC. In this chapter, we summarize recent discoveries on MCPyV virology, mechanisms of MCPyV-mediated oncogenesis, and the current therapeutic strategies for MCPyV-associated MCCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Jianxin You
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
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23
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Seoane R, Vidal S, Bouzaher YH, El Motiam A, Rivas C. The Interaction of Viruses with the Cellular Senescence Response. BIOLOGY 2020; 9:E455. [PMID: 33317104 PMCID: PMC7764305 DOI: 10.3390/biology9120455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Cellular senescence is viewed as a mechanism to prevent malignant transformation, but when it is chronic, as occurs in age-related diseases, it may have adverse effects on cancer. Therefore, targeting senescent cells is a novel therapeutic strategy against senescence-associated diseases. In addition to its role in cancer protection, cellular senescence is also considered a mechanism to control virus replication. Both interferon treatment and some viral infections can trigger cellular senescence as a way to restrict virus replication. However, activation of the cellular senescence program is linked to the alteration of different pathways, which can be exploited by some viruses to improve their replication. It is, therefore, important to understand the potential impact of senolytic agents on viral propagation. Here we focus on the relationship between virus and cellular senescence and the reported effects of senolytic compounds on virus replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocío Seoane
- Centro de Investigación en Medicina Molecular y Enfermedades Crónicas (CIMUS), Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (R.S.); (S.V.); (Y.H.B.); (A.E.M.)
| | - Santiago Vidal
- Centro de Investigación en Medicina Molecular y Enfermedades Crónicas (CIMUS), Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (R.S.); (S.V.); (Y.H.B.); (A.E.M.)
| | - Yanis Hichem Bouzaher
- Centro de Investigación en Medicina Molecular y Enfermedades Crónicas (CIMUS), Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (R.S.); (S.V.); (Y.H.B.); (A.E.M.)
| | - Ahmed El Motiam
- Centro de Investigación en Medicina Molecular y Enfermedades Crónicas (CIMUS), Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (R.S.); (S.V.); (Y.H.B.); (A.E.M.)
| | - Carmen Rivas
- Centro de Investigación en Medicina Molecular y Enfermedades Crónicas (CIMUS), Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (R.S.); (S.V.); (Y.H.B.); (A.E.M.)
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB), CSIC, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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24
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DeCaprio JA. Molecular Pathogenesis of Merkel Cell Carcinoma. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PATHOLOGY-MECHANISMS OF DISEASE 2020; 16:69-91. [PMID: 33228463 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pathmechdis-012419-032817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is an aggressive neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin with two distinct etiologies. Clonal integration of Merkel cell polyomavirus DNA into the tumor genome with persistent expression of viral T antigens causes at least 60% of all MCC. UV damage leading to highly mutated genomes causes a nonviral form of MCC. Despite these distinct etiologies, both forms of MCC are similar in presentation, prognosis, and response to therapy. At least three oncogenic transcriptional programs feature prominently in both forms of MCC driven by the virus or by mutation. Both forms of MCC have a high proliferative growth rate with increased levels of cell cycle-dependent genes due to inactivation of the tumor suppressors RB and p53, a strong MYC signature due to MYCL activation by the virus or gene amplification, and an attenuated neuroendocrine differentiation program driven by the ATOH1 transcription factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A DeCaprio
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA; .,Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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25
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A Comprehensive Proteomics Analysis of the JC Virus (JCV) Large and Small Tumor Antigen Interacting Proteins: Large T Primarily Targets the Host Protein Complexes with V-ATPase and Ubiquitin Ligase Activities While Small t Mostly Associates with Those Having Phosphatase and Chromatin-Remodeling Functions. Viruses 2020; 12:v12101192. [PMID: 33092197 PMCID: PMC7594058 DOI: 10.3390/v12101192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The oncogenic potential of both the polyomavirus large (LT-Ag) and small (Sm t-Ag) tumor antigens has been previously demonstrated in both tissue culture and animal models. Even the contribution of the MCPyV tumor antigens to the development of an aggressive human skin cancer, Merkel cell carcinoma, has been recently established. To date, the known primary targets of these tumor antigens include several tumor suppressors such as pRb, p53, and PP2A. However, a comprehensive list of the host proteins targeted by these proteins remains largely unknown. Here, we report the first interactome of JCV LT-Ag and Sm t-Ag by employing two independent “affinity purification/mass spectroscopy” (AP/MS) assays. The proteomics data identified novel targets for both tumor antigens while confirming some of the previously reported interactions. LT-Ag was found to primarily target the protein complexes with ATPase (v-ATPase and Smc5/6 complex), phosphatase (PP4 and PP1), and ligase (E3-ubiquitin) activities. In contrast, the major targets of Sm t-Ag were identified as Smarca1/6, AIFM1, SdhA/B, PP2A, and p53. The interactions between “LT-Ag and SdhB”, “Sm t-Ag and Smarca5”, and “Sm t-Ag and SDH” were further validated by biochemical assays. Interestingly, perturbations in some of the LT-Ag and Sm t-Ag targets identified in this study were previously shown to be associated with oncogenesis, suggesting new roles for both tumor antigens in novel oncogenic pathways. This comprehensive data establishes new foundations to further unravel the new roles for JCV tumor antigens in oncogenesis and the viral life cycle.
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26
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Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Large T Antigen Unique Domain Regulates Its Own Protein Stability and Cell Growth. Viruses 2020; 12:v12091043. [PMID: 32962090 PMCID: PMC7551350 DOI: 10.3390/v12091043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) is the only known human oncogenic virus in the polyomaviridae family and the etiological agent of most Merkel cell carcinomas (MCC). MCC is an aggressive and highly metastatic skin cancer with a propensity for recurrence and poor prognosis. Large tumor antigen (LT), is an essential oncoprotein for MCV transcription, viral replication, and cancer cell proliferation. MCV LT is a short-lived protein that encodes a unique domain: MCV LT unique regions (MURs). These domains consist of phosphorylation sites that interact with multiple E3 ligases, thus limiting LT expression and consequently, viral replication. In this study, we show that MURs are necessary for regulating LT stability via multiple E3 ligase interactions, resulting in cell growth arrest. While expression of wild-type MCV LT induced a decrease in cellular proliferation, deletion of the MUR domains resulted in increased LT stability and cell proliferation. Conversely, addition of MURs to SV40 LT propagated E3 ligase interactions, which in turn, reduced SV40 LT stability and decreased cell growth activity. Our results demonstrate that compared to other human polyomaviruses (HPyVs), MCV LT has evolved to acquire the MUR domains that are essential for MCV LT autoregulation, potentially leading to viral latency and MCC.
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Ahye N, Bellizzi A, May D, Wollebo HS. The Role of the JC Virus in Central Nervous System Tumorigenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21176236. [PMID: 32872288 PMCID: PMC7503523 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21176236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer is the second leading cause of mortality worldwide. The study of DNA tumor-inducing viruses and their oncoproteins as a causative agent in cancer initiation and tumor progression has greatly enhanced our understanding of cancer cell biology. The initiation of oncogenesis is a complex process. Specific gene mutations cause functional changes in the cell that ultimately result in the inability to regulate cell differentiation and proliferation effectively. The human neurotropic Polyomavirus JC (JCV) belongs to the family Polyomaviridae and it is the causative agent of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), which is a fatal neurodegenerative disease in an immunosuppressed state. Sero-epidemiological studies have indicated JCV infection is prevalent in the population (85%) and that initial infection usually occurs during childhood. The JC virus has small circular, double-stranded DNA that includes coding sequences for viral early and late proteins. Persistence of the virus in the brain and other tissues, as well as its potential to transform cells, has made it a subject of study for its role in brain tumor development. Earlier observation of malignant astrocytes and oligodendrocytes in PML, as well as glioblastoma formation in non-human primates inoculated with JCV, led to the hypothesis that JCV plays a role in central nervous system (CNS) tumorigenesis. Some studies have reported the presence of both JC viral DNA and its proteins in several primary brain tumor specimens. The discovery of new Polyomaviruses such as the Merkel cell Polyomavirus, which is associated with Merkel cell carcinomas in humans, ignited our interest in the role of the JC virus in CNS tumors. The current evidence known about JCV and its effects, which are sufficient to produce tumors in animal models, suggest it can be a causative factor in central nervous system tumorigenesis. However, there is no clear association between JCV presence in CNS and its ability to initiate CNS cancer and tumor formation in humans. In this review, we will discuss the correlation between JCV and tumorigenesis of CNS in animal models, and we will give an overview of the current evidence for the JC virus’s role in brain tumor formation.
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Czech-Sioli M, Günther T, Therre M, Spohn M, Indenbirken D, Theiss J, Riethdorf S, Qi M, Alawi M, Wülbeck C, Fernandez-Cuesta I, Esmek F, Becker JC, Grundhoff A, Fischer N. High-resolution analysis of Merkel Cell Polyomavirus in Merkel Cell Carcinoma reveals distinct integration patterns and suggests NHEJ and MMBIR as underlying mechanisms. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008562. [PMID: 32833988 PMCID: PMC7470373 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel Cell Polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the etiological agent of the majority of Merkel Cell Carcinomas (MCC). MCPyV positive MCCs harbor integrated, defective viral genomes that constitutively express viral oncogenes. Which molecular mechanisms promote viral integration, if distinct integration patterns exist, and if integration occurs preferentially at loci with specific chromatin states is unknown. We here combined short and long-read (nanopore) next-generation sequencing and present the first high-resolution analysis of integration site structure in MCC cell lines as well as primary tumor material. We find two main types of integration site structure: Linear patterns with chromosomal breakpoints that map closely together, and complex integration loci that exhibit local amplification of genomic sequences flanking the viral DNA. Sequence analysis suggests that linear patterns are produced during viral replication by integration of defective/linear genomes into host DNA double strand breaks via non-homologous end joining, NHEJ. In contrast, our data strongly suggest that complex integration patterns are mediated by microhomology-mediated break-induced replication, MMBIR. Furthermore, we show by ChIP-Seq and RNA-Seq analysis that MCPyV preferably integrates in open chromatin and provide evidence that viral oncogene expression is driven by the viral promoter region, rather than transcription from juxtaposed host promoters. Taken together, our data explain the characteristics of MCPyV integration and may also provide a model for integration of other oncogenic DNA viruses such as papillomaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manja Czech-Sioli
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Günther
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Marlin Therre
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Michael Spohn
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Daniela Indenbirken
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Juliane Theiss
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sabine Riethdorf
- Institute of Tumorbiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Minyue Qi
- Bioinformatics Core, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Malik Alawi
- Bioinformatics Core, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Corinna Wülbeck
- Translational skin cancer research, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Irene Fernandez-Cuesta
- Institute of Nanostructure- and Solid State Physics (INF), Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Franziska Esmek
- Institute of Nanostructure- and Solid State Physics (INF), Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jürgen C. Becker
- Translational skin cancer research, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
- Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Adam Grundhoff
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
- * E-mail: (AG); (NF)
| | - Nicole Fischer
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- * E-mail: (AG); (NF)
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Pietropaolo V, Prezioso C, Moens U. Merkel Cell Polyomavirus and Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E1774. [PMID: 32635198 PMCID: PMC7407210 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12071774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses are the cause of approximately 15% of all human cancers. Both RNA and DNA human tumor viruses have been identified, with Merkel cell polyomavirus being the most recent one to be linked to cancer. This virus is associated with about 80% of Merkel cell carcinomas, a rare, but aggressive cutaneous malignancy. Despite its name, the cells of origin of this tumor may not be Merkel cells. This review provides an update on the structure and life cycle, cell tropism and epidemiology of the virus and its oncogenic properties. Putative strategies to prevent viral infection or treat virus-positive Merkel cell carcinoma patients are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Pietropaolo
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University, 00185 Rome, Italy; (V.P.); (C.P.)
| | - Carla Prezioso
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University, 00185 Rome, Italy; (V.P.); (C.P.)
- IRCSS San Raffaele Pisana, Microbiology of Chronic Neuro-Degenerative Pathologies, 00166 Rome, Italy
| | - Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Tromsø—The Arctic University of Norway, 9037 Tromsø, Norway
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Abstract
Viral infection underlies a significant share of the global cancer burden. Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the newest member of the human oncogenic virus family. Its discovery over a decade ago marked the beginning of an exciting era in human tumor virology. Since then, significant evidence has emerged to support the etiologic role of MCPyV in Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), an extremely lethal form of skin cancer. MCPyV infection is widespread in the general population. MCC diagnoses have tripled over the past 20 years, but effective treatments are currently lacking. In this review, we highlight recent discoveries that have shaped our understanding of MCPyV oncogenic mechanism and host cellular tropism, as well as the molecular events occurring in the viral infectious life cycle. These insights will guide future efforts in developing novel virus-targeted therapeutic strategies for treating the devastating human cancers associated with this new tumorigenic virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6076, USA;
| | - Jianxin You
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6076, USA;
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Surface charge of Merkel cell polyomavirus small T antigen determines cell transformation through allosteric FBW7 WD40 domain targeting. Oncogenesis 2020; 9:53. [PMID: 32427880 PMCID: PMC7237485 DOI: 10.1038/s41389-020-0235-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV) small T (sT) is the main oncoprotein in Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) development. A unique domain of sT, LT stabilization domain (LSD), has been reported to bind and inactivate multiple SCF (Skp1-Cullin-F-box) E3 ligases. These interactions impede the turnover of MCV large T (LT) antigen and cellular oncoproteins such as c-Myc and cyclin E, thereby promoting viral replication and cell transformation. However, it is currently unclear how this LSD region contributes to multiple transforming activities of sT. Structural docking simulation of sT and F-box and WD repeat domain-containing 7 (FBW7) revealed a novel allosteric interaction between sT and FBW7 WD40 domain. This model is supported by experimental evidence confirming that charge engineering in the LSD alters sT-WD40 binding. Specifically, loss of net positive charge in the LSD prevents sT-FBW7 binding by abrogating the electrostatic interaction, thus impeding inhibition of FBW7 by sT. Furthermore, positively charged mutations in the LSD significantly restored the sT function and its ability to transform rodent fibroblast cells. We infer that the surface charge of sT is a major determinant for targeting E3 ligases, which leads to sT-induced cell transformation, an observation that could be used to develop targeted therapeutics for MCC.
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Ewald PW, Swain Ewald HA. The scope of viral causation of human cancers: interpreting virus density from an evolutionary perspective. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 374:20180304. [PMID: 30955500 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Most known oncogenic viruses of humans use DNA as their genomic material. Research over the past quarter century has revealed that their oncogenicity results largely from direct interference with barriers to oncogenesis. In contrast to viruses that have been accepted causes of particular cancers, candidate viral causes tend to have fewer viral than cellular genomes in the tumours. These low viral loads have caused researchers to conclude that the associated viruses are not primary causes of the associated cancers. Consideration of differential survival, reproduction and infiltration of cells in a tumour suggest, however, that viral loads could be low even when viruses are primary causes of cancer. Resolution of this issue has important implications for human health because medical research tends to be effective at preventing and controlling infectious diseases. Mathematical models may clarify the problem and help guide future research by assessing whether low viral loads are likely outcomes of the differential survival, reproduction, and infiltration of cells in a tumour and, more generally, the extent to which viruses contribute to cancer. This article is part of the theme issue 'Silent cancer agents: multi-disciplinary modelling of human DNA oncoviruses'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul W Ewald
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville , Louisville, KY 40292 , USA
| | - Holly A Swain Ewald
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville , Louisville, KY 40292 , USA
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Kumar S, Xie H, Shi H, Gao J, Juhlin CC, Björnhagen V, Höög A, Lee L, Larsson C, Lui W. Merkel cell polyomavirus oncoproteins induce microRNAs that suppress multiple autophagy genes. Int J Cancer 2020; 146:1652-1666. [PMID: 31180579 PMCID: PMC7003823 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.32503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Viruses can inhibit host autophagy through multiple mechanisms, and evasion of autophagy plays an important role in immune suppression and viral oncogenesis. Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) T-antigens are expressed and involved in the pathogenesis of a large proportion of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). Yet, how MCPyV induces tumorigenesis is not fully understood. Herein, we show that MCPyV T-antigens induce miR-375, miR-30a-3p and miR-30a-5p expressions, which target multiple key genes involved in autophagy, including ATG7, SQSTM1 (p62) and BECN1. In MCC tumors, low expression of ATG7 and p62 are associated with MCPyV-positive tumors. Ectopic expression of MCPyV small T-antigen and truncated large T-antigen (LT), but not the wild-type LT, resulted in autophagy suppression, suggesting the importance of autophagy evasion in MCPyV-mediated tumorigenesis. Torin-1 treatment induced cell death, which was attenuated by autophagy inhibitor, but not pan-caspase inhibitor, suggesting a potential role of autophagy in promoting cell death in MCC. Conceptually, our study shows that MCPyV oncoproteins suppress autophagy to protect cancer cells from cell death, which contribute to a better understanding of MCPyV-mediated tumorigenesis and potential MCC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satendra Kumar
- Department of Oncology‐PathologyKarolinska Institutet; Cancer Center Karolinska, Karolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
| | - Hong Xie
- Department of Oncology‐PathologyKarolinska Institutet; Cancer Center Karolinska, Karolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
- Tianjin Life Science Research Center and Department of Pathogen BiologySchool of Basic Medical Sciences, Tianjin Medical UniversityTianjinChina
| | - Hao Shi
- Department of Oncology‐PathologyKarolinska Institutet; Cancer Center Karolinska, Karolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
| | - Jiwei Gao
- Department of Oncology‐PathologyKarolinska Institutet; Cancer Center Karolinska, Karolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
| | - Carl Christofer Juhlin
- Department of Oncology‐PathologyKarolinska Institutet; Cancer Center Karolinska, Karolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
- Department of Clinical Pathology and CytologyKarolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
| | - Viveca Björnhagen
- Department of Reconstructive Plastic SurgeryKarolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
| | - Anders Höög
- Department of Oncology‐PathologyKarolinska Institutet; Cancer Center Karolinska, Karolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
- Department of Clinical Pathology and CytologyKarolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
| | - Linkiat Lee
- Department of Oncology‐PathologyKarolinska Institutet; Cancer Center Karolinska, Karolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
| | - Catharina Larsson
- Department of Oncology‐PathologyKarolinska Institutet; Cancer Center Karolinska, Karolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
- Department of Clinical Pathology and CytologyKarolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
| | - Weng‐Onn Lui
- Department of Oncology‐PathologyKarolinska Institutet; Cancer Center Karolinska, Karolinska University HospitalStockholmSweden
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Liu W, Krump NA, Herlyn M, You J. Combining DNA Damage Induction with BCL-2 Inhibition to Enhance Merkel Cell Carcinoma Cytotoxicity. BIOLOGY 2020; 9:biology9020035. [PMID: 32093022 PMCID: PMC7168258 DOI: 10.3390/biology9020035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a highly lethal skin cancer. MCC tumors rapidly develop resistance to the chemotherapies tested to date. While PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint blockade has demonstrated success in MCC treatment, a significant portion of MCC patients are nonresponsive. Therefore, the pressing need for effective MCC chemotherapies remains. We screened a library of natural products and discovered that one compound, glaucarubin, potently reduced the viability of Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV)-positive MCCs, while remaining nontoxic to primary human fibroblasts and MCPyV-negative MCC cell lines tested. Protein array and Western blot analyses revealed that glaucarubin induces DNA damage and PARP-1 cleavage that correlates with the loss of viability in MCC cells. However, high basal expression of the antiapoptotic factor BCL-2 allowed a subpopulation of cells to survive glaucarubin treatment. Previous studies have shown that, while targeting BCL-2 family proteins significantly decreases MCC cell viability, BCL-2 antisense therapy alone was insufficient to inhibit tumor growth in patients with advanced MCC. We discovered that treatment with an FDA-approved BCL-2 inhibitor in the context of glaucarubin-induced DNA damage led to near complete killing in multiple MCPyV-positive MCC cell lines that express high levels of BCL-2. The combination of DNA damage-induced apoptosis and BCL-2 inhibition thus represents a novel therapeutic strategy for MCPyV-positive MCCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (W.L.); (N.A.K.)
| | - Nathan A. Krump
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (W.L.); (N.A.K.)
| | - Meenhard Herlyn
- The Wistar Institute, 3601 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA;
| | - Jianxin You
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (W.L.); (N.A.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-215-573-6781
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The Ubiquitin-Specific Protease Usp7, a Novel Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Large T-Antigen Interaction Partner, Modulates Viral DNA Replication. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.01638-19. [PMID: 31801860 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01638-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the major cause for Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a rare but highly aggressive skin cancer predominantly found in elderly and immunosuppressed patients. The early viral gene products large T-antigen (LT) and small T-antigen (sT) are important for efficient viral DNA replication, and both contribute to transformation processes. These functions are executed mainly through interactions with host factors. Here, we identify the cellular ubiquitin-specific processing protease 7 (Usp7) as a new interaction partner of the MCPyV LT. Using glutathione S-transferase pulldown experiments, we show that MCPyV LT directly binds to Usp7 and that N- as well as C-terminal regions of LT bind to the TRAF (tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated) domain of Usp7. We demonstrate that endogenous Usp7 coprecipitates with MCPyV T-antigens and relocalizes to viral DNA replication centers in cells actively replicating MCPyV genomes. We show that Usp7 does not alter ubiquitination levels of the T-antigens; however, Usp7 binding increases the binding affinity of LT to the origin of replication, thereby negatively regulating viral DNA replication. Together, these data identify Usp7 as a restriction factor of MCPyV replication. In contrast to other DNA viruses, Usp7 does not affect MCPyV gene expression via its ubiquitination activity but influences MCPyV DNA replication solely via a novel mechanism that modulates binding of LT to viral DNA.IMPORTANCE MCPyV is the only human polyomavirus that is associated with cancer; the majority of Merkel cell cancers have a viral etiology. While much emphasis was placed on investigations to understand the transformation process by MCPyV oncoproteins and cellular factors, we have only limited knowledge of cellular factors participating in the MCPyV life cycle. Here, we describe Usp7, a cellular deubiquitination enzyme, as a new factor involved in MCPyV replication. Usp7 is known in the context of large DNA tumor viruses, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus, to restrict viral replication. Similar to EBV, where Usp7 binding to EBNA1 increases EBNA1 binding affinity to viral DNA, we find MCPyV LT binding to the origin of replication to be increased in the presence of Usp7, resulting in restriction of viral DNA replication. However, Usp7-induced restriction of MCPyV replication is independent of its enzymatic activity, thereby constituting a novel mechanism of Usp7-induced restriction of viral replication.
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Tahseen D, Rady PL, Tyring SK. Human polyomavirus modulation of the host DNA damage response. Virus Genes 2020; 56:128-135. [PMID: 31997082 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-020-01736-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The human DNA damage response (DDR) is a complex signaling network constituting many factors responsible for the preservation of genomic integrity. Human polyomaviruses (HPyVs) are able to harness the DDR machinery during their infectious cycle by expressing an array of tumor (T) antigens. These molecular interactions between human polyomavirus T antigens and the DDR create conditions that promote viral replication at the expense of host genomic stability to cause disease as well as carcinogenesis in the cases of the Merkel cell polyomavirus and BK polyomavirus. This review focuses on the six HPyVs with disease association, emphasizing strain-dependent differences in their selective manipulation of the DDR. Appreciation of the HPyV-DDR interface at a molecular scale is conducive to the development of novel therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danyal Tahseen
- Department of Dermatology, University of Texas Medical School At Houston, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Peter L Rady
- Department of Dermatology, University of Texas Medical School At Houston, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Stephen K Tyring
- Department of Dermatology, University of Texas Medical School At Houston, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
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Lérias JR, Paraschoudi G, de Sousa E, Martins J, Condeço C, Figueiredo N, Carvalho C, Dodoo E, Castillo-Martin M, Beltrán A, Ligeiro D, Rao M, Zumla A, Maeurer M. Microbes as Master Immunomodulators: Immunopathology, Cancer and Personalized Immunotherapies. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 7:362. [PMID: 32039196 PMCID: PMC6989410 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2019.00362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The intricate interplay between the immune system and microbes is an essential part of the physiological homeostasis in health and disease. Immunological recognition of commensal microbes, such as bacterial species resident in the gut or lung as well as dormant viral species, i.e., cytomegalovirus (CMV) or Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), in combination with a balanced immune regulation, is central to achieve immune-protection. Emerging evidence suggests that immune responses primed to guard against commensal microbes may cause unexpected pathological outcomes, e.g., chronic inflammation and/or malignant transformation. Furthermore, translocation of immune cells from one anatomical compartment to another, i.e., the gut-lung axis via the lymphatics or blood has been identified as an important factor in perpetrating systemic inflammation, tissue destruction, as well as modulating host-protective immune responses. We present in this review immune response patterns to pathogenic as well as non-pathogenic microbes and how these immune-recognition profiles affect local immune responses or malignant transformation. We discuss personalized immunological therapies which, directly or indirectly, target host biological pathways modulated by antimicrobial immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana R. Lérias
- ImmunoSurgery Unit, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Eric de Sousa
- ImmunoSurgery Unit, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - João Martins
- ImmunoSurgery Unit, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Carolina Condeço
- ImmunoSurgery Unit, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Nuno Figueiredo
- Digestive Unit, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Carlos Carvalho
- Digestive Unit, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | | | - Antonio Beltrán
- Department of Pathology, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Dário Ligeiro
- Lisbon Centre for Blood and Transplantation, Instituto Português do Sangue e Transplantação, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Martin Rao
- ImmunoSurgery Unit, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Alimuddin Zumla
- Division of Infection and Immunity, NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Markus Maeurer
- ImmunoSurgery Unit, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
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Starrett GJ, Buck CB. The case for BK polyomavirus as a cause of bladder cancer. Curr Opin Virol 2019; 39:8-15. [PMID: 31336246 PMCID: PMC6901737 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2019.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In 2014, the International Agency for Research on Cancer judged Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) to be a probable human carcinogen. BK polyomavirus (BKPyV, a distant cousin of MCPyV) was ruled a possible carcinogen. In this review, we argue that it has recently become reasonable to view both of these viruses as known human carcinogens. In particular, several complementary lines of evidence support a causal role for BKPyV in the development of bladder carcinomas affecting organ transplant patients. The expansion of inexpensive deep sequencing has opened new approaches to investigating the important question of whether BKPyV causes urinary tract cancers in the general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel J Starrett
- National Cancer Institute, Building 37 Room 4118, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892-4263, United States.
| | - Christopher B Buck
- National Cancer Institute, Building 37 Room 4118, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892-4263, United States
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39
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Abstract
Viral infection is a major contributor to the global cancer burden. Recent advances have revealed that seven known oncogenic viruses promote tumorigenesis through shared host cell targets and pathways. A comprehensive understanding of the principles of viral oncogenesis may enable the identification of unknown infectious aetiologies of cancer and the development of therapeutic or preventive strategies for virus-associated cancers. In this Review, we discuss the molecular mechanisms of viral oncogenesis in humans. We highlight recent advances in understanding how viral manipulation of host cellular signalling, DNA damage responses, immunity and microRNA targets promotes the initiation and development of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan A Krump
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jianxin You
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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40
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Moens U, Macdonald A. Effect of the Large and Small T-Antigens of Human Polyomaviruses on Signaling Pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20163914. [PMID: 31408949 PMCID: PMC6720190 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20163914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses are intracellular parasites that require a permissive host cell to express the viral genome and to produce new progeny virus particles. However, not all viral infections are productive and some viruses can induce carcinogenesis. Irrespective of the type of infection (productive or neoplastic), viruses hijack the host cell machinery to permit optimal viral replication or to transform the infected cell into a tumor cell. One mechanism viruses employ to reprogram the host cell is through interference with signaling pathways. Polyomaviruses are naked, double-stranded DNA viruses whose genome encodes the regulatory proteins large T-antigen and small t-antigen, and structural proteins that form the capsid. The large T-antigens and small t-antigens can interfere with several host signaling pathways. In this case, we review the interplay between the large T-antigens and small t-antigens with host signaling pathways and the biological consequences of these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway.
| | - Andrew Macdonald
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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41
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Rotondo JC, Mazzoni E, Bononi I, Tognon M, Martini F. Association Between Simian Virus 40 and Human Tumors. Front Oncol 2019; 9:670. [PMID: 31403031 PMCID: PMC6669359 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.00670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simian virus 40 (SV40) is a small DNA tumor virus of monkey origin. This polyomavirus was administered to human populations mainly through contaminated polio vaccines, which were produced in naturally infected SV40 monkey cells. Previous molecular biology and recent immunological assays have indicated that SV40 is spreading in human populations, independently from earlier SV40-contaminated vaccines. SV40 DNA sequences have been detected at a higher prevalence in specific human cancer specimens, such as the brain and bone tumors, malignant pleural mesotheliomas, and lymphoproliferative disorders, compared to the corresponding normal tissues/specimens. However, other investigations, which reported negative data, did not confirm an association between SV40 and human tumors. To circumvent the controversies, which have arisen because of these molecular biology studies, immunological researches with newly developed indirect ELISA tests were carried out in serum samples from patients affected by the same kind of tumors as mentioned above. These innovative indirect ELISAs employ synthetic peptides as mimotopes/specific SV40 antigens. SV40 mimotopes do not cross-react with the homologous human polyomaviruses, BKPyV, and JCPyV. Immunological data obtained from indirect ELISAs, using SV40 mimotopes, employed to analyze serum samples from oncological patients, have indicated that these sera had a higher prevalence of antibodies against SV40 compared to healthy subjects. The main data on (i) the biology and genetics of SV40; (ii) the epidemiology of SV40 in the general population, (iii) the mechanisms of SV40 transformation; (iv) the putative role of SV40 in the onset/progression of specific human tumors, and (v) its association with other human diseases are reported in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Charles Rotondo
- Section of Pathology, Oncology and Experimental Biology, Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Elisa Mazzoni
- Section of Pathology, Oncology and Experimental Biology, Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Ilaria Bononi
- Section of Pathology, Oncology and Experimental Biology, Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Mauro Tognon
- Section of Pathology, Oncology and Experimental Biology, Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Fernanda Martini
- Section of Pathology, Oncology and Experimental Biology, Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
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42
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Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a highly aggressive, primary neuroendocrine cancer of the skin. The majority of MCC cases are associated with the recently discovered Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), while the remaining are caused by ultraviolet (UV) light-induced mutations from excessive sunlight exposure. The risk of developing MCC is much higher in the white population relative to all other races. Approximately 10% of all patients with MCC have some form of immunosuppression including HIV-1/AIDS, chronic inflammatory conditions, solid organ transplantation, or hematological malignancies. The age of onset of MCC is lower and the mortality is higher in immunosuppressed individuals than in immune-competent patients. It is plausible that HIV-1/AIDS predisposes to virus-positive MCC, but it should be noted that HIV-1/AIDS increases the risk for developing of UV-induced skin cancers such as cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma and therefore may also increase the risk for virus-negative MCC. Surgical management is considered standard of care for localized Merkel cell carcinoma with current recommendations advising a wide local excision of the lesion. Most international guidelines support the use of local adjuvant radiotherapy coupled with tumor staging to improve the frequency of cure. For advanced, metastatic, and recurrent MCC, checkpoint blockade inhibitors targeting PD-1 and PD-L1 have shown remarkable activity including durable long-term. MCC in patients living with HIV-1/AIDS are treated with similar modalities as HIV-1 uninfected individuals with MCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert H Goldstein
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - James A DeCaprio
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA, 02215, USA. .,Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA.
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43
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Harms PW, Harms KL, Moore PS, DeCaprio JA, Nghiem P, Wong MKK, Brownell I. The biology and treatment of Merkel cell carcinoma: current understanding and research priorities. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2019; 15:763-776. [PMID: 30287935 PMCID: PMC6319370 DOI: 10.1038/s41571-018-0103-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare and aggressive skin cancer associated with advanced age and immunosuppression. Over the past decade, an association has been discovered between MCC and either integration of the Merkel cell polyomavirus, which likely drives tumorigenesis, or somatic mutations owing to ultraviolet-induced DNA damage. Both virus-positive and virus-negative MCCs are immunogenic, and inhibition of the programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)–programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1) immune checkpoint has proved to be highly effective in treating patients with metastatic MCC; however, not all patients have a durable response to immunotherapy. Despite these rapid advances in the understanding and management of patients with MCC, many basic, translational and clinical research questions remain unanswered. In March 2018, an International Workshop on Merkel Cell Carcinoma Research was held at the US National Cancer Institute, at which academic, government and industry experts met to identify the highest-priority research questions. Here, we review the biology and treatment of MCC and report the consensus-based recommendations agreed upon during the workshop. Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare and aggressive form of nonmelanoma skin cancer. The availability of immune checkpoint inhibition has improved the outcomes of a subset of patients with MCC, although many unmet needs continue to exist. In this Consensus Statement, the authors summarize developments in our understanding of MCC while also providing consensus recommendations for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul W Harms
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Kelly L Harms
- Department of Dermatology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Patrick S Moore
- Cancer Virology Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - James A DeCaprio
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Paul Nghiem
- Department of Medicine, Division of Dermatology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Michael K K Wong
- Department of Melanoma Medical Oncology, Division of Cancer Medicine, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Isaac Brownell
- Dermatology Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) and National Cancer Institute (NCI), NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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44
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Infectious Entry of Merkel Cell Polyomavirus. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.02004-18. [PMID: 30626687 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02004-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 12/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is a small, nonenveloped tumor virus associated with an aggressive form of skin cancer, Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). MCPyV infections are highly prevalent in the human population, with MCPyV virions being continuously shed from human skin. However, the precise host cell tropism(s) of MCPyV remains unclear: MCPyV is able to replicate within a subset of dermal fibroblasts, but MCPyV DNA has also been detected in a variety of other tissues. However, MCPyV appears different from other polyomaviruses, as it requires sulfated polysaccharides, such as heparan sulfates and/or chondroitin sulfates, for initial attachment. Like other polyomaviruses, MCPyV engages sialic acid as a (co)receptor. To explore the infectious entry process of MCPyV, we analyzed the cell biological determinants of MCPyV entry into A549 cells, a highly transducible lung carcinoma cell line, in comparison to well-studied simian virus 40 and a number of other viruses. Our results indicate that MCPyV enters cells via caveolar/lipid raft-mediated endocytosis but not macropinocytosis, clathrin-mediated endocytosis, or glycosphingolipid-enriched carriers. The viruses were internalized in small endocytic pits that led the virus to endosomes and from there to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Similar to other polyomaviruses, trafficking required microtubular transport, acidification of endosomes, and a functional redox environment. To our surprise, the virus was found to acquire a membrane envelope within endosomes, a phenomenon not reported for other viruses. Only minor amounts of viruses reached the ER, while the majority was retained in endosomal compartments, suggesting that endosome-to-ER trafficking is a bottleneck during infectious entry.IMPORTANCE MCPyV is the first polyomavirus directly implicated in the development of an aggressive human cancer, Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC). Although MCPyV is constantly shed from healthy skin, the MCC incidence increases among aging and immunocompromised individuals. To date, the events connecting initial MCPyV infection and subsequent transformation still remain elusive. MCPyV differs from other known polyomaviruses concerning its cell tropism, entry receptor requirements, and infection kinetics. In this study, we examined the cellular requirements for endocytic entry as well as the subcellular localization of incoming virus particles. A thorough understanding of the determinants of the infectious entry pathway and the specific biological niche will benefit prevention of virus-derived cancers such as MCC.
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45
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Merkel cell polyomavirus Tumor antigens expressed in Merkel cell carcinoma function independently of the ubiquitin ligases Fbw7 and β-TrCP. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007543. [PMID: 30689667 PMCID: PMC6366716 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) accounts for 80% of all Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) cases through expression of two viral oncoproteins: the truncated large T antigen (LT-t) and small T antigen (ST). MCPyV ST is thought to be the main driver of cellular transformation and has also been shown to increase LT protein levels through the activity of its Large-T Stabilization Domain (LSD). The ST LSD was reported to bind and sequester several ubiquitin ligases, including Fbw7 and β-TrCP, and thereby stabilize LT-t and several other Fbw7 targets including c-Myc and cyclin E. Therefore, the ST LSD is thought to contribute to transformation by promoting the accumulation of these oncoproteins. Targets of Fbw7 and β-TrCP contain well-defined, conserved, phospho-degrons. However, as neither MCPyV LT, LT-t nor ST contain the canonical Fbw7 phospho-degron, we sought to further investigate the proposed model of ST stabilization of LT-t and transformation. In this study, we provide several lines of evidence that fail to support a specific interaction between MCPyV T antigens and Fbw7 or β-TrCP by co-immunoprecipitation or functional consequence. Although MCPyV ST does indeed increase LT protein levels through its Large-T Stabilization domain (LSD), this is accomplished independently of Fbw7. Therefore, our study indicates a need for further investigation into the role and mechanism(s) of MCPyV T antigens in viral replication, latency, transformation, and tumorigenesis. Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a very aggressive and deadly neuroendocrine skin cancer. Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) contributes to the development and maintenance of 80% of MCCs through the expression of its truncated large tumor antigen (LT-t) and small tumor antigen (ST). MCPyV ST is thought to be primarily responsible for transformation and tumorigenesis through many mechanisms including stabilization of MCPyV LT-t and other cellular proteins involved in proliferation such as c-Myc. As c-Myc is a known target substrate, and MCPyV LT-t is a proposed target substrate, of the ubiquitin ligase Fbw7, it is currently thought that ST stabilizes these proteins and transforms cells through binding and perturbing the function of Fbw7. However, neither MCPyV LT-t nor ST contain a canonical Fbw7 degron sequence necessary for this interaction. MCPyV LT-t, found in MCCs, does not bind to, nor is targeted by, Fbw7. However, an ill-defined, unidirectional interaction between MCPyV LT, ST, and Fbw7 was observed, but had no functional consequence. Therefore, this study calls for further investigation into the mechanism(s) by which MCPyV ST leads to the development and maintenance of MCC.
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46
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Krump NA, Liu W, You J. Mechanisms of persistence by small DNA tumor viruses. Curr Opin Virol 2018; 32:71-79. [PMID: 30278284 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Virus infection contributes to nearly 15% of human cancers worldwide. Many of the oncogenic viruses tend to cause cancer in immunosuppressed individuals, but maintain asymptomatic, persistent infection for decades in the general population. In this review, we discuss the tactics employed by two small DNA tumor viruses, Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), to establish persistent infection. We will also highlight recent key findings as well as outstanding questions regarding the mechanisms by which HPV and MCPyV evade host immune control to promote their survival. Since persistent infection enables virus-induced tumorigenesis, identifying the mechanisms by which small DNA tumor viruses achieve latent infection may inform new approaches for preventing and treating their respective human cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan A Krump
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Wei Liu
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jianxin You
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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47
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Abstract
Viral DNA genomes have limited coding capacity and therefore harness cellular factors to facilitate replication of their genomes and generate progeny virions. Studies of viruses and how they interact with cellular processes have historically provided seminal insights into basic biology and disease mechanisms. The replicative life cycles of many DNA viruses have been shown to engage components of the host DNA damage and repair machinery. Viruses have evolved numerous strategies to navigate the cellular DNA damage response. By hijacking and manipulating cellular replication and repair processes, DNA viruses can selectively harness or abrogate distinct components of the cellular machinery to complete their life cycles. Here, we highlight consequences for viral replication and host genome integrity during the dynamic interactions between virus and host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Weitzman
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
- Division of Protective Immunity and Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104;
| | - Amélie Fradet-Turcotte
- Department of Molecular Biology, Medical Biochemistry, and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada;
- CHU de Québec Research Center-Université Laval (L'Hôtel-Dieu de Québec), Cancer Research Center, Québec G1R 2J6, Canada
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48
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Merkel Cell Carcinoma: Updates on Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Management. CURRENT DERMATOLOGY REPORTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s13671-018-0221-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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49
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Baheti S, Tang X, O'Brien DR, Chia N, Roberts LR, Nelson H, Boughey JC, Wang L, Goetz MP, Kocher JPA, Kalari KR. HGT-ID: an efficient and sensitive workflow to detect human-viral insertion sites using next-generation sequencing data. BMC Bioinformatics 2018; 19:271. [PMID: 30016933 PMCID: PMC6050683 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-018-2260-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Transfer of genetic material from microbes or viruses into the host genome is known as horizontal gene transfer (HGT). The integration of viruses into the human genome is associated with multiple cancers, and these can now be detected using next-generation sequencing methods such as whole genome sequencing and RNA-sequencing. Results We designed a novel computational workflow, HGT-ID, to identify the integration of viruses into the human genome using the sequencing data. The HGT-ID workflow primarily follows a four-step procedure: i) pre-processing of unaligned reads, ii) virus detection using subtraction approach, iii) identification of virus integration site using discordant and soft-clipped reads and iv) HGT candidates prioritization through a scoring function. Annotation and visualization of the events, as well as primer design for experimental validation, are also provided in the final report. We evaluated the tool performance with the well-understood cervical cancer samples. The HGT-ID workflow accurately detected known human papillomavirus (HPV) integration sites with high sensitivity and specificity compared to previous HGT methods. We applied HGT-ID to The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) whole-genome sequencing data (WGS) from liver tumor-normal pairs. Multiple hepatitis B virus (HBV) integration sites were identified in TCGA liver samples and confirmed by HGT-ID using the RNA-Seq data from the matched liver pairs. This shows the applicability of the method in both the data types and cross-validation of the HGT events in liver samples. We also processed 220 breast tumor WGS data through the workflow; however, there were no HGT events detected in those samples. Conclusions HGT-ID is a novel computational workflow to detect the integration of viruses in the human genome using the sequencing data. It is fast and accurate with functions such as prioritization, annotation, visualization and primer design for future validation of HGTs. The HGT-ID workflow is released under the MIT License and available at http://kalarikrlab.org/Software/HGT-ID.html.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saurabh Baheti
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Xiaojia Tang
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Daniel R O'Brien
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Nicholas Chia
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Lewis R Roberts
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Heidi Nelson
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | - Liewei Wang
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Matthew P Goetz
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.,Department of Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Jean-Pierre A Kocher
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Krishna R Kalari
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.
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50
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Abstract
Viral DNA genomes have limited coding capacity and therefore harness cellular factors to facilitate replication of their genomes and generate progeny virions. Studies of viruses and how they interact with cellular processes have historically provided seminal insights into basic biology and disease mechanisms. The replicative life cycles of many DNA viruses have been shown to engage components of the host DNA damage and repair machinery. Viruses have evolved numerous strategies to navigate the cellular DNA damage response. By hijacking and manipulating cellular replication and repair processes, DNA viruses can selectively harness or abrogate distinct components of the cellular machinery to complete their life cycles. Here, we highlight consequences for viral replication and host genome integrity during the dynamic interactions between virus and host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Weitzman
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104.,Division of Protective Immunity and Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104;
| | - Amélie Fradet-Turcotte
- Department of Molecular Biology, Medical Biochemistry, and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada; .,CHU de Québec Research Center-Université Laval (L'Hôtel-Dieu de Québec), Cancer Research Center, Québec G1R 2J6, Canada
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