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Li L, Li X, Zhong H, Li M, Wan B, He W, Zhang Y, Du Y, Chen D, Zhang W, Ji P, Jiang D, Han S. VP3 protein of Senecavirus A promotes viral IRES-driven translation and attenuates innate immunity by specifically relocalizing hnRNPA2B1. J Virol 2024; 98:e0122724. [PMID: 39207136 PMCID: PMC11406996 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01227-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/26/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Viruses deploy sophisticated strategies to hijack the host's translation machinery to favor viral protein synthesis and counteract innate cellular defenses. However, little is known about the mechanisms by which Senecavirus A (SVA) controls the host's translation. Using a series of sophisticated molecular cell manipulation techniques, heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A2B1 (hnRNPA2B1) was identified as an essential host factor involved in translation control in SVA-infected cells. It was also determined that the SVA structural protein, VP3, binds to and relocalizes hnRNPA2B1, which interferes with the host's protein synthesis machinery to establish a cellular environment that facilitates viral propagation via a two-pronged strategy: first, hnRNPA2B1 serves as a potent internal ribosome entry site (IRES) trans-acting factor, which is selectively co-opted to promote viral IRES-driven translation by supporting the assembly of translation initiation complexes. Second, a strong repression of host cell translation occurs in the context of the VP3-hnRNPA2B1 interaction, resulting in attenuation of the interferons response. This is the first study to demonstrate the interaction between SVA VP3 and hnRNPA2B1, and to characterize their key roles in manipulating translation. This novel dual mechanism, which regulates selective mRNA translation and immune evasion of virus-infected cells, highlights the VP3-hnRNPA2B1 complex as a potential target for the development of modified antiviral or oncolytic reagents. IMPORTANCE Viral reproduction is contingent on viral protein synthesis, which relies entirely on the host's translation machinery. As such, viruses often need to control the cellular translational apparatus to favor viral protein production and avoid host innate defenses. Senecavirus A (SVA) is an important virus, both as an emerging pathogen in the pork industry and as a potential oncolytic virus for neuroendocrine cancers. Here, heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A2B1 (hnRNPA2B1) was identified as a critical regulator of the translational landscape during SVA infection. This study supports a model whereby the VP3 protein of SVA efficiently subverts the host's protein synthesis machinery through its ability to bind to and relocalize hnRNPA2B1, not only selectively promoting viral internal ribosome entry site-driven translation but also resulting in global translation shutdown and immune evasion. Together, these data provide new insights into how the complex interactions between translation machinery, SVA, and innate immunity contribute to the pathogenicity of the SVA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Li
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xinwei Li
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Han Zhong
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Mingyang Li
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Bo Wan
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
- Longhu Laboratory, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Wenrui He
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
- Longhu Laboratory, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yuhang Zhang
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
- Longhu Laboratory, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yongkun Du
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
- Longhu Laboratory, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Dongjie Chen
- Institute of Animal Inspection and Quarantine, Chinese Academy of Inspection and Quarantine, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Pengchao Ji
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
- Longhu Laboratory, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Dawei Jiang
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
- Longhu Laboratory, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Shichong Han
- International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
- Longhu Laboratory, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
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Ren J, Yu L, Zhang Q, Ren P, Cai Y, Wang X, Lan K, Wu S. AIMP2 restricts EV71 replication by recruiting SMURF2 to promote the degradation of 3D polymerase. Virol Sin 2024; 39:632-644. [PMID: 38945214 PMCID: PMC11401463 DOI: 10.1016/j.virs.2024.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD), mainly caused by enterovirus 71 (EV71), has frequently occurred in the Asia-Pacific region, posing a significant threat to the health of infants and young children. Therefore, research on the infection mechanism and pathogenicity of enteroviruses is increasingly becoming important. The 3D polymerase, as the most critical RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) for EV71 replication, is widely targeted to inhibit EV71 infection. In this study, we identified a novel host protein, AIMP2, capable of binding to 3D polymerase and inhibiting EV71 infection. Subsequent investigations revealed that AIMP2 recruits the E3 ligase SMURF2, which mediates the polyubiquitination and degradation of 3D polymerase. Furthermore, the antiviral effect of AIMP2 extended to the CVA16 and CVB1 serotypes. Our research has uncovered the dynamic regulatory function of AIMP2 during EV71 infection, revealing a novel antiviral mechanism and providing new insights for the development of antienteroviral therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junrui Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Lei Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China; Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Qiuhan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China; Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Pengyu Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Yumeng Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Xueyun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Ke Lan
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China; Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China; Taikang Center for Life and Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China.
| | - Shuwen Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China.
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Wu J, Sun C, Guan J, Abdullah SW, Wang X, Ren M, Qiao L, Sun S, Guo H. Nuclear ribonucleoprotein RALY downregulates foot-and-mouth disease virus replication but antagonized by viral 3C protease. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0365823. [PMID: 38323828 PMCID: PMC10913732 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03658-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024] Open
Abstract
The internal ribosome entry site (IRES) element constitutes a cis-acting RNA regulatory sequence that recruits the ribosomal initiation complex in a cap-independent manner, assisted by various RNA-binding proteins and IRES trans-acting factors. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) contains a functional IRES element and takes advantage of this element to subvert host translation machinery. Our study identified a novel mechanism wherein RALY, a member of the heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNP) family belonging to RNA-binding proteins, binds to the domain 3 of FMDV IRES via its RNA recognition motif residue. This interaction results in the downregulation of FMDV replication by inhibiting IRES-driven translation. Furthermore, our findings reveal that the inhibitory effect exerted by RALY on FMDV replication is not attributed to the FMDV IRES-mediated assembly of translation initiation complexes but rather to the impediment of 80S ribosome complex formation after binding with 40S ribosomes. Conversely, 3Cpro of FMDV counteracts RALY-mediated inhibition by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Therefore, these results indicate that RALY, as a novel critical IRES-binding protein, inhibits FMDV replication by blocking the formation of 80S ribosome, providing a deeper understanding of how viruses recruit and manipulate host factors. IMPORTANCE The translation of FMDV genomic RNA driven by IRES element is a crucial step for virus infections. Many host proteins are hijacked to regulate FMDV IRES-dependent translation, but the regulatory mechanism remains unknown. Here, we report for the first time that cellular RALY specifically interacts with the IRES of FMDV and negatively regulates viral replication by blocking 80S ribosome assembly on FMDV IRES. Conversely, RALY-mediated inhibition is antagonized by the viral 3C protease by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. These results would facilitate further understanding of virus-host interactions and translational control during viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin'en Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Chao Sun
- Division of Livestock Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Junyong Guan
- Division of Livestock Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Sahibzada Waheed Abdullah
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xuefei Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Mei Ren
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Lu Qiao
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Shiqi Sun
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Huichen Guo
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
- School of Animal Science, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou, China
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Abedeera SM, Davila-Calderon J, Haddad C, Henry B, King J, Penumutchu S, Tolbert BS. The Repurposing of Cellular Proteins during Enterovirus A71 Infection. Viruses 2023; 16:75. [PMID: 38257775 PMCID: PMC10821071 DOI: 10.3390/v16010075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Viruses pose a great threat to people's lives. Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) infects children and infants all over the world with no FDA-approved treatment to date. Understanding the basic mechanisms of viral processes aids in selecting more efficient drug targets and designing more effective antivirals to thwart this virus. The 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR) of the viral RNA genome is composed of a cloverleaf structure and an internal ribosome entry site (IRES). Cellular proteins that bind to the cloverleaf structure regulate viral RNA synthesis, while those that bind to the IRES also known as IRES trans-acting factors (ITAFs) regulate viral translation. In this review, we survey the cellular proteins currently known to bind the 5'-UTR and influence viral gene expression with emphasis on comparing proteins' functions and localizations pre- and post-(EV-A71) infection. A comprehensive understanding of how the host cell's machinery is hijacked and reprogrammed by the virus to facilitate its replication is crucial for developing effective antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudeshi M. Abedeera
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (S.M.A.); (B.H.); (S.P.)
| | - Jesse Davila-Calderon
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; (J.D.-C.); (C.H.); (J.K.)
| | - Christina Haddad
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; (J.D.-C.); (C.H.); (J.K.)
| | - Barrington Henry
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (S.M.A.); (B.H.); (S.P.)
| | - Josephine King
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; (J.D.-C.); (C.H.); (J.K.)
| | - Srinivasa Penumutchu
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (S.M.A.); (B.H.); (S.P.)
| | - Blanton S. Tolbert
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (S.M.A.); (B.H.); (S.P.)
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
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Abstract
Viruses lack the properties to replicate independently due to the limited resources encoded in their genome; therefore, they hijack the host cell machinery to replicate and survive. Picornaviruses get the prerequisite for effective protein synthesis through specific sequences known as internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs). In the past 2 decades, significant progress has been made in identifying different types of IRESs in picornaviruses. This review will discuss the past and current findings related to the five different types of IRESs and various internal ribosome entry site trans-acting factors (ITAFs) that either promote or suppress picornavirus translation and replication. Some IRESs are inefficient and thus require ITAFs. To achieve their full efficiency, they recruit various ITAFs, which enable them to translate more effectively and efficiently, except type IV IRES, which does not require any ITAFs. Although there are two kinds of ITAFs, one promotes viral IRES-dependent translation, and the second type restricts. Picornaviruses IRESs are classified into five types based on their use of sequence, ITAFs, and initiation factors. Some ITAFs regulate IRES activity by localizing to the viral replication factories in the cytoplasm. Also, some drugs, chemicals, and herbal extracts also regulate viral IRES-dependent translation and replication. Altogether, this review will elaborate on our understanding of the past and recent advancements in the IRES-dependent translation and replication of picornaviruses. IMPORTANCE The family Picornaviridae is divided into 68 genera and 158 species. The viruses belonging to this family range from public health importance, such as poliovirus, enterovirus A71, and hepatitis A virus, to animal viruses of great economic importance, such as foot-and-mouth disease virus. The genomes of picornaviruses contain 5' untranslated regions (5' UTRs), which possess crucial and highly structured stem-loops known as IRESs. IRES assemble the ribosomes and facilitate the cap-independent translation. Virus-host interaction is a hot spot for researchers, which warrants deep insight into understanding viral pathogenesis better and discovering new tools and ways for viral restriction to improve human and animal health. The cap-independent translation in the majority of picornaviruses is modulated by ITAFs, which bind to various IRES regions to initiate the translation. The discoveries of ITAFs substantially contributed to understanding viral replication behavior and enhanced our knowledge about virus-host interaction more effectively than ever before. This review discussed the various types of IRESs found in Picornaviridae, past and present discoveries regarding ITAFs, and their mechanism of action. The herbal extracts, drugs, and chemicals, which indicated their importance in controlling viruses, were also summarized. In addition, we discussed the movement of ITAFs from the nucleus to viral replication factories. We believe this review will stimulate researchers to search for more novel ITAFs, drugs, herbal extracts, and chemicals, enhancing the understanding of virus-host interaction.
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Zheng L, Liu H, Tian Z, Kay M, Wang H, Cheng L, Xia W, Zhang J, Wang W, Cao H, Xu X, Gao Z, Geng R, Wu Z, Zhang H. Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) ORF3 protein inhibits cellular type I interferon signaling through down-regulating proteins expression in RLRs-mediated pathway. Res Vet Sci 2023; 159:146-159. [PMID: 37148734 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2023.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is an entero-pathogenic coronavirus, which belongs to the genus Alphacoronavirus in the family Coronaviridae, causing lethal watery diarrhea in piglets. Previous studies have shown that PEDV has developed an antagonistic mechanism by which it evades the antiviral activities of interferon (IFN), such as the sole accessory protein open reading frame 3 (ORF3) being found to inhibit IFN-β promoter activities, but how this mechanism used by PEDV ORF3 inhibits activation of the type I signaling pathway remains not fully understood. Thus, in this present study, we showed that PEDV ORF3 inhibited both polyinosine-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C))- and IFNα2b-stimulated transcription of IFN-β and interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) mRNAs. The expression levels of antiviral proteins in the retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs)-mediated pathway was down-regulated in cells with over-expression of PEDV ORF3 protein, but global protein translation remained unchanged and the association of ORF3 with RLRs-related antiviral proteins was not detected, implying that ORF3 only specifically suppressed the expression of these signaling molecules. At the same time, we also found that the PEDV ORF3 protein inhibited interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) phosphorylation and poly(I:C)-induced nuclear translocation of IRF3, which further supported the evidence that type I IFN production was abrogated by PEDV ORF3 through interfering with RLRs signaling. Furthermore, PEDV ORF3 counteracted transcription of IFN-β and ISGs mRNAs, which were triggered by over-expression of signal proteins in the RLRs-mediated pathway. However, to our surprise, PEDV ORF3 initially induced, but subsequently reduced the transcription of IFN-β and ISGs mRNAs to normal levels. Additionally, mRNA transcriptional levels of signaling molecules located at IFN-β upstream were not inhibited, but elevated by PEDV ORF3 protein. Collectively, these results demonstrate that inhibition of type I interferon signaling by PEDV ORF3 can be realized through down-regulating the expression of signal molecules in the RLRs-mediated pathway, but not via inhibiting their mRNAs transcription. This study points to a new mechanism evolved by PEDV through blockage of the RLRs-mediated pathway by ORF3 protein to circumvent the host's antiviral immunity.
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RNA-Binding Proteins as Regulators of Internal Initiation of Viral mRNA Translation. Viruses 2022; 14:v14020188. [PMID: 35215780 PMCID: PMC8879377 DOI: 10.3390/v14020188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that depend on the host’s protein synthesis machinery for translating their mRNAs. The viral mRNA (vRNA) competes with the host mRNA to recruit the translational machinery, including ribosomes, tRNAs, and the limited eukaryotic translation initiation factor (eIFs) pool. Many viruses utilize non-canonical strategies such as targeting host eIFs and RNA elements known as internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) to reprogram cellular gene expression, ensuring preferential translation of vRNAs. In this review, we discuss vRNA IRES-mediated translation initiation, highlighting the role of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), other than the canonical translation initiation factors, in regulating their activity.
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Su YS, Hwang LH, Chen CJ. Heat Shock Protein A6, a Novel HSP70, Is Induced During Enterovirus A71 Infection to Facilitate Internal Ribosomal Entry Site-Mediated Translation. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:664955. [PMID: 34025620 PMCID: PMC8137988 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.664955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) is a human pathogen causing hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) in children. Its infection can lead to severe neurological diseases or even death in some cases. While being produced in a large quantity during infection, viral proteins often require the assistance from cellular chaperones for proper folding. In this study, we found that heat shock protein A6 (HSPA6), whose function in viral life cycle is scarcely studied, was induced and functioned as a positive regulator for EV-A71 infection. Depletion of HSPA6 led to the reductions of EV-A71 viral proteins, viral RNA and virions as a result of the downregulation of internal ribosomal entry site (IRES)-mediated translation. Unlike other HSP70 isoforms such as HSPA1, HSPA8, and HSPA9, which regulate all phases of the EV-A71 life, HSPA6 was required for the IRES-mediated translation only. Unexpectedly, the importance of HSPA6 in the IRES activity could be observed in the absence of viral proteins, suggesting that HSPA6 facilitated IRES activity through cellular factor(s) instead of viral proteins. Intriguingly, the knockdown of HSPA6 also caused the reduction of luciferase activity driven by the IRES from coxsackievirus A16, echovirus 9, encephalomyocarditis virus, or hepatitis C virus, supporting that HSPA6 may assist the function of a cellular protein generally required for viral IRES activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Siang Su
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Lih-Hwa Hwang
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Ju Chen
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
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Jheng JR, Chen YS, Horng JT. Regulation of the proteostasis network during enterovirus infection: A feedforward mechanism for EV-A71 and EV-D68. Antiviral Res 2021; 188:105019. [PMID: 33484748 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2021.105019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The proteostasis network guarantees successful protein synthesis, folding, transportation, and degradation. Mounting evidence has revealed that this network maintains proteome integrity and is linked to cellular physiology, pathology, and virus infection. Human enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) and EV-D68 are suspected causative agents of acute flaccid myelitis, a severe poliomyelitis-like neurologic syndrome with no known cure. In this context, further clarification of the molecular mechanisms underlying EV-A71 and EV-D68 infection is paramount. Here, we summarize the components of the proteostasis network that are intercepted by EV-A71 and EV-D68, as well as antivirals that target this network and may help develop improved antiviral drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Rong Jheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Siao Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Jim-Tong Horng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Research Center for Industry of Human Ecology and Graduate Institute of Health Industry Technology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Molecular Infectious Disease Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
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10
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Gunaseelan S, Wong KZ, Min N, Sun J, Ismail NKBM, Tan YJ, Lee RCH, Chu JJH. Prunin suppresses viral IRES activity and is a potential candidate for treating enterovirus A71 infection. Sci Transl Med 2020; 11:11/516/eaar5759. [PMID: 31666401 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aar5759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Human enterovirus A71 (HEVA71) causes hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) in young children and is considered a major neurotropic pathogen but lacks effective antivirals. To identify potential therapeutic agents against HFMD, we screened a 502-compound flavonoid library for compounds targeting the HEVA71 internal ribosome entry site (IRES) that facilitates translation of the HEVA71 genome and is vital for the production of HEVA71 viral particles. We validated hits using cell viability and viral plaque assays and found that prunin was the most potent inhibitor of HEVA71. Downstream assays affirmed that prunin disrupted viral protein and RNA synthesis and acted as a narrow-spectrum antiviral against enteroviruses A and B, but not enterovirus C, rhinovirus A, herpes simplex 1, or chikungunya virus. Continuous HEVA71 passaging with prunin yielded HEVA71-resistant mutants with five mutations that mapped to the viral IRES. Knockdown studies showed that the mutations allowed HEVA71 to overcome treatment-induced suppression by differentially regulating recruitment of the IRES trans-acting factors Sam68 and hnRNPK without affecting the hnRNPA1-IRES interaction required for IRES translation. Furthermore, prunin effectively reduced HEVA71-associated clinical symptoms and mortality in HEVA71-infected BALB/c mice and suppressed hepatitis C virus at higher concentrations, suggesting a similar mechanism of prunin-mediated IRES inhibition for both viruses. These studies establish prunin as a candidate for further development as a HEVA71 therapeutic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saravanan Gunaseelan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore
| | - Kai Zhi Wong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore
| | - Nyo Min
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore
| | - Jialei Sun
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore
| | | | - Yee Joo Tan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore
| | - Regina Ching Hua Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore
| | - Justin Jang Hann Chu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore. .,Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 138673, Singapore
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11
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Barrera A, Olguín V, Vera-Otarola J, López-Lastra M. Cap-independent translation initiation of the unspliced RNA of retroviruses. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2020; 1863:194583. [PMID: 32450258 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2020.194583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Retroviruses are a unique family of RNA viruses that utilize a virally encoded reverse transcriptase (RT) to replicate their genomic RNA (gRNA) through a proviral DNA intermediate. The provirus is permanently integrated into the host cell chromosome and is expressed by the host cell transcription, RNA processing, and translation machinery. Retroviral messenger RNAs (mRNAs) entirely resemble a cellular mRNA as they have a 5'cap structure, 5'untranslated region (UTR), an open reading frame (ORF), 3'UTR, and a 3'poly(A) tail. The primary transcription product interacts with the cellular RNA processing machinery and is spliced, exported to the cytoplasm, and translated. However, a proportion of the pre-mRNA subverts typical RNA processing giving rise to the full-length RNA. In the cytoplasm, the full-length retroviral RNA fulfills a dual role acting as mRNA and as the gRNA. Simple retroviruses generate two pools of full-length RNA, one for each purpose. However, complex retroviruses have a single pool of full-length RNA, which is destined for translation or encapsidation. As for eukaryotic mRNAs, translational control of retroviral protein synthesis is mostly exerted at the step of initiation. Interestingly, some retroviral mRNAs, both simple and complex, use a dual mechanism to initiate protein synthesis, a cap-dependent initiation mechanism, or via internal initiation using an internal ribosome entry site (IRES). In this review, we describe and discuss data regarding the molecular mechanism driving the canonical cap-dependent and IRES-mediated translation initiation for retroviral mRNA, focusing the discussion mainly on the most studied retroviral mRNA, the HIV-1 mRNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aldo Barrera
- Laboratorio de Virología Molecular, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Centro de Investigaciones Médicas, Departamento de Enfermedades Infecciosas e Inmunología Pediátrica, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Marcoleta 391, Santiago, Chile
| | - Valeria Olguín
- Laboratorio de Virología Molecular, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Centro de Investigaciones Médicas, Departamento de Enfermedades Infecciosas e Inmunología Pediátrica, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Marcoleta 391, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jorge Vera-Otarola
- Laboratorio de Virología Molecular, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Centro de Investigaciones Médicas, Departamento de Enfermedades Infecciosas e Inmunología Pediátrica, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Marcoleta 391, Santiago, Chile
| | - Marcelo López-Lastra
- Laboratorio de Virología Molecular, Instituto Milenio de Inmunología e Inmunoterapia, Centro de Investigaciones Médicas, Departamento de Enfermedades Infecciosas e Inmunología Pediátrica, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Marcoleta 391, Santiago, Chile.
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12
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Heterogeneous Nuclear Ribonucleoprotein L Negatively Regulates Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Replication through Inhibition of Viral RNA Synthesis by Interacting with the Internal Ribosome Entry Site in the 5' Untranslated Region. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.00282-20. [PMID: 32161169 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00282-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Upon infection, the highly structured 5' untranslated region (5' UTR) of picornavirus is involved in viral protein translation and RNA synthesis. As a critical element in the 5' UTR, the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) binds to various cellular proteins to function in the processes of picornavirus replication. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is an important member in the family Picornaviridae, and its 5' UTR contains a functional IRES element. In this study, the cellular heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein L (hnRNP L) was identified as an IRES-binding protein for FMDV by biotinylated RNA pulldown assays, mass spectrometry (MS) analysis, and determination of hnRNP L-IRES interaction regions. Further, we found that hnRNP L inhibited the growth of FMDV through binding to the viral IRES and that the inhibitory effect of hnRNP L on FMDV growth was not due to FMDV IRES-mediated translation, but to influence on viral RNA synthesis. Finally, hnRNP L was demonstrated to coimmunoprecipitate with RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (3Dpol) in an FMDV RNA-dependent manner in the infected cells. Thus, our results suggest that hnRNP L, as a critical IRES-binding protein, negatively regulates FMDV replication by inhibiting viral RNA synthesis, possibly by remaining in the replication complex.IMPORTANCE Picornaviruses, as a large family of human and animal pathogens, cause a bewildering array of disease syndromes. Many host factors are implicated in the pathogenesis of these viruses, and some proteins interact with the viral IRES elements to affect function. Here, we report for the first time that cellular hnRNP L specifically interacts with the IRES of the picornavirus FMDV and negatively regulates FMDV replication through inhibiting viral RNA synthesis. Further, our results showed that hnRNP L coimmunoprecipitates with FMDV 3Dpol in a viral RNA-dependent manner, suggesting that it may remain in the replication complex to function. The data presented here would facilitate further understanding of virus-host interactions and the pathogenesis of picornavirus infections.
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13
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Majer A, McGreevy A, Booth TF. Molecular Pathogenicity of Enteroviruses Causing Neurological Disease. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:540. [PMID: 32328043 PMCID: PMC7161091 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteroviruses are single-stranded positive-sense RNA viruses that primarily cause self-limiting gastrointestinal or respiratory illness. In some cases, these viruses can invade the central nervous system, causing life-threatening neurological diseases including encephalitis, meningitis and acute flaccid paralysis (AFP). As we near the global eradication of poliovirus, formerly the major cause of AFP, the number of AFP cases have not diminished implying a non-poliovirus etiology. As the number of enteroviruses linked with neurological disease is expanding, of which many had previously little clinical significance, these viruses are becoming increasingly important to public health. Our current understanding of these non-polio enteroviruses is limited, especially with regards to their neurovirulence. Elucidating the molecular pathogenesis of these viruses is paramount for the development of effective therapeutic strategies. This review summarizes the clinical diseases associated with neurotropic enteroviruses and discusses recent advances in the understanding of viral invasion of the central nervous system, cell tropism and molecular pathogenesis as it correlates with host responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Majer
- Viral Diseases Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Alan McGreevy
- Viral Diseases Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.,Department of Biology, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Timothy F Booth
- Viral Diseases Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
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14
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Lai MC, Chen HH, Xu P, Wang RYL. Translation control of Enterovirus A71 gene expression. J Biomed Sci 2020; 27:22. [PMID: 31910851 PMCID: PMC6947814 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-019-0607-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon EV-A71 infection of a host cell, EV-A71 RNA is translated into a viral polyprotein. Although EV-A71 can use the cellular translation machinery to produce viral proteins, unlike cellular translation, which is cap-dependent, the viral RNA genome of EV-A71 does not contain a 5′ cap and the translation of EV-A71 protein is cap-independent, which is mediated by the internal ribosomal entry site (IRES) located in the 5′ UTR of EV-A71 mRNA. Like many other eukaryotic viruses, EV-A71 manipulates the host cell translation devices, using an elegant RNA-centric strategy in infected cells. During viral translation, viral RNA plays an important role in controlling the stage of protein synthesis. In addition, due to the cellular defense mechanism, viral replication is limited by down-regulating translation. EV-A71 also utilizes protein factors in the host to overcome antiviral responses or even use them to promote viral translation rather than host cell translation. In this review, we provide an introduction to the known strategies for EV-A71 to exploit cellular translation mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Chih Lai
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 33302, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 33302, Taiwan.,Department of Colorectal Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan, 33305, Taiwan
| | - Han-Hsiang Chen
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 33302, Taiwan
| | - Peng Xu
- Xiangyang No.1 People's Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, Hubei Province, China.
| | - Robert Y L Wang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 33302, Taiwan. .,Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, 33302, Taiwan. .,Division of Pediatric Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan, 33305, Taiwan.
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15
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Zou D, Xu J, Duan X, Xu X, Li P, Cheng L, Zheng L, Li X, Zhang Y, Wang X, Wu X, Shen Y, Yao X, Wei J, Yao L, Li L, Song B, Ma J, Liu X, Wu Z, Zhang H, Cao H. Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus ORF3 protein causes endoplasmic reticulum stress to facilitate autophagy. Vet Microbiol 2019; 235:209-219. [PMID: 31383304 PMCID: PMC7117398 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), the causative agent of PED, is an enveloped, positive-stranded RNA virus in the genus Alphacoronavirus, family Coronaviridae, order Nidovirales. PEDV non-structural accessory protein ORF3 is an ion channel related to viral infectivity and pathogenicity. Our previous study showed that PEDV ORF3 has expression characteristic of aggregation in cytoplasm, but its biological function remains elusive. Thus in this study, we initiated the construction of various vectors to express ORF3, and found ORF3 localized in the cytoplasm in the aggregation manner. Subsequently, confocal microscopy analysis showed that the aggregated ORF3 localized in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to trigger ER stress response via up-regulation of GRP78 protein expression and activation of PERK-eIF2α signaling pathway. In addition, our results showed that PEDV ORF3 could induce the autophagy through inducing conversion of LC3-I to LC3-II, but couldn't influence the apoptosis. In contrast, conversion of LC3-I/LC3-II could be significantly inhibited by 4-PBA, an ER stress inhibitor, indicating that ORF3-induced autophagy is dependent on ER stress response. This work not only provides some new findings for the biological function of the PEDV ORF3 protein, but also help us for the further understanding the molecular interaction between PEDV ORF3 protein and cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dehua Zou
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Jiaxin Xu
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xulai Duan
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xin Xu
- Branch of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary of HeiLongJiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qiqihar, 161005, China
| | - Pengfei Li
- Department of Nephrology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Lixin Cheng
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Liang Zheng
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xingzhi Li
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Yating Zhang
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xianhe Wang
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xuening Wu
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Yujiang Shen
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xiangyu Yao
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Jiaqi Wei
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Lili Yao
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Liyang Li
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Baifen Song
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Jinzhu Ma
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xinyang Liu
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Zhijun Wu
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Hua Zhang
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China.
| | - Hongwei Cao
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China.
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16
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Sam68 Promotes Hepatitis C Virus Replication by Interaction with Stem-Loop 2 of Viral 5' Untranslated Region. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00693-19. [PMID: 31068419 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00693-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The Src-associated in mitosis 68-kDa (Sam68) protein is a highly conserved nuclear protein and is involved in a series of cellular processes, including transcription and signal transduction. Sam68 is comprised of 443 amino acids and contains an RGG box domain, a KH domain, and a tyrosine-rich domain. Its role in hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication is unknown. Here, we find that Sam68 promotes HCV replication without affecting viral translation. The RNA immunoprecipitation experiments show that the positive strand of HCV RNA interacts with Sam68. HCV infection triggers the translocation of the Sam68 protein from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it interacts with the HCV genome. Further study shows that the region of Sam68 spanning amino acids 1 to 157 is the pivotal domain to interact with the stem-loop 2 of the HCV 5' untranslated region (5' UTR) and is responsible for the enhancement of HCV replication. These data suggested that Sam68 may serve as a proviral factor of HCV to facilitate viral replication through interaction with the viral genome.IMPORTANCE Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a member of the Flaviviridae family, and its infection causes chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and even hepatocellular carcinoma. No vaccine is available. Many host factors may be implicated in the pathogenesis of HCV-related diseases. This study discloses a new host factor that binds to the HCV 5' UTR and promotes HCV replication. Sam68 may play an important role in HCV-related diseases, and further investigation is highly encouraged to explore its specific actions in HCV pathogenesis.
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17
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Owino CO, Chu JJH. Recent advances on the role of host factors during non-poliovirus enteroviral infections. J Biomed Sci 2019; 26:47. [PMID: 31215493 PMCID: PMC6582496 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-019-0540-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-polio enteroviruses are emerging viruses known to cause outbreaks of polio-like infections in different parts of the world with several cases already reported in Asia Pacific, Europe and in United States of America. These outbreaks normally result in overstretching of health facilities as well as death in children under the age of five. Most of these infections are usually self-limiting except for the neurological complications associated with human enterovirus A 71 (EV-A71). The infection dynamics of these viruses have not been fully understood, with most inferences made from previous studies conducted with poliovirus.Non-poliovirus enteroviral infections are responsible for major outbreaks of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) often associated with neurological complications and severe respiratory diseases. The myriad of disease presentations observed so far in children calls for an urgent need to fully elucidate the replication processes of these viruses. There are concerted efforts from different research groups to fully map out the role of human host factors in the replication cycle of these viral infections. Understanding the interaction between viral proteins and human host factors will unravel important insights on the lifecycle of this groups of viruses.This review provides the latest update on the interplay between human host factors/processes and non-polio enteroviruses (NPEV). We focus on the interactions involved in viral attachment, entry, internalization, uncoating, replication, virion assembly and eventual egress of the NPEV from the infected cells. We emphasize on the virus- human host interplay and highlight existing knowledge gaps that needs further studies. Understanding the NPEV-human host factors interactions will be key in the design and development of vaccines as well as antivirals against enteroviral infections. Dissecting the role of human host factors during NPEV infection cycle will provide a clear picture of how NPEVs usurp the human cellular processes to establish an efficient infection. This will be a boost to the drug and vaccine development against enteroviruses which will be key in control and eventual elimination of the viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Collins Oduor Owino
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, 138673, Singapore
| | - Justin Jang Hann Chu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117597, Singapore.
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, 138673, Singapore.
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18
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Meng W, Wang XJ, Wang HCR. Targeting nuclear proteins for control of viral replication. Crit Rev Microbiol 2019; 45:495-513. [DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2018.1553848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wen Meng
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao-Jia Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Hwa-Chain Robert Wang
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA
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19
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The RNA binding protein Sam68 controls T helper 1 differentiation and anti-mycobacterial response through modulation of miR-29. Cell Death Differ 2018; 26:1169-1180. [PMID: 30258098 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-018-0201-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Polarization of naive T cells into interferon (IFN)-γ-producing T helper 1 (Th1) cells is an essential event in the inflammatory response to pathogens. Herein, we identify the RNA binding protein Sam68 as a specific modulator of Th1 differentiation. Sam68-knockout (ko) naive T cells are strongly defective in IL-12-mediated Th1 polarization and express low levels of T-bet and Eomes. Consequently, Sam68-ko Th1 cells are significantly impaired in IFN-γ production. Moreover, we found that Sam68 is required for the induction of an inflammatory Th1 response during Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) infection, thus limiting bacterial dissemination in the lungs. Mechanistically, Sam68 directly binds to the microRNA miR-29, a negative regulator of Th1 response, and inhibits its expression during BCG infection. These findings uncover a novel post-transcriptional mechanism required for the Th1-mediated defense against intracellular pathogens and identify a new function for Sam68 in the regulation of the immune response.
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20
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Zhang Y, Yao L, Xu X, Han H, Li P, Zou D, Li X, Zheng L, Cheng L, Shen Y, Wang X, Wu X, Xu J, Song B, Xu S, Zhang H, Cao H. Enterovirus 71 inhibits cytoplasmic stress granule formation during the late stage of infection. Virus Res 2018; 255:55-67. [PMID: 30006004 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2018.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Stress granules (SGs) are host translationally silent ribonucleo-proteins formed in cells in response to multiple types of environmental stress, including viral infection. We previously showed that the nuclear protein, 68-kDa Src-associated in mitosis protein (Sam68), is recruited to cytoplasm and form the Sam68-positive SGs at 6 hpi, but the Sam68-positive SGs disassembled beyond 12 hpi, suggesting that the SGs might be inhibited during the late stage of Enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection. However, the mechanism and function of this process remains poorly understood. Thus in this study, we demonstrated that EV71 initially induced SGs formation at the early stage of EV71 infection, and confirmed that 2Apro of EV71 was the key viral component that triggered SG formation. In contrast, SGs were diminished as EV71 infection proceeding. At the same time, arsenite-induced SGs were also blocked at the late stage of EV71 infection. This disruption of SGs was caused by viral protease 3Cpro-mediated G3BP1 cleavage. Furthermore, we demonstrated that over-expression of G3BP1-SGs negatively impacted viral replication at the cytopathic effect (CPE), protein, RNA, and viral titer levels. Our novel finding may not only help us to better understand the mechanism how EV71 interacts with the SG response, but also provide mechanistic linkage between cellular stress responses and innate immune activation during EV71 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yating Zhang
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Lili Yao
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xin Xu
- HeiLongJiang Institute of Veterinary Science, Qiqihar 161005, China
| | - Huansheng Han
- Harbin Specialty Research Institute, HeiLongJiang Academy of Land Reclamation Sciences, Harbin 150038, China
| | - Pengfei Li
- Department of Nephrology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Dehua Zou
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xingzhi Li
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Liang Zheng
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Lixin Cheng
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Yujiang Shen
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xianhe Wang
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Xuening Wu
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Jiaxin Xu
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Baifen Song
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Shuyan Xu
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Harbin Specialty Research Institute, HeiLongJiang Academy of Land Reclamation Sciences, Harbin 150038, China.
| | - Hua Zhang
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China.
| | - Hongwei Cao
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; Biotechnology Center, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China.
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21
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Su YS, Tsai AH, Ho YF, Huang SY, Liu YC, Hwang LH. Stimulation of the Internal Ribosome Entry Site (IRES)-Dependent Translation of Enterovirus 71 by DDX3X RNA Helicase and Viral 2A and 3C Proteases. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1324. [PMID: 29971060 PMCID: PMC6018165 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The translation of enterovirus 71 (EV71) is mediated by an internal ribosome entry site (IRES)-dependent manner. EV71 IRES comprises five highly structured domains (domains II-VI) in the 5′-untranslated region of the viral mRNA. A conserved AUG triplet residing in domain VI is proposed to be the ribosome entry site. It is thus envisaged that the highly structured conformation of domain VI may actually reduce the accessibility of the AUG triplet to the ribosome. This study identified a DEAD-box family RNA helicase, DDX3X, that positively regulated the EV71 IRES-dependent translation. The helicase activity of DDX3X was required for the stimulation of EV71 IRES activity; however, DDX3X was no longer important for the IRES activity when the secondary structure of domain VI was destabilized. DDX3X interacted with the truncated eIF4G which bound specifically to domain V. Thus, we proposed that DDX3X might bind to domain VI or a region nearby via the interaction with the truncated eIF4G, and subsequently unwound the secondary structure of domain VI to facilitate ribosome entry. Additionally, we demonstrated that the viral 2Apro and 3Cpro enhanced the IRES-dependent translation via their protease activities. Together, these results indicate that DDX3X is an important RNA helicase involved in EV71 IRES-dependent translation and that IRES translation is enhanced by viral infection, partly mediated by viral protease activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Siang Su
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ai-Hsuan Tsai
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yueh-Feng Ho
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shin-Yi Huang
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Chun Liu
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Lih-Hwa Hwang
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
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22
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Yuan J, Shen L, Wu J, Zou X, Gu J, Chen J, Mao L. Enterovirus A71 Proteins: Structure and Function. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:286. [PMID: 29515559 PMCID: PMC5826392 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) infection has grown to become a serious threat to global public health. It is one of the major causes of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) in infants and young children. EV-A71 can also infect the central nervous system (CNS) and induce diverse neurological complications, such as brainstem encephalitis, aseptic meningitis, and acute flaccid paralysis, or even death. Viral proteins play a crucial role in EV-A71 infection. Many recent studies have discussed the structure and function of EV-A71 proteins, and the findings reported will definitely aid the development of vaccines and therapeutic approaches. This article reviews the progress in the research on the structure and function of EV-A71 proteins. Available literature can provide a basis for studying the pathogenesis of EV-A71 infection in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Yuan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
- Clinical Laboratory, Danyang People's Hospital, Jiangsu, China
| | - Li Shen
- Clinical Laboratory, Zhenjiang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jing Wu
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Xinran Zou
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Jiaqi Gu
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Jianguo Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Lingxiang Mao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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23
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Martinez-Salas E, Francisco-Velilla R, Fernandez-Chamorro J, Embarek AM. Insights into Structural and Mechanistic Features of Viral IRES Elements. Front Microbiol 2018; 8:2629. [PMID: 29354113 PMCID: PMC5759354 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Internal ribosome entry site (IRES) elements are cis-acting RNA regions that promote internal initiation of protein synthesis using cap-independent mechanisms. However, distinct types of IRES elements present in the genome of various RNA viruses perform the same function despite lacking conservation of sequence and secondary RNA structure. Likewise, IRES elements differ in host factor requirement to recruit the ribosomal subunits. In spite of this diversity, evolutionarily conserved motifs in each family of RNA viruses preserve sequences impacting on RNA structure and RNA–protein interactions important for IRES activity. Indeed, IRES elements adopting remarkable different structural organizations contain RNA structural motifs that play an essential role in recruiting ribosomes, initiation factors and/or RNA-binding proteins using different mechanisms. Therefore, given that a universal IRES motif remains elusive, it is critical to understand how diverse structural motifs deliver functions relevant for IRES activity. This will be useful for understanding the molecular mechanisms beyond cap-independent translation, as well as the evolutionary history of these regulatory elements. Moreover, it could improve the accuracy to predict IRES-like motifs hidden in genome sequences. This review summarizes recent advances on the diversity and biological relevance of RNA structural motifs for viral IRES elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Encarnacion Martinez-Salas
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas - Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosario Francisco-Velilla
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas - Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Fernandez-Chamorro
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas - Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Azman M Embarek
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas - Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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24
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Dong Q, Men R, Dan X, Chen Y, Li H, Chen G, Zee B, Wang MHT, He ML. Hsc70 regulates the IRES activity and serves as an antiviral target of enterovirus A71 infection. Antiviral Res 2017; 150:39-46. [PMID: 29180285 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2017.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Revised: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) is a small positive-stranded RNA virus that causes human hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) and fatal neurological disorders in some cases without effective treatment. Here we show that heat shock cognate protein 70 (Hsc70), a molecular chaperone, displays pivotal role in viral infections. Knockdown of Hsc70 significantly suppresses viral replication evidenced by reducing not only the level of both viral replication intermediates (negative stranded RNA) and viral genomic RNA (positive stranded RNA), but also the level of viral protein expression; whereas ectopic expression of Hsc70 markedly promotes viral replication. Interestingly, depletion of Hsc70 decreases the IRES activity of EV-A71, and the ectopic expression of Hsc70 enhances the IRES activity accordingly. Further study shows that Hsc70 binds viral genomic RNA but does not directly interact with IRES. Moreover, we reveal that Hsc70 interacts with 2A protease and promotes eIF4G cleavage. More importantly, Hsc70 inhibitor Ver-155008 significantly protects cytopathic effects from EV-A71 infection and inhibits both IRES activity and viral reproduction in a dose-dependent manner. The cell viability assay shows that the IC50 and CC50 are 2.01 μM and 47.67 μM, respectively. These results demonstrate not only an important mechanism of Hsc70 in facilitating EV-A71 replication, but also a target for antiviral drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Dong
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ruoting Men
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Jockey Club of School of Public Health, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xuelian Dan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ying Chen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Huangcan Li
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Gong Chen
- Departments of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China
| | - Benny Zee
- Jockey Club of School of Public Health, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Maggie H T Wang
- Jockey Club of School of Public Health, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Ming-Liang He
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Biotechnology and Health Center, CityU Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China.
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25
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Abstract
Infected cells can undergo apoptosis as a protective response to viral infection, thereby limiting viral infection. As viruses require a viable cell for replication, the death of the cell limits cellular functions that are required for virus replication and propagation. Picornaviruses are single-stranded RNA viruses that modify the host cell apoptotic response, probably in order to promote viral replication, largely as a function of the viral proteases 2A, 3C, and 3CD. These proteases are essential for viral polyprotein processing and also cleave cellular proteins. Picornavirus proteases cleave proapoptotic adaptor proteins, resulting in downregulation of apoptosis. Picornavirus proteases also cleave nucleoporins, disrupting the orchestrated manner in which signaling pathways use active nucleocytoplasmic trafficking, including those involved in apoptosis. In addition to viral proteases, the transmembrane 2B protein alters intracellular ion signaling, which may also modulate apoptosis. Overall, picornaviruses, via the action of virally encoded proteins, exercise intricate control over and subvert cell death pathways, specifically apoptosis, thereby allowing viral replication to continue.
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26
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Tolbert M, Morgan CE, Pollum M, Crespo-Hernández CE, Li ML, Brewer G, Tolbert BS. HnRNP A1 Alters the Structure of a Conserved Enterovirus IRES Domain to Stimulate Viral Translation. J Mol Biol 2017; 429:2841-2858. [PMID: 28625847 PMCID: PMC5610934 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2017.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2017] [Revised: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Enteroviruses use a type I Internal Ribosome Entry Site (IRES) structure to facilitate protein synthesis and promote genome replication. Type I IRES elements require auxiliary host proteins to organize RNA structure for 40S ribosomal subunit assembly. Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 stimulates enterovirus 71 (EV71) translation in part through specific interactions with its stem loop II (SLII) IRES domain. Here, we determined a conjoined NMR-small angle x-ray scattering structure of the EV71 SLII domain and a mutant that significantly attenuates viral replication by abrogating hnRNP A1 interactions. Native SLII adopts a locally compact structure wherein stacking interactions in a conserved 5'-AUAGC-3' bulge preorganize the adjacent helices at nearly orthogonal orientations. Mutating the bulge sequence to 5'-ACCCC-3' ablates base stacking in the loop and globally reorients the SLII structure. Biophysical titrations reveal that the 5'-AUAGC-3' bulge undergoes a conformational change to assemble a functional hnRNP A1-RNA complex. Importantly, IRES mutations that delete the bulge impair viral translation and completely inhibit replication. Thus, this work provides key details into how an EV71 IRES structure adapts to hijack a cellular protein, and it suggests that the SLII domain is a potential target for antiviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Tolbert
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106-7078 USA
| | - Christopher E Morgan
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106-7078 USA
| | - Marvin Pollum
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106-7078 USA
| | | | - Mei-Ling Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, 08854 USA
| | - Gary Brewer
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, 08854 USA
| | - Blanton S Tolbert
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106-7078 USA.
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27
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Regulation Mechanisms of Viral IRES-Driven Translation. Trends Microbiol 2017; 25:546-561. [PMID: 28242053 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2017.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Revised: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) can be found in the mRNA of many viruses as well as in cellular genes involved in the stress response, cell cycle, and apoptosis. IRES-mediated translation can occur when dominant cap-dependent translation is inhibited, and viruses can take advantage of this to subvert host translation machinery. In this review, we focus on the four major types of IRES identified in RNA viruses, and outline their distinct structural properties and requirements of translational factors. We further discuss auxiliary host factors known as IRES trans-acting factors (ITAFs), which are involved in the modulation of optimal IRES activity. Currently known strategies employed by viruses to harness ITAFs and regulate IRES activity are also highlighted.
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28
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Zhou B, Chu M, Xu S, Chen X, Liu Y, Wang Z, Zhang F, Han S, Yin J, Peng B, He X, Liu W. Hsa-let-7c-5p augments enterovirus 71 replication through viral subversion of cell signaling in rhabdomyosarcoma cells. Cell Biosci 2017; 7:7. [PMID: 28101327 PMCID: PMC5237547 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-017-0135-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Human enterovirus 71 (EV71) causes severe hand, foot and mouse disease, accompanied by neurological complications. During the interaction between EV71 and the host, the virus subverts host cell machinery for its own replication. However, the roles of microRNAs (miRNAs) in this process remain obscure. Results In this study, we found that the miRNA hsa-let-7c-5p was significantly upregulated in EV71-infected rhabdomyosarcoma cells. The overexpression of hsa-let-7c-5p promoted replication of the virus, and the hsa-let-7c-5p inhibitor suppressed viral replication. Furthermore, hsa-let-7c-5p targeted mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase kinase 4 (MAP4K4) and inhibited its expression. Interestingly, downregulation of MAP4K4 expression led to an increase in EV71 replication. In addition, MAP4K4 knockdown or transfection with the hsa-let-7c-5p mimic led to activation of the c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathway, whereas the hsa-let-7c-5p inhibitor inhibited activation of this pathway. Moreover, EV71 infection promoted JNK pathway activation to facilitate viral replication. Conclusions Our data suggested that hsa-let-7c-5p facilitated EV71 replication by inhibiting MAP4K4 expression, which might be related to subversion of the JNK pathway by the virus. These results may shed light on a novel mechanism underlying the defense of EV71 against cellular responses. In addition, these findings may facilitate the development of new antiviral strategies for use in future therapies. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13578-017-0135-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingfei Zhou
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, No. 185, Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071 China ; Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Disease, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Min Chu
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, No. 185, Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Shanshan Xu
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, No. 185, Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Xiong Chen
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, No. 185, Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Yongjuan Liu
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, No. 185, Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Zhihao Wang
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, No. 185, Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Fengfeng Zhang
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, No. 185, Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Song Han
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, No. 185, Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Jun Yin
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, No. 185, Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Biwen Peng
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, No. 185, Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071 China ; Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Disease, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Xiaohua He
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, No. 185, Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071 China ; Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Disease, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Wanhong Liu
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, No. 185, Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071 China ; Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Disease, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071 China
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29
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Li Y, Lin Z, Xu T, Wang C, Zhao M, Xiao M, Wang H, Deng N, Zhu B. Delivery of VP1 siRNA to inhibit the EV71 virus using functionalized silver nanoparticles through ROS-mediated signaling pathways. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra26472g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is the primary causative agent of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinghua Li
- Center Laboratory
- Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center
- Guangzhou Medical University
- Guangzhou
- China
| | - Zhengfang Lin
- Center Laboratory
- Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center
- Guangzhou Medical University
- Guangzhou
- China
| | - Tiantian Xu
- Center Laboratory
- Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center
- Guangzhou Medical University
- Guangzhou
- China
| | - Changbing Wang
- Center Laboratory
- Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center
- Guangzhou Medical University
- Guangzhou
- China
| | - Mingqi Zhao
- Center Laboratory
- Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center
- Guangzhou Medical University
- Guangzhou
- China
| | - Misi Xiao
- Center Laboratory
- Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center
- Guangzhou Medical University
- Guangzhou
- China
| | - Hanzhong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology
- Wuhan Institute of Virology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- China
| | - Ning Deng
- Guangdong Province
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Immunology and Antibody Engineering
- Jinan University
- Guangzhou
- China
| | - Bing Zhu
- Center Laboratory
- Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center
- Guangzhou Medical University
- Guangzhou
- China
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30
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Chen N, Li X, Li P, Pan Z, Ding Y, Zou D, Zheng L, Zhang Y, Li L, Xiao L, Song B, Cui Y, Cao H, Zhang H. Enterovirus 71 inhibits cellular type I interferon signaling by inhibiting host RIG-I ubiquitination. Microb Pathog 2016; 100:84-89. [PMID: 27633794 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2016.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is a human pathogen that induces hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) and fatal neurological diseases in young children and infants. Pathogenicity of EV71 is likely related to its ability to evade host innate immunity through inhibiting cellular type I interferon signaling. However, it is less well understood the molecular events governing this process. In this study, we found that EV71 infection suppressed the induction of antiviral immunity by inhibiting the expression levels of IFN-β and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), such as ISG54 and ISG56, at the late stage of viral infection. At the same time, our results showed that EV71 infection significantly inhibited ubiquitination of RIG-I. In contrast, up-regulation of RIG-I ubiquitination promoted expression of IFN-β and ISGs, suggesting that inhibition of cellular type I interferon signaling was caused by down-regulation of RIG-I ubiquitination during EV71 infection. These results suggest that inhibition of RIG-I-mediated type I IFN responses by EV71 may contribute to the pathogenesis of viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Chen
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China
| | - Xingzhi Li
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China
| | - Pengfei Li
- Department of Nephrology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Daqing, 163319, China
| | - Ziye Pan
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China
| | - Yun Ding
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China
| | - Dehua Zou
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China
| | - Liang Zheng
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China
| | - Yating Zhang
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China
| | - Liyang Li
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China
| | - Lijie Xiao
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China
| | - Baifen Song
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China
| | - Yudong Cui
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China; College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China.
| | - Hongwei Cao
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China; College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China.
| | - Hua Zhang
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China; College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing, 163319, China.
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31
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Maccari G, Genoni A, Sansonno S, Toniolo A. Properties of Two Enterovirus Antibodies that are Utilized in Diabetes Research. Sci Rep 2016; 6:24757. [PMID: 27091243 PMCID: PMC4835795 DOI: 10.1038/srep24757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Human enteroviruses (EVs) comprise >100 different types. Research suggests a non-chance association between EV infections and type 1 diabetes. Immunohistochemical studies with the anti-EV antibody 5D-8.1 have shown that the EV capsid antigen is present in pancreatic islet cells of diabetic subjects. When it was noticed that 5D-8.1 may cross-react with human proteins, doubt was casted on the significance of the above histopathologic findings. To address this issue, properties of EV antibodies 5D-8.1 and 9D5 have been investigated using peptide microarrays, peptide substitution scanning, immunofluorescence of EV-infected cells, EV neutralization assays, bioinformatics analysis. Evidence indicates that the two antibodies bind to distinct non-neutralizing linear epitopes in VP1 and are specific for a vast spectrum of EV types (not for other human viruses). However, their epitopes may align with a few human proteins at low expected values. When tested by immunofluorescence, high concentrations of 5D-8.1 yelded faint cytoplasmic staining in uninfected cells. At reduced concentrations, both antibodies produced dotted staining only in the cytoplasm of infected cells and recognized both acute and persistent EV infection. Thus, the two monoclonals represent distinct and independent probes for hunting EVs in tissues of patients with diabetes or other endocrine conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Maccari
- Center for Nanotechnology and Innovation, Italian Institute of Technology, Pisa, Italy
| | - Angelo Genoni
- Laboratory of Medical Microbiology, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Silvia Sansonno
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Antonio Toniolo
- Laboratory of Medical Microbiology, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
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32
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Zhang H, Chen N, Li P, Pan Z, Ding Y, Zou D, Li L, Xiao L, Shen B, Liu S, Cao H, Cui Y. The nuclear protein Sam68 is recruited to the cytoplasmic stress granules during enterovirus 71 infection. Microb Pathog 2016; 96:58-66. [PMID: 27057671 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2016.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Our previous study found that the nuclear protein, 68-kDa Src-associated in mitosis protein (Sam68), is translocated to the cytoplasm and forms punctate pattern during enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection [Virus Research, 180 (2014), 1-11]. However, the exact function of this punctate pattern in cytoplasm during EV71 infection remains unknown. In this study, we firstly have examined this punctate pattern of Sam68 re-localization in the cytoplasm, and observed the obvious recruitments of Sam68 to the EV71-induced stress granules (SGs). Sam68, belongs to the KH domain family of RNA binding proteins (RBPs), was then confirmed that its KH domain was essential for this recruitment. Nevertheless, Knockdown of Sam68 expression using ShRNA had no effects on SGs assembly, indicating that Sam68 is not a constitutive component of the SGs during EV71 infection. Lastly, we investigated the importance of microtubulin transport to SGs aggregation, and revealed that microtubule depolymerization inhibited SGs formation, suggesting that EV71-induced SGs move throughout the cytoplasm in a microtubule-dependent manner. Taken together, these results illuminated that EV71 infections can induce SGs formation, and Sam68, as a SGs component, migrates alone with SGs dependent on intact microtubule upon the viral infections. These findings may provide novel underlying mechanism for delineating the role of SGs during EV71 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Ning Chen
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Pengfei Li
- Department of Nephrology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Ziye Pan
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Yun Ding
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Dehua Zou
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Liyang Li
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Lijie Xiao
- College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Binglei Shen
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Shuxia Liu
- Daqing Branch of HeiLongJiang Academy of Sciences, Daqing 163319, China
| | - Hongwei Cao
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China.
| | - Yudong Cui
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China; College of Life Science and Technology, HeiLongJiang BaYi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China.
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Rai DK, Lawrence P, Kloc A, Schafer E, Rieder E. Analysis of the interaction between host factor Sam68 and viral elements during foot-and-mouth disease virus infections. Virol J 2015; 12:224. [PMID: 26695943 PMCID: PMC4689063 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-015-0452-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The nuclear protein Src-associated protein of 68 kDa in mitosis (Sam68) is known to bind RNA and be involved in cellular processes triggered in response to environmental stresses, including virus infection. Interestingly, Sam68 is a multi-functional protein implicated in the life cycle of retroviruses and picornaviruses and is also considered a marker of virus-induced stress granules (SGs). Recently, we demonstrated the partial redistribution of Sam68 to the cytoplasm in FMDV infected cells, its interaction with viral protease 3C(pro), and found a significant reduction in viral titers as consequence of Sam68-specific siRNA knockdowns. Despite of that, details of how it benefits FMDV remains to be elucidated. METHODS Sam68 cytoplasmic localization was examined by immunofluorescent microscopy, counterstaining with antibodies against Sam68, a viral capsid protein and markers of SGs. The relevance of RAAA motifs in the IRES was investigated using electromobility shift assays with Sam68 protein and parental and mutant FMDV RNAs. In addition, full genome WT and mutant or G-luc replicon RNAs were tested following transfection in mammalian cells. The impact of Sam68 depletion to virus protein and RNA synthesis was investigated in a cell-free system. Lastly, through co-immunoprecipitation, structural modeling, and subcellular fractionation, viral protein interactions with Sam68 were explored. RESULTS FMDV-induced cytoplasmic redistribution of Sam68 resulted in it temporarily co-localizing with SG marker: TIA-1. Mutations that disrupted FMDV IRES RAAA motifs, with putative affinity to Sam68 in domain 3 and 4 cause a reduction on the formation of ribonucleoprotein complexes with this protein and resulted in non-viable progeny viruses and replication-impaired replicons. Furthermore, depletion of Sam68 in cell-free extracts greatly diminished FMDV RNA replication, which was restored by addition of recombinant Sam68. The results here demonstrated that Sam68 specifically co-precipitates with both FMDV 3D(pol) and 3C(pro) consistent with early observations of FMDV 3C(pro)-induced cleavage of Sam68. CONCLUSION We have found that Sam68 is a specific binding partner for FMDV non-structural proteins 3C(pro) and 3D(pol) and showed that mutations at RAAA motifs in IRES domains 3 and 4 cause a decrease in Sam68 affinity to these RNA elements and rendered the mutant RNA non-viable. Interestingly, in FMDV infected cells re-localized Sam68 was transiently detected along with SG markers in the cytoplasm. These results support the importance of Sam68 as a host factor co-opted by FMDV during infection and demonstrate that Sam68 interact with both, FMDV RNA motifs in the IRES and viral non-structural proteins 3C(pro) and 3D(pol).
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Affiliation(s)
- Devendra K Rai
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, USDA/ARS/NAA, P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.
| | - Paul Lawrence
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, USDA/ARS/NAA, P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.
| | - Anna Kloc
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, USDA/ARS/NAA, P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.
| | - Elizabeth Schafer
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, USDA/ARS/NAA, P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.
| | - Elizabeth Rieder
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, USDA/ARS/NAA, P.O. Box 848, Greenport, NY, 11944, USA.
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