Marek's disease virus (MDV) encodes an interleukin-8 homolog (vIL-8): characterization of the vIL-8 protein and a vIL-8 deletion mutant MDV

Rolling-Translated circRUNX2.2 Promotes Lymphoma Cell Proliferation and Cycle Transition in Marek's Disease Model

Marek's disease (MD), an immunosuppressive disease induced by the Marek's disease virus (MDV), is regarded as an ideal model for lymphoma research to elucidate oncogenic and anti-oncogene genes. Using this model, we found that circRUNX2.2, derived from exon 6 of RUNX2, was significantly upregulated in MDV-infected tumorous spleens. In this study, we deeply analyzed the potential role of circRUNX2.2 in lymphoma cells. An open reading frame (ORF) in circRUNX2.2 with no stop codon was predicted, and small peptides (named circRUNX2.2-rt) presenting multiple ladder-like bands with different molecular weights encoded by circRUNX2.2 were detected via Western blotting assay. The polysome fraction assay reconfirmed the translation ability of circRUNX2.2, which could be detected in polysome fractions. Subsequent analysis verified that it translated in a rolling circle manner, rather than being assisted by the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) or m6A-mediated mechanism. Furthermore, we found that circRUNX2.2-rt was potently induced in MSB1 cells treated with sodium butyrate (NaB), which reactivated MDV and forced the MDV transition from the latent to reactivation phase. During this phase, MDV particles were clearly observed by electron microscopy, and the viral gene pp38 was also significantly upregulated. A biological function study showed that circRUNX2.2-rt promoted cell proliferation and cell cycle transition from the S to G2 phase and inhibited the apoptosis of MSB1. Further immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry assays showed that 168 proteins potentially interacting with circRUNX2.2-rt were involved in multiple pathways related to cell cycle regulation, which proved that circRUNX2.2-rt could bind or recruit proteins to mediate the cell cycle.

Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Marek's disease virus in chickens from Ogun State, Nigeria

Marek's disease (MD) is caused by oncogenic MD virus serotype 1 (MDV1) and is characterized by lymphoproliferative lesions resulting in high morbidity and mortality in chickens. Despite being ubiquitous on poultry farms, there is a dearth of information on its molecular characteristics in Nigeria. This study aimed at characterizing three virulence genes (Meq, pp38, and vIL-8) of MDV1 from chickens in Ogun state, Nigeria. Blood, feather quill, and tumour samples of chickens from different commercial poultry farms in Ogun State were pooled, spotted on 107 FTA cards, and screened for MDV1 by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Phylogenetic analysis was carried out to compare Nigerian MDV1 Meq, pp38, and vIL-8 genes sequences with the published references. Thirteen samples were MDV1-positive and the Meq, as well as pp38, and vIL-8 genes from the different samples were 100% identical. The Meq genes contained 339 amino acids (aa) with three PPPP motifs in the transactivation domain and two interruptions of the PPPP motifs due to proline-to-arginine substitutions at positions 176 and 217 resulting in a 20.88% proline composition. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Meq gene clustered with strains from Egypt and very virulent ATE2539 strain from Hungary. Mutations were observed in the pp38 protein (at positions 107 and 109) and vIL-8 protein (at positions 4 and 31). Based on the molecular analysis of the three genes, the results indicate the presence of MDV1 with virulence signatures; therefore, further studies on in vivo pathotyping of Nigerian MDV1 from all states should be performed.RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Meq, pp38 and vIL-8 genes were 100% identical between Nigerian MDV strains.Proline content in Nigerian meq gene was 20.88% with two PPPP motifs interruptions.Meq, pp38 and vIL-8 genes of Nigerian MDV were similar to Egyptian and Indian strains.

Viral proteogenomic and expression profiling during productive replication of a skin-tropic herpesvirus in the natural host

Efficient transmission of herpesviruses is essential for dissemination in host populations; however, little is known about the viral genes that mediate transmission, mostly due to a lack of natural virus-host model systems. Marek's disease is a devastating herpesviral disease of chickens caused by Marek's disease virus (MDV) and an excellent natural model to study skin-tropic herpesviruses and transmission. Like varicella zoster virus that causes chicken pox in humans, the only site where infectious cell-free MD virions are efficiently produced is in epithelial skin cells, a requirement for host-to-host transmission. Here, we enriched for heavily infected feather follicle epithelial skin cells of live chickens to measure both viral transcription and protein expression using combined short- and long-read RNA sequencing and LC/MS-MS bottom-up proteomics. Enrichment produced a previously unseen breadth and depth of viral peptide sequencing. We confirmed protein translation for 84 viral genes at high confidence (1% FDR) and correlated relative protein abundance with RNA expression levels. Using a proteogenomic approach, we confirmed translation of most well-characterized spliced viral transcripts and identified a novel, abundant isoform of the 14 kDa transcript family via IsoSeq transcripts, short-read intron-spanning sequencing reads, and a high-quality junction-spanning peptide identification. We identified peptides representing alternative start codon usage in several genes and putative novel microORFs at the 5' ends of two core herpesviral genes, pUL47 and ICP4, along with strong evidence of independent transcription and translation of the capsid scaffold protein pUL26.5. Using a natural animal host model system to examine viral gene expression provides a robust, efficient, and meaningful way of validating results gathered from cell culture systems.

Temperature-induced reactivation of Marek's disease virus-transformed T cells ex vivo

Marek's disease virus (MDV) establishes latency in chicken T lymphocytes that can lead to T cell transformation and cancer. Transformed Marek's disease chicken cell lines (MDCCs) can be expanded ex vivo and provide a valuable model to study latency, transformation, and reactivation. Here, we developed MDCCs from chickens infected with MDV that fluoresce during lytic replication and reactivation. Sodium butyrate treatment increased fluorescent protein expression as evidenced by fluorescent microscopy, flow cytometry, and western blotting; however, it caused significant apoptosis and necrosis. Treatment of MDCCs by decreasing the temperature resulted in robust MDV reactivation without significant induction of apoptosis and necrosis. Furthermore, MDV reactivation was significantly affected by the time in culture that can affect downstream reactivation analyses. In all, our data show that fluorescent protein expression during reactivation is a robust tool to examine viral replication in live cells ex vivo, and temperature treatment is an efficient technique to induce reactivation without punitive effects on cell viability seen with chemical treatment.

Fully Attenuated meq and pp38 Double Gene Deletion Mutant Virus Confers Superior Immunological Protection against Highly Virulent Marek's Disease Virus Infection

Marek's disease virus (MDV) induces immunosuppression and neoplastic disease in chickens. The virus is controllable via an attenuated meq deletion mutant virus, which has the disadvantage of retaining the ability to induce lymphoid organ atrophy. To overcome this deficiency and produce more vaccine candidates, a recombinant MDV was generated from the highly virulent Md5BAC strain, in which both meq and a cytolytic replication-related gene, pp38, were deleted. Replication of the double deletion virus, Md5BAC ΔmeqΔpp38, was comparable with that of the parental virus in vitro. The double deletion virus was shown to be fully attenuated and to reduce lymphoid organ atrophy in vivo. Crucially, Md5BAC ΔmeqΔpp38 confers superior protection against highly virulent virus compared with a commercial vaccine strain, CVI988/Rispens. Transcriptomic profiling indicated that Md5BAC ΔmeqΔpp38 induced a different host immune response from CVI988/Rispens. In summary, a novel, effective, and safe vaccine candidate for prevention and control of MD caused by highly virulent MDV is reported. IMPORTANCE MDV is a highly contagious immunosuppressive and neoplastic pathogen. The virus can be controlled through vaccination via an attenuated meq deletion mutant virus that retains the ability to induce lymphoid organ atrophy. In this study, we overcame the deficiency by generating meq and pp38 double deletion mutant virus. Indeed, the successfully generated meq and pp38 double deletion mutant virus had significantly reduced replication capacity in vivo but not in vitro. It was fully attenuated and conferred superior protection efficacy against very virulent MDV challenge. In addition, the possible immunological protective mechanism of the double deletion mutant virus was shown to be different from that of the gold standard MDV vaccine, CVI988/Rispens. Overall, we successfully generated an attenuated meq deletion mutant virus and widened the range of potential vaccine candidates. Importantly, this study provides for the first time the theoretical basis of vaccination induced by fully attenuated gene-deletion mutant virus.

Marek's Disease Virus Virulence Genes Encode Circular RNAs

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a recently rediscovered class of functional noncoding RNAs that are involved in gene regulation and cancer development. Next-generation sequencing approaches identified circRNA fragments and sequences underlying circularization events in virus-induced cancers. In the present study, we performed viral circRNA expression analysis and full-length sequencing in infections with Marek’s disease virus (MDV), which serves as a model for herpesvirus-induced tumorigenesis. We established inverse PCRs to identify and characterize circRNA expression from the repeat regions of the MDV genome during viral replication, latency, and reactivation. We identified a large variety of viral circRNAs through precise mapping of full-length circular transcripts and detected matching sequences with several viral genes. Hot spots of circRNA expression included the transcriptional unit of the major viral oncogene encoding the Meq protein and the latency-associated transcripts (LATs). Moreover, we performed genome-wide bioinformatic analyses to extract back-splice junctions from lymphoma-derived samples. Using this strategy, we found that circRNAs were abundantly expressed in vivo from the same key virulence genes. Strikingly, the observed back-splice junctions do not follow a unique canonical pattern, compatible with the U2-dependent splicing machinery. Numerous noncanonical junctions were observed in viral circRNA sequences characterized from in vitro and in vivo infections. Given the importance of the genes involved in the transcription of these circRNAs, our study contributes to our understanding and complexity of this deadly pathogen.

IMPORTANCE Circular RNAs (circRNAs) were rediscovered in recent years both in physiological and pathological contexts, such as in cancer. Viral circRNAs are encoded by at least two human herpesviruses, the Epstein Barr virus and the Kaposi’s Sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, both associated with the development of lymphoma. Marek’s disease virus (MDV) is a well-established animal model to study virus-induced lymphoma but circRNA expression has not been reported for MDV yet. Our study provided the first evidence of viral circRNAs that were expressed at key steps of the MDV lifecycle using genome-wide analyses of circRNAs. These circRNAs were primarily found in transcriptional units that corresponded to the major MDV virulence factors. In addition, we established a bioinformatics pipeline that offers a new tool to identify circular RNAs in other herpesviruses. This study on the circRNAs provided important insights into major MDV virulence genes and herpesviruses-mediated gene dysregulation.

V5 and GFP Tagging of Viral Gene pp38 of Marek's Disease Vaccine Strain CVI988 Using CRISPR/Cas9 Editing

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is a member of alphaherpesviruses associated with Marek's disease, a highly contagious neoplastic disease in chickens. The availability of the complete sequence of the viral genome allowed for the identification of major genes associated with pathogenicity using different techniques, such as bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) mutagenesis and the recent powerful clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9)-based editing system. Thus far, most studies on MDV genome editing using the CRISPR/Cas9 system have focused on gene deletion. However, analysis of the expression and interactions of the viral proteins during virus replication in infected cells and tumor cells is also important for studying its role in MDV pathogenesis. The unavailability of antibodies against most of the MDV proteins has hindered the progress in such studies. This prompted us to develop pipelines to tag MDV genes as an alternative method for this purpose. Here we describe the application of CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing approaches to tag the phosphoprotein 38 (pp38) gene of the MDV vaccine strain CVI988 with both V5 and green fluorescent protein (GFP). This rapid and efficient viral-gene-tagging technique can overcome the shortage of specific antibodies and speed up the MDV gene function studies significantly, leading to a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of MDV pathogenesis.

Visualization of Marek’s Disease Virus Genomes in Living Cells during Lytic Replication and Latency

Visualization of the herpesvirus genomes during lytic replication and latency is mainly achieved by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Unfortunately, this technique cannot be used for the real-time detection of viral genome in living cells. To facilitate the visualization of the Marek’s disease virus (MDV) genome during all stages of the virus lifecycle, we took advantage of the well-established tetracycline operator/repressor (TetO/TetR) system. This system consists of a fluorescently labeled TetR (TetR-GFP) that specifically binds to an array of tetO sequences. This tetO repeat array was first inserted into the MDV genome (vTetO). Subsequently, we fused TetR-GFP via a P2a self-cleaving peptide to the C-terminus of the viral interleukin 8 (vIL8), which is expressed during lytic replication and latency. Upon reconstitution of this vTetO-TetR virus, fluorescently labeled replication compartments were detected in the nucleus during lytic replication. After validating the specificity of the observed signal, we used the system to visualize the genesis and mobility of the viral replication compartments. In addition, we assessed the infection of nuclei in syncytia as well as lytic replication and latency in T cells. Taken together, we established a system allowing us to track the MDV genome in living cells that can be applied to many other DNA viruses.

Marek's disease virus encoded miR-M6 and miR-M10 are dispensable for virus replication and pathogenesis in chickens

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of approximately 22 nucleotides long non-coding RNAs, and virus-encoded miRNAs play an important role in pathogenesis. Marek's disease virus (MDV) is an oncogenic avian alphaherpesvirus that causes immunosuppression and tumors in its natural host, chicken. In the MDV genome, 14 miRNA precursors and 26 mature miRNAs were identified, thus MDV has been used as a model to study the function of viral miRNAs in vivo. Recently, a cluster of miRNAs encoded by MDV, Cluster 3 miRNAs (miR-M8-M10), has been shown to restrict early cytolytic replication and pathogenesis of MDV. In this study, we further analyzed the role of miR-M6 and miR-M10, members of cluster miR-M8-M10, in MDV replication and pathogenicity. We found that, compared to parental MDV, deletion of miR-M6-5p significantly enhanced the replication of MDV in cell culture, but not in chickens. The replication of miR-M6-5p deletion MDV was restored once the deleted sequences were re-inserted. Our results also showed that deletion of miR-M10-5p did not affect the replication of MDV in vitro and in vivo. In addition, our animal study results showed that deletion of miR-M6-5p or miR-M10-5p did not alter the pathogenesis of MDV. In conclusion, our study shows that both miR-M6 and miR-M10 are dispensable for MDV replication and pathogenesis in chickens, while also suggests a repressive role of miR-M6 in MDV replication in cell culture.

Molecular detection and phylogenetic analysis of Marek's disease virus virulence-associated genes from vaccinated flocks in southern India reveals circulation of virulent MDV genotype

Marek's disease (MD) is a re-emerging viral disease of chickens and a serious economic threat to the poultry industry worldwide. Continuous surveillance with molecular investigation is essential to monitor the emergence of virulent Marek's disease virus (MDV) strains and to devise any appropriate vaccination strategy and implement bio-security programmes. In the present study, we investigated the cases of MD outbreaks in vaccinated poultry flocks. The MD outbreak was confirmed through necropsy (mainly visceral tumours), histopathology and viral gene specific PCR. The pathotypes of the field MDV strains were assessed by molecular analysis of three virulence-associated genes, meq, pp38 and vIL-8. The Meq sequence of the field strains analyzed in this study lacked the 59 aa unique to mild strains, indicating that they are potentially virulent strains. Mutation at position 71 and the presence of five proline rich repeats in the transactivation domain, both associated with virulence were observed in these strains; however, the signature sequences specific to very virulent plus strains were absent. Phylogenetic analysis of meq oncogene sequences revealed clustering of the field strains with North Indian strains and with a very virulent plus ATE 2539 strain from Hungary. Analyses of pp38 protein at positions 107 and 109 and vIL-8 protein at positions 4 and 31 showed signatures of virulence. Sequence and phylogenetic analysis of oncogene and virulence-associated genes of field MDVs from vaccinated flock indicated that these strains possessed molecular features of virulent strains.

The role of Meq-vIL8 in regulating Marek's disease virus pathogenesis

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is a highly cell-associated oncogenic alphaherpesvirus that causes T cell lymphoma in chickens. MDV-encoded Meq and vIL8 proteins play important roles in transformation and early cytolytic infection, respectively. Previous studies identified a spliced transcript, meq-vIL8, formed by alternative splicing of meq and vIL8 genes in MDV lymphoblastoid tumour cells. To determine the role of Meq-vIL8 in MDV pathogenesis, we generated a recombinant MDV (MDV-meqΔSD) by mutating the splice donor site in the meq gene to abrogate the expression of Meq-vIL8. As expected, our results show that MDV-meqΔSD virus grows similarly to the parental and revertant viruses in cell culture, suggesting that Meq-vIL8 is dispensable for MDV growth in vitro. We further characterized the pathogenic properties of MDV-meqΔSD virus in chickens. Our results show that lack of Meq-vIL8 did not affect virus replication during the early cytolytic phase, as determined by immunohistochemistry analysis and/or viral genome copy number, but significantly enhanced viral DNA load in the late phase of infection in the spleen and brain of infected chickens. In addition, we observed that abrogation of Meq-vIL8 expression reduced the mean death time and increased the prevalence of persistent neurological disease, common features of highly virulent strains of MDV, in inoculated chickens. In conclusion, our study shows that Meq-vIL8 is an important virulence factor of MDV.

Characterization of a Novel Viral Interleukin 8 (vIL-8) Splice Variant Encoded by Marek's Disease Virus

Marek’s disease virus (MDV) is a highly cell-associated oncogenic alphaherpesvirus that causes lymphomas in various organs in chickens. Like other herpesviruses, MDV has a large and complex double-stranded DNA genome. A number of viral transcripts are generated by alternative splicing, a process that drastically extends the coding capacity of the MDV genome. One of the spliced genes encoded by MDV is the viral interleukin 8 (vIL-8), a CXC chemokine that facilitates the recruitment of MDV target cells and thereby plays an important role in MDV pathogenesis and tumorigenesis. We recently identified a novel vIL-8 exon (vIL-8-E3′) by RNA-seq; however, it remained elusive whether the protein containing the vIL-8-E3′ is expressed and what role it may play in MDV replication and/or pathogenesis. To address these questions, we first generated recombinant MDV harboring a tag that allows identification of the spliced vIL-8-E3′ protein, revealing that it is indeed expressed. We subsequently generated knockout viruses and could demonstrate that the vIL-8-E3′ protein is dispensable for MDV replication as well as secretion of the functional vIL-8 chemokine. Finally, infection of chickens with this vIL-8-E3′ knockout virus revealed that the protein is not important for MDV replication and pathogenesis in vivo. Taken together, our study provides novel insights into the splice forms of the CXC chemokine of this highly oncogenic alphaherpesvirus.

Environmental pollutants modulate RNA and DNA virus-activated miRNA-155 expression and innate immune system responses: Insights into new immunomodulative mechanisms

Many persistent organic pollutants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), have high immunomodulating potentials. Exposure to them, in combination with virus infections, has been shown to aggravate outcomes of the infection, leading to increased viral titers and host mortality. Expression of immune-related microRNA (miR) signaling pathways (by host and/or virus) have been shown to be important in determining these outcomes; there is some evidence to suggest pollutants can cause dysregulation of miRNAs. It was thus hypothesized here that modulation of miRNAs (and associated cytokine genes) by pollutants exerts negative effects during viral infections. To test this, an in vitro study on chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEF) exposed to a PCB mixture (Aroclor 1260) and then stimulated with a synthetic RNA virus (poly(I:C)) or infected with a lymphoma-causing DNA virus (Gallid Herpes Virus 2 [GaHV-2]) was conducted. Using quantitative real-time PCR, expression patterns for mir-155, pro-inflammatory TNFα and IL-8, transcription factor NF-κB1, and anti-inflammatory IL-4 were investigated 8, 12, and 18 h after virus activation. The study showed that Aroclor1260 modulated mir-155 expression, such that a down-regulation of mir-155 in poly(I:C)-treated CEF was seen up to 12 h. Aroclor1260 exposure also increased the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory genes after 8 h in poly(I:C)-treated cells, but levels in GaHV-2-infected cells were unaffected. In contrast to with Aroclor1260/poly(I:C), Aroclor1260/GaHV-2-infected cells displayed an increase in mir-155 levels after 12 h compared to levels seen with either individual treatment. While after 12 h expression of most evaluated genes was down-regulated (independent of treatment regimen), by 18 h, up-regulation was evident again. In conclusion, this study added evidence that mir-155 signaling represents a sensitive pathway to chemically-induced immunomodulation and indicated that PCBs can modulate highly-regulated innate immune system signaling pathways important in determining host immune response outcomes during viral infections.

Methods for the Manipulation of Herpesvirus Genome and the Application to Marek's Disease Virus Research

Herpesviruses are a group of double-strand DNA viruses that infect a wide range of hosts, including humans and animals. In the past decades, numerous methods have been developed to manipulate herpesviruses genomes, from the introduction of random mutations to specific genome editing. The development of genome manipulation methods has largely advanced the study of viral genes function, contributing not only to the understanding of herpesvirus biology and pathogenesis, but also the generation of novel vaccines and therapies to control and treat diseases. In this review, we summarize the major methods of herpesvirus genome manipulation with emphasis in their application to Marek’s disease virus research.

Virus-encoded microRNA-M7 restricts early cytolytic replication and pathogenesis of Marek's disease virus

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of ∼22 nucleotides non-coding RNAs that are encoded by a wide range of hosts. Viruses, especially herpesviruses, encode a variety of miRNAs that involved in disease progression. Recently, a cluster of virus-encoded miRNAs, miR-M8-M10, have been shown to restrict early cytolytic replication and pathogenesis of Marek's disease virus (MDV), an oncogenic avian alphaherpesvirus that causes lymphoproliferative disease in chickens. In this study, we specifically dissected the role of miR-M7, a member of cluster miR-M8-M10, in regulating MDV replication and pathogenesis. We found that deletion of miR-M7-5p did not affect the virus plaque size and growth in cell culture. However, compared to parental virus, infection of miR-M7-5p deletion virus significantly increased MDV genome copy number at 5 days post infection, suggesting that miR-M7 plays a role to restrict MDV replication during early cytolytic phase. In addition, our results showed that infection of miR-M7-5p deletion virus significantly enhanced the mortality of chickens, even it induced lymphoid organ atrophy similar to parental and revertant viruses. Taken together, our study revealed that the miR-M7 acts as a repressive factor of MDV replication and pathogenesis.

A Novel Effective and Safe Vaccine for Prevention of Marek's Disease Caused by Infection with a Very Virulent Plus (vv+) Marek's Disease Virus

Marek’s disease virus (MDV) is a highly contagious alphaherpesvirus that causes rapid onset lymphoma in chickens. Marek’s disease (MD) is effectively controlled using vaccination; however, MDV continues to break through vaccinal immunity, due to the emergence of highly virulent field strains. Earlier studies revealed that deletion of the meq gene from MDV resulted in an attenuated virus that protects against MD in chickens challenged with highly virulent field strains. However, the meq deleted virus retains the ability to induce significant lymphoid organ atrophy. In a different study, we found that the deletion of the vIL8 gene resulted in the loss of lymphoid organ atrophy in inoculated chickens. Here, we describe the generation of a recombinant MDV from which both meq and vIL8 genes were deleted. In vitro studies revealed that the meq and vIL8 double deletion virus replicated at levels similar to the parental very virulent plus (vv+) virus. In addition, in vivo studies showed that the double deletion mutant virus (686BAC-ΔMeqΔvIL8) conferred protection comparable to CVI988, a commercial vaccine strain, when challenged with a vv+ MDV virus, and significantly reduced lymphoid organ atrophy, when compared to meq null virus, in chickens. In conclusion, our study describes the development of a safe and effective vaccine candidate for prevention of MD in chickens.

Bacillus amyloliquefaciens TL Downregulates the Ileal Expression of Genes Involved in Immune Responses in Broiler Chickens to Improve Growth Performance

Bacillus amyloliquefaciens TL promotes broiler chicken performance by improving nutrient absorption and utilization and reducing intestinal inflammation. In this study, RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq)-based transcriptomes of ileal tissues collected from probiotic-fed and control broiler chickens were analyzed to elucidate the effects of the probiotic B. amyloliquefaciens TL, as a feed additive, on the gut immune function. In total, 475 genes were significantly differentially expressed between the ileum of probiotic-fed and control birds. The expression of genes encoding pyruvate kinase, prothymosin-α, and heat stress proteins was high in the ileum of probiotic-fed birds (FPKM > 500), but not in the control group. The gene ontology functional enrichment and pathway enrichment analyses revealed that the uniquely expressed genes in the control group were mostly involved in immune responses, whereas those in the probiotic group were involved in fibroblast growth factor receptor signaling pathways and positive regulation of cell proliferation. Bacillus amyloliquefaciens TL downregulated the expression of certain proinflammatory factors and affected the cytokine–cytokine receptor interaction pathway. Furthermore, B. amyloliquefaciens TL in broiler diets altered the expression of genes involved in immune functions in the ileum. Thus, it might contribute to improved broiler growth by regulating the immune system and reducing intestinal damage in broilers.

Marek's Disease Virus Cluster 3 miRNAs Restrict Virus' Early Cytolytic Replication and Pathogenesis

Herpesvirus-encoded microRNAs (miRNAs) have been discovered in infected cells; however, lack of a suitable animal model has hampered functional analyses of viral miRNAs in vivo. Marek’s disease virus (MDV) (Gallid alphaherpesvirus 2, GaHV-2) genome contains 14 miRNA precursors, which encode 26 mature miRNAs, grouped into three clusters. In this study, the role of MDV-encoded cluster 3 miRNAs, also known as mdv1-miR-M8-M10, in pathogenesis was evaluated in chickens, the natural host of MDV. Our results show that deletion of cluster 3 miRNAs did not affect virus replication and plaque size in cell culture, but increased early cytolytic replication of MDV in chickens. We also observed that deletion of cluster 3 miRNAs resulted in significantly higher virus reactivation from peripheral blood lymphocytes. In addition, pathogenesis studies showed that deletion of cluster 3 miRNAs resulted in more severe atrophy of lymphoid organs and reduced mean death time, but did not affect the incidence of MDV-associated visceral tumors. We confirmed these results by generating a cluster 3 miRNA revertant virus in which the parental MDV phenotype was restored. To the best of our knowledge, our study provides the first evidence that MDV cluster 3 miRNAs play an important role in modulating MDV pathogenesis.

Deletion of LORF9 but not LORF10 attenuates Marek's disease virus pathogenesis

Marek's disease virus (MDV) genome contains a number of uncharacterized long open reading frames (LORF) and their role in viral pathogenesis has not been fully investigated. Among them, LORF9 (MDV069) and LORF10 (MDV071) are locate at the right terminus of the MDV genome unique long region (U_L). To investigate their role in MDV pathogenesis, we generated LORF9 or LORF10 deletion and revertant viruses. In vitro growth kinetics results show that both LORF9 and LORF10 are not essential for virus growth in cell culture. However, LORF9, but not LORF10, is involved in MDV early cytolytic replication in vivo, as evidenced by limited viral antigen expression in lymphoid organs of LORF9 deletion virus inoculated chickens. MDV genome copy number data further confirmed that LORF9 is important for MDV replication in spleen during early cytolytic phase. Deletion of LORF9 also partially impairs the replication of MDV in feather follicle epithelium (FFE); however, it can still establish latency and transformation. In addition, pathogenesis studies show that deletion of LORF9, but not LORF10, result in significant reduction of MDV induced mortality and slightly reduce MDV associated tumors of inoculated chickens. Importantly, we confirmed these results with the generation of LORF9 and LORF10 revertant viruses that fully restore the phenotypes of parental MDV. In conclusion, our results show that deletion of LORF9, but not LORF10, significantly impair viral replication in lymphoid organs during early cytolytic phase and attenuate Marek's disease virus pathogenesis.

Pervasive Differential Splicing in Marek's Disease Virus can Discriminate CVI-988 Vaccine Strain from RB-1B Very Virulent Strain in Chicken Embryonic Fibroblasts

Marek's disease is a major scourge challenging poultry health worldwide. It is caused by the highly contagious Marek's disease virus (MDV), an alphaherpesvirus. Here, we showed that, similar to other members of its Herpesviridae family, MDV also presents a complex landscape of splicing events, most of which are uncharacterised and/or not annotated. Quite strikingly, and although the biological relevance of this fact is unknown, we found that a number of viral splicing isoforms are strain-specific, despite the close sequence similarity of the strains considered: very virulent RB-1B and vaccine CVI-988. We validated our findings by devising an assay that discriminated infections caused by the two strains in chicken embryonic fibroblasts on the basis of the presence of some RNA species. To our knowledge, this study is the first to accomplish such a result, emphasizing how relevant a comprehensive picture of the viral transcriptome is to fully understand viral pathogenesis.

Latest Insights into Marek's Disease Virus Pathogenesis and Tumorigenesis

Marek’s disease virus (MDV) infects chickens and causes one of the most frequent cancers in animals. Over 100 years of research on this oncogenic alphaherpesvirus has led to a profound understanding of virus-induced tumor development. Live-attenuated vaccines against MDV were the first that prevented cancer and minimized the losses in the poultry industry. Even though the current gold standard vaccine efficiently protects against clinical disease, the virus continuously evolves towards higher virulence. Emerging field strains were able to overcome the protection provided by the previous two vaccine generations. Research over the last few years revealed important insights into the virus life cycle, cellular tropism, and tumor development that are summarized in this review. In addition, we discuss recent data on the MDV transcriptome, the constant evolution of this highly oncogenic virus towards higher virulence, and future perspectives in MDV research.

Attenuation of a recombinant Marek's disease virus lacking the meq oncogene and evaluation on its immune efficacy against Marek's disease virus

SC9-2 is a recombinant Marek's disease virus (MDV) strain lacking the meq oncogene. Previous study demonstrated that SC9-2 virus provides good protection against challenge with a very virulent MDV rMd5, but it induces immunosuppressive effects in specific pathogen-free (SPF) chickens. In the present study, SC9-2 was serially passaged on chicken embryo fibroblast (CEF) cell cultures. The pathogenicity and immune efficacy of SC9-2/10^th and SC9-2/40^th against rMd5 were evaluated. Animal experimental results showed that SC9-2/10^th and SC9-2/40^th showed no lethality or tumorigenicity in SPF chickens. Body weight of chickens inoculated with SC9-2/40^th were significantly higher than that of the chickens inoculated with SC9-2/10^th but lower than that of the uninoculated controls. The severity of bursa and thymus atrophy (BTA) and spleen enlargement in SC9-2/40^th-inoculated chickens were also weaker than the SC9-2/10^th-inoculated ones but stronger than the uninoculated controls. Chickens inoculated with SC9-2/40^th and SC9-2/10^th showed similar antibody levels induced by H9N2 subtype avian influenza virus/Newcastle disease virus inactivated vaccines, both of which were lower than the uninoculated controls. Replication of SC9-2/40^th was significantly lower than SC9-2/10^th in feather follicle epithelium (FFE) of infected chickens. The immune protection index of SC9-2/40^th was also lower than that of SC9-2/10^th, but the difference was not significantly, and both of which were significant higher than that of the commercial MDV vaccine CVI988/Rispens. The results of our studies demonstrated that SC9-2/40^th showed weaker severity of BTA, spleen enlargement, and body weight loss and lower replication level in FFE than SC9-2/10^th in SPF chickens. However, SC9-2/40^th was able to confer better immune protection as compared with CVI988/Rispens vaccination in SPF chickens. In conclusion, serially attenuation of SC9-2 in CEFs reduced the lymphoid organ atrophy and replication in SPF chickens, and the immune protective efficacy of attenuated viruses was still superior than CVI988/Rispens.

Targeted Editing of the pp38 Gene in Marek's Disease Virus-Transformed Cell Lines Using CRISPR/Cas9 System

Marek's disease virus (MDV), a lymphotropic α-herpesvirus associated with T-cell lymphomas in chickens, is an excellent model for herpesvirus biology and virus-induced oncogenesis. Marek's disease (MD) is also one of the cancers against which a vaccine was first used. In the lymphomas and lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) derived from them, MDV establishes latent infection with limited gene expression. Although LCLs are valuable for interrogating viral and host gene functions, molecular determinants associated with the maintenance of MDV latency and lytic switch remain largely unknown, mainly due to the lack of tools for in situ manipulation of the genomes in these cell lines. Here we describe the first application of CRISPR/Cas9 editing approach for precise editing of the viral gene phosphoprotein 38 (pp38), a biomarker for latent/lytic switch in MDV-transformed LCLs MDCC-MSB-1 (Marek's disease cell line MSB-1) and MDCC-HP8. Contradictory to the previous reports suggesting that pp38 is involved in the maintenance of transformation of LCL MSB-1 cells, we show that pp38-deleted cells proliferated at a significant higher rate, suggesting that pp38 is dispensable for the transformed state of these cell lines. Application of CRISPR/Cas9-based gene editing of MDV-transformed cell lines in situ opens up further opportunities towards a better understanding of MDV pathogenesis and virus-host interactions.

Imaging Mass Spectrometry and Proteome Analysis of Marek's Disease Virus-Induced Tumors

The highly oncogenic alphaherpesvirus Marek's disease virus (MDV) causes immense economic losses in the poultry industry. MDV induces a variety of symptoms in infected chickens, including neurological disorders and immunosuppression. Most notably, MDV induces transformation of lymphocytes, leading to T cell lymphomas in visceral organs with a mortality of up to 100%. While several factors involved in MDV tumorigenesis have been identified, the transformation process and tumor composition remain poorly understood. Here we developed an imaging mass spectrometry (IMS) approach that allows sensitive visualization of MDV-induced lymphoma with a specific mass profile and precise differentiation from the surrounding tissue. To identify potential tumor markers in tumors derived from a very virulent wild-type virus and a telomerase RNA-deficient mutant, we performed laser capture microdissection (LCM) and thereby obtained tumor samples with no or minimal contamination from surrounding nontumor tissue. The proteomes of the LCM samples were subsequently analyzed by quantitative mass spectrometry based on stable isotope labeling. Several proteins, like interferon gamma-inducible protein 30 and a 70-kDa heat shock protein, were identified that are differentially expressed in tumor tissue compared to surrounding tissue and naive T cells. Taken together, our results demonstrate for the first time that MDV-induced tumors can be visualized using IMS, and we identified potential MDV tumor markers by analyzing the proteomes of virus-induced tumors.IMPORTANCE Marek's disease virus (MDV) is an oncogenic alphaherpesvirus that infects chickens and causes the most frequent clinically diagnosed cancer in the animal kingdom. Not only is MDV an important pathogen that threatens the poultry industry but it is also used as a natural virus-host model for herpesvirus-induced tumor formation. In order to visualize MDV-induced lymphoma and to identify potential biomarkers in an unbiased approach, we performed imaging mass spectrometry (IMS) and noncontact laser capture microdissection. This study provides a first description of the visualization of MDV-induced tumors by IMS that could be applied also for diagnostic purposes. In addition, we identified and validated potential biomarkers for MDV-induced tumors that could provide the basis for future research on pathogenesis and tumorigenesis of this malignancy.

Phylogenetic and molecular epidemiological studies reveal evidence of recombination among Marek's disease viruses

Marek's disease has brought enormous loss in chicken production worldwide and the increasing virulence of Marek's disease virus (MDV) became a severe problem. To better understand the genetic basis underlying, a Chinese MDV strain HNGS101 isolated from immunized chickens was sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis implied that HNGS101 showed more relatedness to Eurasian strains than GaHV-2 circulating in North America. Recombination networks analysis showed the evidence of recombination among MDV strains, and several recombination events in the UL and US region were found. Further analysis indicated that the HNGS101 strain seemed to be generated by the recombination of the earliest Eurasian strains and North American strains in the US region, which may be responsible for the MD outbreaks in China. In summary, this study demonstrates recombination events among MDV strains [corrected], which may shed light on the mechanism of virulence enhancement.

Application of CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Editing System on MDV-1 Genome for the Study of Gene Function

Marek’s disease virus (MDV) is a member of alphaherpesviruses associated with Marek’s disease, a highly contagious neoplastic disease in chickens. Complete sequencing of the viral genome and recombineering techniques using infectious bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clones of Marek’s disease virus genome have identified major genes that are associated with pathogenicity. Recent advances in CRISPR/Cas9-based gene editing have given opportunities for precise editing of the viral genome for identifying pathogenic determinants. Here we describe the application of CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing approaches to delete the Meq and pp38 genes from the CVI988 vaccine strain of MDV. This powerful technology will speed up the MDV gene function studies significantly, leading to a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of MDV pathogenesis.

Epstein-Barr virus-encoded RNAs (EBERs) complement the loss of Herpesvirus telomerase RNA (vTR) in virus-induced tumor formation

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is an alphaherpesvirus that causes fatal lymphomas in chickens and is used as a natural virus-host model for herpesvirus-induced tumorigenesis. MDV encodes a telomerase RNA subunit (vTR) that is crucial for efficient MDV-induced lymphoma formation; however, the mechanism is not completely understood. Similarly, Epstein Barr-virus (EBV) encodes two RNAs (EBER-1 and EBER-2) that are highly expressed in EBV-induced tumor cells, however their role in tumorigenesis remains unclear. Intriguingly, vTR and EBER-1 have interaction partners in common that are highly conserved in humans and chickens. Therefore, we investigated if EBER-1 and/or EBER-2 can complement the loss of vTR in MDV-induced tumor formation. We first deleted vTR (v∆vTR) and replaced it by either EBER-1 or EBER-2 in the very virulent RB-1B strain. Insertion of either EBER-1 or EBER-2 did not affect MDV replication and their expression levels were comparable to vTR in wild type virus. Intriguingly, EBER-2 restored tumor formation of MDV that lacks vTR. EBER-1 partially restored MDV oncogenicity, while tumor formation was severely impaired in chickens infected with v∆vTR. Our data provides the first evidence that EBERs possess tumor-promoting properties in vivo using this natural model for herpesvirus-tumorigenesis.

Identification of the Receptor and Cellular Ortholog of the Marek's Disease Virus (MDV) CXC Chemokine

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is a cell associated alphaherpesvirus that causes fatal lymphoma in chickens. One factor that plays a crucial role in MDV pathogenesis is the viral CXC chemokine vIL-8 that was originally named after chicken interleukin 8 (cIL-8). However, a recent study demonstrated that vIL-8 recruits B cells and a subset of T cells but not neutrophils, suggesting that vIL-8 is not a cIL-8 orthologue. In this study, we set to identify the cellular orthologues and receptor of vIL-8 using in silico analyses, binding and chemotaxis assays. Sequence and phylogenetic analyses of all chicken CXC chemokines present in the recently published chicken genome revealed that vIL-8 shares the highest amino acid similarity with the CXCL13L1 variant. To evaluate if vIL-8 and CXCL13L1 are also functional orthologues, we assessed their binding properties and chemotaxis activity. We demonstrated that both vIL-8 and CXCL13 variants bind B cells and subsets of T cells, confirming that they target the same cell types. In addition, the chemokines not only bound the target cells but also induced chemotaxis. Finally, we identified CXCR5 as the receptor of vIL-8 and CXCL13 variants and confirmed that the receptor is expressed on MDV target cells. Taken together, our data demonstrate the conservation of the receptor-ligand interaction between CXCR5 and CXCL13 and shed light on the origin and function of the MDV-encoded vIL-8 chemokine, which plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of this highly oncogenic virus.

Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of a virulent Marek's disease virus field strain in broiler chickens in Japan

Marek's disease is a lymphoproliferative disease causing a serious threat in poultry production. Field strains of Marek's disease virus (MDVs) are continuously re-emerging, causing great economical losses to the poultry industry worldwide in spite of the intensive vaccination and restrictive management policy used. Histopathological and molecular characterizations of MDVs are essential for monitoring the changes of viruses and evaluating the effectiveness of existing vaccines. During 2016, 190 visceral tumour tissues representing 30 vaccinated chicken flocks from the Gifu prefecture, Japan, were analysed. A pathological examination revealed the presence of lymphoproliferative lesions in the visceral organs. Polymerase chain reaction screening of tissue specimens using specific primers for avian leucosis virus, reticuloendotheliosis virus, and MDV was positive only for MDV. The polymerase chain reaction products of meq, pp38, virus-induced IL-8 homology, and glycoprotein MDV genes were sequenced and used for homology, phylogenetic, and similarity level analysis with the published reference of MDVs in the database. The results revealed high similarity between the field isolates, vv and vv+ strains of MDV from the USA and China. Several point mutations in the nucleotide sequence of the field isolates and their deduced amino acid sequences were detected in those genes. The present molecular analyses indicated that nucleotide and amino acid changes could be valuable criteria for differentiation and determination of the pathogenicity and oncogenicity of MDVs according to the Avian Disease and Oncology Laboratory pathotyping in vivo studies. Furthermore, the results suggest that development of a new vaccine must be considered to overcome this devastating avian oncogenic viral disease.

Telomeres and Telomerase: Role in Marek's Disease Virus Pathogenesis, Integration and Tumorigenesis

Telomeres protect the ends of vertebrate chromosomes from deterioration and consist of tandem nucleotide repeats (TTAGGG)_n that are associated with a number of proteins. Shortening of the telomeres occurs during genome replication, thereby limiting the replication potential of somatic cells. To counteract this shortening, vertebrates encode the telomerase complex that maintains telomere length in certain cell types via de novo addition of telomeric repeats. Several herpesviruses, including the highly oncogenic alphaherpesvirus Marek's disease virus (MDV), harbor telomeric repeats (TMR) identical to the host telomere sequences at the ends of their linear genomes. These TMR facilitate the integration of the MDV genome into host telomeres during latency, allowing the virus to persist in the host for life. Integration into host telomeres is critical for disease and tumor induction by MDV, but also enables efficient reactivation of the integrated virus genome. In addition to the TMR, MDV also encodes a telomerase RNA subunit (vTR) that shares 88% sequence identity with the telomerase RNA in chicken (chTR). vTR is highly expressed during all stages of the virus lifecycle, enhances telomerase activity and plays an important role in MDV-induced tumor formation. This review will focus on the recent advances in understanding the role of viral TMR and vTR in MDV pathogenesis, integration and tumorigenesis.

Co-Infection with Marek's Disease Virus and Reticuloendotheliosis Virus Increases Illness Severity and Reduces Marek's Disease Vaccine Efficacy

Marek's disease virus (MDV) and reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV) cause Marek's disease (MD) and reticuloendotheliosis (RE), respectively. Co-infection with MDV and REV is common in chickens, causing serious losses to the poultry industry. However, experimental studies of such co-infection are lacking. In this study, Chinese field strains of MDV (ZW/15) and REV (JLR1501) were used as challenge viruses to evaluate the pathogenicity of co-infection and the influence of MD vaccination in chickens. Compared to the MDV-challenged group, the mortality and tumor rates increased significantly by 20.0% (76.7 to 96.7%) and 26.7% (53.3 to 80.0%), in the co-challenged group, respectively. The protective index of the MD vaccines CVI988 and 814 decreased by 33.3 (80.0 to 47.7) and 13.3 (90.0 to 76.7), respectively. These results indicated that MDV and REV co-infection significantly increased disease severity and reduced the vaccine efficacy. The MDV genome load showed no difference in the feather pulps and spleen, and pathogenicity-related MDV gene expression (meq, pp38, vIL-8, and ICP4) in the spleen significantly increased at some time points in the co-challenged group. Clearly, synergistic pathogenicity occurred between MDV and REV, and the protective efficacy of existing MD vaccines was attenuated by co-infection with Chinese field MDV and REV strains.

Complete nucleotide sequence analysis of the oncogene "Meq" from serotype 1 Marek's disease virus isolates from India

1. A study was undertaken to characterise the oncogene Meq at the molecular level for three serotype 1 Marek's disease virus (MDV) field isolates from vaccinated poultry flocks which had encountered a Marek's disease outbreak in the southern part of India. The isolates were named Ind/TN/11/01, Ind/KA/12/02 and Ind/TN/12/03. The oncogene Meq was amplified by PCR and sequenced. 2. The isolates were shown to have a homology for the Meq gene of 99.1-99.8% with various isolates from China and 98.5-99.2% with isolates from Europe and the USA. Alignment analysis of the nucleotide sequences showed that nucleotide mutations at 5 different positions in the Meq gene displayed perfect regularity in MDVs circulating in the southern part of India, which could be considered as features of field MDVs recently prevalent in this area. 3. In addition, the mutation in the Meq gene at positions 251, 260 and 437 was unique and coincides with very virulent strains from China GX0101, GXY2 and a Hungarian strain ATE. The mutation at positions 283 and 300 was unique and coincides with the very virulent strain ATE of Hungary. There were also single nucleotide mutations at positions 155 (A-T), 369 (A-C), 462 (C-A) and 548 (C-T) observed in the isolate Ind/TN/12/03. 4. Phylogenetic analysis of Meq sequences revealed that field MDVs in this area evolved independently but have similarities with very virulent strains from China, and that Meq has more similarities with the very virulent Hungarian strain.

Marek's disease in chickens: a review with focus on immunology

Marek's disease (MD), caused by Marek's disease virus (MDV), is a commercially important neoplastic disease of poultry which is only controlled by mass vaccination. Importantly, vaccines that can provide sterile immunity and inhibit virus transmission are lacking; such that vaccines are only capable of preventing neuropathy, oncogenic disease and immunosuppression, but are unable to prevent MDV transmission or infection, leading to emergence of increasingly virulent pathotypes. Hence, to address these issues, developing more efficacious vaccines that induce sterile immunity have become one of the important research goals for avian immunologists today. MDV shares very close genomic functional and structural characteristics to most mammalian herpes viruses such as herpes simplex virus (HSV). MD also provides an excellent T cell lymphoma model for gaining insights into other herpesvirus-induced oncogenesis in mammals and birds. For these reasons, we need to develop an in-depth knowledge and understanding of the host-viral interaction and host immunity against MD. Similarly, the underlying genetic variation within different chicken lines has a major impact on the outcome of infection. In this review article, we aim to investigate the pathogenesis of MDV infection, host immunity to MD and discuss areas of research that need to be further explored.

Virus and host genomic, molecular, and cellular interactions during Marek's disease pathogenesis and oncogenesis

Marek's Disease Virus (MDV) is a chicken alphaherpesvirus that causes paralysis, chronic wasting, blindness, and fatal lymphoma development in infected, susceptible host birds. This disease and its protective vaccines are highly relevant research targets, given their enormous impact within the poultry industry. Further, Marek's disease (MD) serves as a valuable model for the investigation of oncogenic viruses and herpesvirus patterns of viral latency and persistence--as pertinent to human health as to poultry health. The objectives of this article are to review MDV interactions with its host from a variety of genomic, molecular, and cellular perspectives. In particular, we focus on cytogenetic studies, which precisely assess the physical status of the MDV genome in the context of the chicken host genome. Combined, the cytogenetic and genomic research indicates that MDV-host genome interactions, specifically integration of the virus into the host telomeres, is a key feature of the virus life cycle, contributing to the viral achievement of latency, transformation, and reactivation of lytic replication. We present a model that outlines the variety of virus-host interactions, at the multiple levels, and with regard to the disease states.

Molecular and pathogenicity characterization of Gallid herpesvirus 2 newly isolated in China from 2009 to 2013

During the course of our continuous surveillance of Gallid herpesvirus 2 (GaHV-2), 44 isolates were obtained from GaHV-2-positive chickens of different flocks in China from 2009 to 2013. The meq gene, considered as a major GaHV-2 oncogene, was sequenced and was found to contain an open reading frame of 1020 nucleotides encoding a 339 amino acid (aa) polypeptide in all isolates. Compared with the GaHV-2 GA strain, the meq genes in 15.9 % (7/44) of the isolates analyzed in this study contained an aa substitution mutation at position 88 (A to T) of which is the first report. The main characteristics of Chinese GaHV-2 isolates meq genes included the substitutions K77E, D80Y, V115A, T139A, P176R, and P217A, and the aa substitution frequency at positions 139 and 176 showed an increase. To test the pathogenicity of the isolates, a pathogenicity study and a vaccination-challenge test were performed on three selected isolates (ZY/1203, WC/1203, and WC/1110) and reference strain GA. The results showed that the three isolates induced gross Marek's disease (MD) lesions in 95.0-100 % cases, which was a higher rate than that obtained for strain GA (82.4 %). Three isolates induced mortality in 10-21.1 % of specific-pathogen-free chickens, which was similar to results with strain GA (23.5 %). The commercially available CVI988 vaccine induced lower protective indices (PIs) against ZY/1203 (82.4) and WC/1110 (83.3) as compared to those against WC/1203 (100) and GA (100). These results showed an evolving trend in the meq genes of the isolates; three isolates exhibited higher morbidity as compared to the reference strain and the vaccine induced lower PIs against two isolates as compared to that against the reference strain.

Histone modifications induced by MDV infection at early cytolytic and latency phases

Background

Marek’s disease (MD) is a highly contagious, lymphomatous disease of chickens induced by a herpesvirus, Marek’s disease virus (MDV) that is the cause of major annual losses to the poultry industry. MD pathogenesis involves multiple stages including an early cytolytic phase and latency, and transitions between these stages are governed by several host and environmental factors. The success of vaccination strategies has led to the increased virulence of MDV and selective breeding of naturally resistant chickens is seen as a viable alternative. While multiple gene expression studies have been performed in resistant and susceptible populations, little is known about the epigenetic effects of infection.

Results

In this study, we investigated temporal chromatin signatures induced by MDV by analyzing early cytolytic and latent phases of infection in the bursa of Fabricius of MD-resistant and –susceptible birds. Major global variations in chromatin marks were observed at different stages of MD in the two lines. Differential H3K27me3 marks were associated with immune-related pathways, such as MAP kinase signaling, focal adhesion and neuroactive ligand receptor interaction, and suggested varying degrees of silencing in response to infection. Immune-related microRNAs, e.g. gga-miR-155 and gga-miR-10b, bore chromatin signatures, which suggested their contribution to MD-susceptibility. Finally, several members of the focal adhesion pathway, e.g. THBS4 and ITGA1, showed marked concordance between gene expression and chromatin marks indicating putative epigenetic regulation in response to MDV infection.

Conclusion

Our comprehensive analysis of chromatin signatures, therefore, revealed further clues about the epigenetic effects of MDV infection although further studies are necessary to elucidate the functional implications of the observed variations in histone modifications.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1492-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Molecular evolution of Marek's disease virus (MDV) field strains in a 40-year time period

Marek's disease (MD) presents a serious threat in poultry production. The disease has been limited for over 40 yr by protective vaccination. The widely applied vaccination against MD is also one of the factors causing evolutionary pressure onto field Marek's disease virus (MDV) virulent strains. Molecular evolution of MDV genes involved in oncogenesis may increase the pathogenicity of MDV virulent strains. The goal of the presented study was to sum up the molecular evolution of MDV field strains isolated in the last 40 yr in Poland. In total, 85 field MDV strains collected between 1974 and 2012 were propagated in chicken embryo fibroblasts. After DNA extraction, three sets of primers were designed for PCR complementary to the MDV076 (RLORF7) region encoding the meq oncogene as well to the MDV077 (23 kDa protein binding alpha-enolase) and MDV077.5 (RLORF6) genes. The obtained 85 MDV076, 60 MDV077, and 58 MDV077.5 cloned fragments were sequenced and aligned with the sequences of reference MDV strains showing different pathogenicity levels. The retrieved nucleotide (nt) and deduced amino acid sequences of RLORF7, 23 kDa protein, and LORF6 of Polish field strains showed several mutations and substitutions homologous to those observed in reference strains with a determined pathogenicity. The observed changes indicated the continuous evolution of field MDV strains. The RLORF7 nt sequence of analyzed MDV isolates showed similarity to virulent and very virulent MDV reference strains. The obtained 23 kDa and LORF6 nt sequences provided more important data and were more similar to mildly pathogenic strains than to virulent and very virulent MDV. The specific nt motifs in all three genes may indicate an increase of MDV virulence and were found in strains starting from 2006. According to the obtained results, the strains isolated in 2012 are similar to the very virulent plus MDV group. The study showed that RLORF7, 23 kDa protein, and RLORF6 fragments harbor sequence motifs that may have some association with MDV pathogenicity level. However, the exact role of the investigated regions in pathogenicity should be further examined by knock-out MDV strains. Also, the true MDV pathotype may only be determined by traditional in vivo experiments.

Lack of evidence that avian oncogenic viruses are infectious for humans: a review

Chickens may be infected with three different oncogenic viruses: avian leukosis virus (ALV), reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV), and Marek's disease herpesvirus (MDV). Several epidemiological studies have suggested a link between these viruses and different types of cancer in people working in poultry processing plants and with multiple sclerosis. In this article, we analyze the epidemiological evidence that these viruses are causative agents for human cancer, followed by description of the relevant key characteristics of ALV, REV, and MDV. Finally, we discuss the biological evidence or lack thereof that avian tumor viruses are involved in the etiology of human cancer and multiple sclerosis (MS). The recent primary epidemiologic articles that we reviewed as examples were only hypothesis-generating studies examining massive numbers of risk factors for associations with various imprecise, non-viral-specific outcomes. The studies lacked precise evidence of exposure to the relevant viruses and the statistical methods failed to adjust for the large risks of false-positive claims. ALV subgroups A-D and J have been eradicated in the United States from the pure lines down to the parent stocks by the breeder companies, which have greatly reduced the incidence of infection in layer flocks and broilers. As a consequence, potential exposure of humans to these viruses has greatly diminished. Infection of humans working in processing plants with ALV-A and ALV-B is unlikely, because broilers are generally resistant to infection with these two subgroups. Moreover, these viruses enter cells by specific receptors present on chicken, but not on mammalian, cells. Infection of mammalian cell cultures or animals with ALV-A, ALV-B, and ALV-J has not been reported. Moreover, humans vaccinated with exogenous or endogenous ALV-contaminated vaccines against yellow fever, measles, and mumps did not become antibody- or virus-positive for ALV. The risks for human infection with REV are similarly limited. First of all, REV also has been eradicated from pure lines down to parent stock by breeder companies in the United States. Broilers can still become infected with REV through infection with fowl pox virus containing REV. However, there is no indication that REV can infect human cells. Low levels of antibodies to ALV and REV in human sera have been reported by a few groups. Absorption of sera with chicken antigens reduced the antibody titers, and there was no clear association with contacts with poultry. Possible cross-reactions with human endogenous or exogenous retroviruses were not considered in these publications. MDV is typically associated with infection of chickens, and almost all experimental data show that MDV cannot infect mammalian cells or animals, including nonhuman primates. One study reports the presence of MDV gD DNA in human sera, but this finding could not be confirmed by another group. A Medline search of the term "gene expression in human cancers" was negative for publications with avian retroviruses or MDV. In conclusion, there is no indication that avian oncogenic viruses are involved in human cancer or MS or even able to infect and replicate in humans.

Targeting chemokines: Pathogens can, why can't we?

Chemoattractant cytokines, or chemokines, are the largest sub-family of cytokines. About 50 distinct chemokines have been identified in humans. Their principal role is to stimulate the directional migration of leukocytes, which they achieve through activation of their receptors, following immobilization on cell surface glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Chemokine receptors belong to the G protein-coupled 7-transmembrane receptor family, and hence their identification brought great promise to the pharmaceutical industry, since this receptor class is the target for a large percentage of marketed drugs. Unfortunately, the development of potent and efficacious inhibitors of chemokine receptors has not lived up to the early expectations. Several approaches to targeting this system will be described here, which have been instrumental in establishing paradigms in chemokine biology. Whilst drug discovery programs have not yet elucidated how to make successful drugs targeting the chemokine system, it is now known that certain parasites have evolved anti-chemokine strategies in order to remain undetected by their hosts. What can we learn from them?

Expression of fluorescent proteins within the repeat long region of the Marek's disease virus genome allows direct identification of infected cells while retaining full pathogenicity

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is a lymphotropic alphaherpesvirus and causes Marek's disease (MD) in chickens. RLORF4 is an MDV-specific gene located in the repeat long (RL) regions of the genome and is directly involved in attenuation. In this report, we generated recombinant (r)MDVs in which eGFP or mRFP was inserted in-frame of the 3' end of the RLORF4 gene. In vitro growth was unaffected and infected cells could be identified by using fluorescent microscopy. Interestingly, though inserted in-frame with RLORF4, eGFP and mRFP were expressed alone, confirming mRNA expression and splicing within the RL of MDV is complex. In vivo, rMDVs expressing mRFP or eGFP caused tumors similar to wild-type MDV. Fluorescent protein expression could be seen in spleen, tumor, and feather follicle epithelial cells. These results show that expression of fluorescent proteins within the RL region results in fluorescent rMDVs that still maintains full pathogenicity in the chicken.

The ORF012 gene of Marek's disease virus type 1 produces a spliced transcript and encodes a novel nuclear phosphoprotein essential for virus growth

Marek's disease virus (MDV), an alphaherpesvirus, is the causative agent of a lethal disease in chickens characterized by generalized nerve inflammation and rapid lymphoma development. The extensive colinearity of the MDV genome with those of related herpesviruses has eased functional characterization of many MDV genes. However, MDV carries a number of unique open reading frames (ORFs) that have not yet been investigated regarding their coding potentials and the functions of their products. Among these unique ORFs are two putative ORFs, ORF011 and ORF012, which are found at the extreme left end of the MDV unique long region. Using reverse transcriptase PCR, we showed that ORF011 and ORF012 are not individual genes but form a single gene through mRNA splicing of a small intron, resulting in the novel ORF012. We generated an ORF012-null virus using an infectious clone of MDV strain RB-1B. The deletion virus had a marked growth defect in vitro and could not be passaged in cultured cells, suggesting an essential role for the ORF012 product in virus replication. Further studies revealed that protein 012 (p012) localized to the nucleus in transfected and infected cells, and we identified by site-directed mutagenesis and green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter fusion assays a nuclear localization signal (NLS) that was mapped to a 23-amino-acid sequence at the protein's C terminus. Nuclear export was blocked using leptomycin B, suggesting a potential role for p012 as a nuclear/cytoplasmic shuttling protein. Finally, p012 is phosphorylated at multiple residues, a modification that could possibly regulate its subcellular distribution.

IMPORTANCE

Marek's disease virus (MDV) causes a devastating oncogenic disease in chickens with high morbidity and mortality. The costs for disease prevention reach several billion dollars annually. The functional investigation of MDV genes is necessary to understand its complex replication cycle, which eventually could help us to interfere with MDV and herpesviral pathogenesis. We have identified a previously unidentified phosphoprotein encoded by MDV ORF012. We were able to show experimentally that predicted splicing of the gene based on bioinformatics data does indeed occur during replication. The newly identified p012 is essential for MDV replication and localizes to the nucleus due to the presence of a transferable nuclear localization signal at its C terminus. Our results also imply that p012 could constitute a nucleocytoplasmic shuttle protein, a feature that could prove interesting and important.

Vaccine and oncogenic strains of gallid herpesvirus 2 contain specific subtype variations in the 5' region of the latency-associated transcript that evolve in vitro and in vivo

Gallid herpesvirus 2 (GaHV-2) is the alphaherpesvirus responsible for Marek's disease (MD), a T-cell lymphoma of chickens. The virulence of the GaHV-2 field strain is steadily increasing, but MD is still controlled by the CVI988/Rispens vaccine. We tried to determine distinguishing traits of the CVI988/Rispens vaccine by focusing on the 5' end region of the latency-associated transcript (5'LAT). It includes a variable number of 60-bp tandem repeats depending on the GaHV-2 strain. By analyzing six batches of vaccine, we showed that CVI988/Rispens consisted of a population of 5'LAT molecular subtypes, all with deletions and lacking 60-bp tandem repeat motifs, with two major subtypes that probably constitute CVI988/Rispens markers. Serial passages in cell culture led to a substantial change in the frequency of CVI988/Rispens 5'LAT subtypes, with non-deleted subtypes harboring up to four 60-bp repeats emerging during the last few passages. Dynamic changes in the distribution of 5'LAT-deleted subtypes were also detected after infection of chickens. By contrast, the 5'LAT region of the oncogenic clonal RB-1B strain, which was investigated at every step from the isolation of the clonal bacmid RB-1B DNA to the isolation of the ovarian lymphoma cell line, consisted of non-deleted 5'LAT subtypes harboring at least two 60-bp repeats. Thus, vaccine and oncogenic GaHV-2 strains consist of specific populations of viral genomes that are constantly evolving in vivo and in vitro and providing potential markers for epidemiological surveys.

Role of the short telomeric repeat region in Marek's disease virus replication, genomic integration, and lymphomagenesis

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is a cell-associated alphaherpesvirus that causes generalized polyneuritis and T-cell lymphomas in chickens. MDV is able to integrate its genome into host telomeres, but the mechanism of integration is poorly understood. The MDV genome harbors two arrays of telomeric repeats (TMR) at the ends of its linear genome: multiple telomeric repeats (mTMR), with a variable number of up to 100 repeats, and short telomeric repeats (sTMR), with a fixed number of 6 repeats. The mTMR have recently been shown to play an important role in MDV integration and tumor formation; however, the functions of the sTMR have remained unknown. In this study, we demonstrate that deletion of the sTMR in the MDV genome abrogates virus replication, while extensive mutation of the sTMR does not, indicating that the presence of the sTMR but not the sTMR sequence itself is important. Furthermore, we generated a panel of truncation mutants to determine the minimal length of the sTMR and observed a direct correlation between sTMR length and MDV replication. To address the role of sTMR in MDV replication, integration, and tumorigenesis, sTMR sequences were replaced by a scrambled repeated sequence (vsTMR_mut). vsTMR_mut replicated comparably to parental and revertant viruses in vitro. In vivo, however, a significant reduction in disease and tumor incidence was observed in chickens infected with vsTMR_mut that also correlated with a reduced number of viral integration sites in tumor cells. Taken together, our data demonstrate that the sTMR play a central role in MDV genome replication, pathogenesis, and MDV-induced tumor formation.

IMPORTANCE

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is a highly oncogenic alphaherpesvirus that infects chickens and causes high economic losses in the poultry industry. MDV integrates its genetic material into host telomeres, a process that is crucial for efficient tumor formation. The MDV genome harbors two arrays of telomeric repeats (TMR) at the ends of its linear genome that are identical to host telomeres and that are termed mTMR and sTMR. mTMR have been recently shown to be involved in MDV integration, while the functions of sTMR remain unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the presence and length of sTMR sequence, but not the exact nucleotide sequence, are crucial for MDV replication. Furthermore, the sTMR contribute to the high integration frequency of MDV and are important for MDV pathogenesis and tumor formation. As a number of herpesviruses harbor arrays of telomeric repeats (TMR), MDV serves as a model to determine the role of the herpesvirus TMR in replication, integration, and pathogenesis.

Herpesvirus Genome Integration into Telomeric Repeats of Host Cell Chromosomes

It is well known that numerous viruses integrate their genetic material into host cell chromosomes. Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) and oncogenic Marek's disease virus (MDV) have been shown to integrate their genomes into host telomeres of latently infected cells. This is unusual for herpesviruses as most maintain their genomes as circular episomes during the quiescent stage of infection. The genomic DNA of HHV-6, MDV, and several other herpesviruses harbors telomeric repeats (TMRs) that are identical to host telomere sequences (TTAGGG). At least in the case of MDV, viral TMRs facilitate integration into host telomeres. Integration of HHV-6 occurs not only in lymphocytes but also in the germline of some individuals, allowing vertical virus transmission. Although the molecular mechanism of telomere integration is poorly understood, the presence of TMRs in a number of herpesviruses suggests it is their default program for genome maintenance during latency and also allows efficient reactivation.