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Desai N, Rana D, Salave S, Benival D, Khunt D, Prajapati BG. Achieving Endo/Lysosomal Escape Using Smart Nanosystems for Efficient Cellular Delivery. Molecules 2024; 29:3131. [PMID: 38999083 PMCID: PMC11243486 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29133131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2024] [Revised: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The delivery of therapeutic agents faces significant hurdles posed by the endo-lysosomal pathway, a bottleneck that hampers clinical effectiveness. This comprehensive review addresses the urgent need to enhance cellular delivery mechanisms to overcome these obstacles. It focuses on the potential of smart nanomaterials, delving into their unique characteristics and mechanisms in detail. Special attention is given to their ability to strategically evade endosomal entrapment, thereby enhancing therapeutic efficacy. The manuscript thoroughly examines assays crucial for understanding endosomal escape and cellular uptake dynamics. By analyzing various assessment methods, we offer nuanced insights into these investigative approaches' multifaceted aspects. We meticulously analyze the use of smart nanocarriers, exploring diverse mechanisms such as pore formation, proton sponge effects, membrane destabilization, photochemical disruption, and the strategic use of endosomal escape agents. Each mechanism's effectiveness and potential application in mitigating endosomal entrapment are scrutinized. This paper provides a critical overview of the current landscape, emphasizing the need for advanced delivery systems to navigate the complexities of cellular uptake. Importantly, it underscores the transformative role of smart nanomaterials in revolutionizing cellular delivery strategies, leading to a paradigm shift towards improved therapeutic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nimeet Desai
- Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Kandi 502285, Telangana, India;
| | - Dhwani Rana
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Ahmedabad 382355, Gujarat, India; (D.R.); (S.S.); (D.B.)
| | - Sagar Salave
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Ahmedabad 382355, Gujarat, India; (D.R.); (S.S.); (D.B.)
| | - Derajram Benival
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Ahmedabad 382355, Gujarat, India; (D.R.); (S.S.); (D.B.)
| | - Dignesh Khunt
- School of Pharmacy, Gujarat Technological University, Gandhinagar 382027, Gujarat, India
| | - Bhupendra G. Prajapati
- Shree S. K. Patel College of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Ganpat University, Kherva 384012, Gujarat, India
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand
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2
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Hu M, Li X, You Z, Cai R, Chen C. Physiological Barriers and Strategies of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Nucleic Acid Drug Delivery. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2303266. [PMID: 37792475 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202303266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) are currently the most promising vehicles for nucleic acid drug (NAD) delivery. Although their clinical applications have achieved success, the NAD delivery efficiency and safety are still unsatisfactory, which are, to a large extent, due to the existence of multi-level physiological barriers in vivo. It is important to elucidate the interactions between these barriers and LBNPs, which will guide more rational design of efficient NAD vehicles with low adverse effects and facilitate broader applications of nucleic acid therapeutics. This review describes the obstacles and challenges of biological barriers to NAD delivery at systemic, organ, sub-organ, cellular, and subcellular levels. The strategies to overcome these barriers are comprehensively reviewed, mainly including physically/chemically engineering LBNPs and directly modifying physiological barriers by auxiliary treatments. Then the potentials and challenges for successful translation of these preclinical studies into the clinic are discussed. In the end, a forward look at the strategies on manipulating protein corona (PC) is addressed, which may pull off the trick of overcoming those physiological barriers and significantly improve the efficacy and safety of LBNP-based NADs delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingdi Hu
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing, 100190, China
- Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
- Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Xiaoyan Li
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Zhen You
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Rong Cai
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Chunying Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing, 100190, China
- Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
- Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research, Beijing, 100049, China
- The GBA National Institute for Nanotechnology Innovation, Guangzhou, 510700, China
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3
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Chen YL, Bao CJ, Duan JL, Xie Y, Lu WL. Overcoming biological barriers by virus-like drug particles for drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2023; 203:115134. [PMID: 37926218 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2023.115134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Virus-like particles (VLPs) have natural structural antigens similar to those found in viruses, making them valuable in vaccine immunization. Furthermore, VLPs have demonstrated significant potential in drug delivery, and emerged as promising vectors for transporting chemical drug, genetic drug, peptide/protein, and even nanoparticle drug. With virus-like permeability and strong retention, they can effectively target specific organs, tissues or cells, facilitating efficient intracellular drug release. Further modifications allow VLPs to transfer across various physiological barriers, thus acting the purpose of efficient drug delivery and accurate therapy. This article provides an overview of VLPs, covering their structural classifications, deliverable drugs, potential physiological barriers in drug delivery, strategies for overcoming these barriers, and future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ling Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery Systems, and School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Chun-Jie Bao
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery Systems, and School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; School of Medicine & Holistic Integrative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Jia-Lun Duan
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery Systems, and School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Ying Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery Systems, and School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.
| | - Wan-Liang Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery Systems, and School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.
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4
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Choi J, DiMaio D. Noncanonical Rab9a action supports retromer-mediated endosomal exit of human papillomavirus during virus entry. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011648. [PMID: 37703297 PMCID: PMC10519607 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Rab GTPases play key roles in controlling intracellular vesicular transport. GTP-bound Rab proteins support vesicle trafficking. Here, we report that, unlike cellular protein cargos, retromer-mediated delivery of human papillomaviruses (HPV) into the retrograde transport pathway during virus entry is inhibited by Rab9a in its GTP-bound form. Knockdown of Rab9a inhibits HPV entry by modulating the HPV-retromer interaction and impairing retromer-mediated endosome-to-Golgi transport of the incoming virus, resulting in the accumulation of HPV in the endosome. Rab9a is in proximity to HPV as early as 3.5 h post-infection, prior to the Rab7-HPV interaction, and HPV displays increased association with retromer in Rab9a knockdown cells, even in the presence of dominant negative Rab7. Thus, Rab9a can regulate HPV-retromer association independently of Rab7. Surprisingly, excess GTP-Rab9a impairs HPV entry, whereas excess GDP-Rab9a reduces association between L2 and Rab9a and stimulates entry. These findings reveal that HPV and cellular proteins utilize the Rab9a host trafficking machinery in distinct ways during intracellular trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongjoon Choi
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Daniel DiMaio
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Department of Molecular Biophysics & Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Yale Cancer Center, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
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5
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Choi J, DiMaio D. Noncanonical Rab9a action supports endosomal exit of human papillomavirus during virus entry. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.01.538937. [PMID: 37205481 PMCID: PMC10187250 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.01.538937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Rab GTPases play key roles in controlling intracellular vesicular transport. GTP-bound Rab proteins support vesicle trafficking. Here, we report that, unlike cellular protein cargos, the delivery of human papillomaviruses (HPV) into the retrograde transport pathway during virus entry is inhibited by Rab9a in its GTP-bound form. Knockdown of Rab9a hampers HPV entry by regulating the HPV-retromer interaction and impairing retromer-mediated endosome-to-Golgi transport of the incoming virus, resulting in the accumulation of HPV in the endosome. Rab9a is in proximity to HPV as early as 3.5 h post-infection, prior to the Rab7-HPV interaction. HPV displays increased association with retromer in Rab9a knockdown cells, even in the presence of dominant negative Rab7. Thus, Rab9a can regulate HPV-retromer association independently of Rab7. Surprisingly, excess GTP-Rab9a impairs HPV entry, whereas excess GDP-Rab9a stimulates entry. These findings reveal that HPV employs a trafficking mechanism distinct from that used by cellular proteins.
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6
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Rizzato M, Mao F, Chardon F, Lai KY, Villalonga-Planells R, Drexler HCA, Pesenti ME, Fiskin M, Roos N, King KM, Li S, Gamez ER, Greune L, Dersch P, Simon C, Masson M, Van Doorslaer K, Campos SK, Schelhaas M. Master mitotic kinases regulate viral genome delivery during papillomavirus cell entry. Nat Commun 2023; 14:355. [PMID: 36683055 PMCID: PMC9868124 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-35874-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitosis induces cellular rearrangements like spindle formation, Golgi fragmentation, and nuclear envelope breakdown. Similar to certain retroviruses, nuclear delivery during entry of human papillomavirus (HPV) genomes is facilitated by mitosis, during which minor capsid protein L2 tethers viral DNA to mitotic chromosomes. However, the mechanism of viral genome delivery and tethering to condensed chromosomes is barely understood. It is unclear, which cellular proteins facilitate this process or how this process is regulated. This work identifies crucial phosphorylations on HPV minor capsid protein L2 occurring at mitosis onset. L2's chromosome binding region (CBR) is sequentially phosphorylated by the master mitotic kinases CDK1 and PLK1. L2 phosphorylation, thus, regulates timely delivery of HPV vDNA to mitotic chromatin during mitosis. In summary, our work demonstrates a crucial role of mitotic kinases for nuclear delivery of viral DNA and provides important insights into the molecular mechanism of pathogen import into the nucleus during mitosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Rizzato
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Fuxiang Mao
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Florian Chardon
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Kun-Yi Lai
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Interfaculty Centre 'Cells in Motion' (CiM), Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Mert Fiskin
- UMR 7242 Biotechnologie et signalisation cellulaire, CNRS, UdS, ESBS, Illkirch, France
| | - Nora Roos
- Institute of Medical Virology and Epidemiology of Viral Diseases, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Kelly M King
- School of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Shuaizhi Li
- Department of Immunobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Eduardo R Gamez
- Department of Immunobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology and Pharmacology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96813-5525, USA
| | - Lilo Greune
- Institute of Infectiology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Petra Dersch
- Institute of Infectiology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Claudia Simon
- Institute of Medical Virology and Epidemiology of Viral Diseases, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Murielle Masson
- UMR 7242 Biotechnologie et signalisation cellulaire, CNRS, UdS, ESBS, Illkirch, France
| | - Koenraad Van Doorslaer
- School of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
- Cancer Biology Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, Genetics Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, UA Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Samuel K Campos
- Department of Immunobiology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Mario Schelhaas
- Institute of Cellular Virology, Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
- Interfaculty Centre 'Cells in Motion' (CiM), Westphalian Wilhelms-University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
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7
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Harwood MC, Woo TT, Takeo Y, DiMaio D, Tsai B. HPV is a cargo for the COPI sorting complex during virus entry. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadc9830. [PMID: 36662862 PMCID: PMC9858521 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adc9830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
During entry, human papillomavirus (HPV) traffics from the cell surface to the endosome and then to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and Golgi apparatus. HPV must transit across the TGN/Golgi and exit these compartments to reach the nucleus to cause infection, although how these steps are accomplished is unclear. Combining cellular fractionation, unbiased proteomics, and gene knockdown strategies, we identified the coat protein complex I (COPI), a highly conserved protein complex that facilitates retrograde trafficking of cellular cargos, as a host factor required for HPV infection. Upon TGN/Golgi arrival, the cytoplasmic segment of HPV L2 binds directly to COPI. COPI depletion causes the accumulation of HPV in the TGN/Golgi, resembling the fate of a COPI binding-defective L2 mutant. We propose that the L2-COPI interaction drives HPV trafficking through the TGN and Golgi stacks during virus entry. This shows that an incoming virus is a cargo of the COPI complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mara C. Harwood
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Tai-Ting Woo
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Yuka Takeo
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Daniel DiMaio
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Billy Tsai
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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8
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Allen JK, Sutherland TC, Prater AR, Geoffroy CG, Pellois JP. In vivo peptide-based delivery of a gene-modifying enzyme into cells of the central nervous system. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabo2954. [PMID: 36170360 PMCID: PMC9519033 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abo2954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
We report on the successful delivery of the Cre recombinase enzyme in the neural cells of mice in vivo by simple coinjection with peptides derived from HIV-TAT. Cre delivery activates the expression of a reporter gene in both neurons and astrocytes of the cortex without tissue damage and with a transduction efficiency that parallels or exceeds that of a commonly used adeno-associated virus. Our data indicate that the delivery peptides mediate efficient endosomal leakage and cytosolic escape in cells that have endocytosed Cre. The peptides, therefore, act in trans and do not require conjugation to the payload, greatly simplifying sample preparation. Moreover, the delivery peptides are exclusively composed of natural amino acids and are consequently readily degradable and processed by cells. We envision that this approach will be beneficial to applications that require the transient introduction of proteins into cells in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason K. Allen
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, and Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Theresa C. Sutherland
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX 77807, USA
| | - Austin R. Prater
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, and Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Cédric G. Geoffroy
- Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX 77807, USA
| | - Jean-Philippe Pellois
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, and Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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9
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Hydrophobicity is a key determinant in the activity of arginine-rich cell penetrating peptides. Sci Rep 2022; 12:15981. [PMID: 36156072 PMCID: PMC9510126 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-20425-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
To deliver useful biological payloads into the cytosolic space of cells, cell-penetrating peptides have to cross biological membranes. The molecular features that control or enhance this activity remain unclear. Herein, a dimeric template of the arginine-rich HIV TAT CPP was used to establish the effect of incorporating groups and residues of various chemical structures and properties. A positive correlation is established between the relative hydrophobicity of these additional moieties and the ability of the CPP conjugates to deliver a peptidic probe into live cells. CPP conjugates with low hydrophobicity lead to no detectable delivery activity, while CPPs containing groups of increasing hydrophobicity achieve intracellular delivery at low micromolar concentrations. Notably, the chemical structures of the hydrophobic groups do not appear to play a role in overall cell penetration activity. The cell penetration activity detected is consistent with endosomal escape. Leakage assays with lipid bilayer of endosomal membrane composition also establish a positive correlation between hydrophobicity and membrane permeation. Overall, these results indicate that the presence of a relatively hydrophobic moiety, regardless of structure, is required in a CPP structure to enhance its cell penetration. It also indicates that simple modifications, including fluorophores used for cell imaging or small payloads, modulate the activity of CPPs and that a given CPP-conjugate may be unique in its membrane permeation properties.
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10
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Morante AV, Baboolal DD, Simon X, Pan ECY, Meneses PI. Human Papillomavirus Minor Capsid Protein L2 Mediates Intracellular Trafficking into and Passage beyond the Endoplasmic Reticulum. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0150522. [PMID: 35608352 PMCID: PMC9241893 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01505-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) consist of two capsid proteins: major capsid protein L1 and minor capsid protein L2. The L2 protein has been shown to be involved in intracellular trafficking events that lead to the deposition of the viral DNA into the nucleus. In this study, we investigate the role of HPV16 L2 residues 43-DQILQ-47 during intracellular trafficking in human keratinocytes. We demonstrate that the highly conserved amino acids aspartic acid, isoleucine, and leucine are involved with the intracellular trafficking of the virus. Amino acid substitution of the isoleucine and leucine residues with alanine residues results in a significant decrease in infectivity of the pseudovirions without any changes to the binding or internalization of the virus. The pseudovirions containing these substitutions exhibit an altered trafficking pattern and do not deposit the viral pseudogenome into the nucleus. Instead, these mutated pseudovirions display a lack of interaction with syntaxin 18, an ER SNARE protein, are unable to progress past the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and are redirected to the lysosomes. The results of this study help to elucidate the role and potential involvement of the 43-DQILQ-47 sequence during intracellular trafficking, specifically during trafficking beyond the ER. IMPORTANCE High-risk types of human papillomaviruses (HPVs), such as HPV16, are highly associated with cervical, anogenital, and oropharyngeal cancers. The minor capsid protein L2 is essential for the intracellular trafficking of the viral DNA to the nucleus. This study investigates the role of amino acid residues 43-DQILQ-47 of the HPV16 L2 protein in the intracellular trafficking of the virus. Understanding how the virus traffics through the cell is a key factor in the development of additional preventative antiviral therapies. This study illustrates, through modification of the 43-DQILQ-47 sequence in pseudovirions, the importance of the 43-DQILQ-47 sequence in the trafficking of the virus beyond the endoplasmic reticulum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony V. Morante
- Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, New York, USA
| | | | - Xavier Simon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, New York, USA
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11
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Crite M, DiMaio D. Human Papillomavirus L2 Capsid Protein Stabilizes γ-Secretase during Viral Infection. Viruses 2022; 14:804. [PMID: 35458534 PMCID: PMC9027364 DOI: 10.3390/v14040804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Intracellular trafficking of human papillomavirus (HPV) during virus entry requires γ-secretase, a cellular protease consisting of a complex of four cellular transmembrane (TM) proteins. γ-secretase typically cleaves substrate proteins but it plays a non-canonical role during HPV entry. γ-secretase binds to the HPV minor capsid protein L2 and facilitates its insertion into the endosomal membrane. After insertion, L2 protrudes into the cytoplasm, which allows HPV to bind other cellular factors required for proper virus trafficking into the retrograde transport pathway. Here, we further characterize the interaction between γ-secretase and HPV L2. We show that γ-secretase is required for cytoplasmic protrusion of L2 and that L2 associates strongly with the PS1 catalytic subunit of γ-secretase and stabilizes the γ-secretase complex. Mutational studies revealed that a putative TM domain in HPV16 L2 cannot be replaced by a foreign TM domain, that infectivity of HPV TM mutants is tightly correlated with γ-secretase binding and stabilization, and that the L2 TM domain is required for protrusion of the L2 protein into the cytoplasm. These results provide new insight into the interaction between γ-secretase and L2 and highlight the importance of the native HPV L2 TM domain for proper virus trafficking during entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mac Crite
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA;
| | - Daniel DiMaio
- Department of Genetics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
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12
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Edwardson TGW, Levasseur MD, Tetter S, Steinauer A, Hori M, Hilvert D. Protein Cages: From Fundamentals to Advanced Applications. Chem Rev 2022; 122:9145-9197. [PMID: 35394752 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Proteins that self-assemble into polyhedral shell-like structures are useful molecular containers both in nature and in the laboratory. Here we review efforts to repurpose diverse protein cages, including viral capsids, ferritins, bacterial microcompartments, and designed capsules, as vaccines, drug delivery vehicles, targeted imaging agents, nanoreactors, templates for controlled materials synthesis, building blocks for higher-order architectures, and more. A deep understanding of the principles underlying the construction, function, and evolution of natural systems has been key to tailoring selective cargo encapsulation and interactions with both biological systems and synthetic materials through protein engineering and directed evolution. The ability to adapt and design increasingly sophisticated capsid structures and functions stands to benefit the fields of catalysis, materials science, and medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Stephan Tetter
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Angela Steinauer
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mao Hori
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Donald Hilvert
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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13
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Brendle S, Cladel N, Balogh K, Alam S, Christensen N, Meyers C, Hu J. A Comparative Study on Delivery of Externally Attached DNA by Papillomavirus VLPs and Pseudoviruses. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9121501. [PMID: 34960247 PMCID: PMC8709278 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9121501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 capsids have been chosen as a DNA delivery vehicle in many studies. Our preliminary studies suggest that HPV58 capsids could be better vehicles than HPV16 capsids to deliver encapsidated DNA in vitro and in vivo. In the current study, we compared HPV16, HPV58, and the cottontail rabbit papillomavirus (CRPV) capsids either as L1/L2 VLPs or pseudoviruses (PSVs) to deliver externally attached GFP-expressing DNA. Both rabbit and human cells were used to test whether there was a species-specific effect. DNA delivery efficiency was determined by quantifying either GFP-expressing cell populations or mean fluorescent intensities (MFI) by flow cytometry. Interestingly, CRPV and 58-VLPs and PSVs were significantly more efficient at delivering attached DNA when compared to 16-VLPs and PSVs. A capsid/DNA ratio of 2:1 showed the highest efficiency for delivering external DNA. The PSVs with papillomavirus DNA genomes also showed higher efficiency than those with irrelevant plasmid DNA. HPV16L1/58L2 hybrid VLPs displayed increased efficiency compared to HPV58L1/16L2 VLPs, suggesting that L2 may play a critical role in the delivery of attached DNA. Additionally, we demonstrated that VLPs increased in vivo infectivity of CRPV DNA in rabbits. We conclude that choosing CRPV or 58 capsids to deliver external DNA could improve DNA uptake in in vitro and in vivo models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Brendle
- Jake Gittlen Laboratories for Cancer Research, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA; (S.B.); (N.C.); (K.B.); (N.C.)
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| | - Nancy Cladel
- Jake Gittlen Laboratories for Cancer Research, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA; (S.B.); (N.C.); (K.B.); (N.C.)
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| | - Karla Balogh
- Jake Gittlen Laboratories for Cancer Research, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA; (S.B.); (N.C.); (K.B.); (N.C.)
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| | - Samina Alam
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA; (S.A.); (C.M.)
| | - Neil Christensen
- Jake Gittlen Laboratories for Cancer Research, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA; (S.B.); (N.C.); (K.B.); (N.C.)
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA; (S.A.); (C.M.)
| | - Craig Meyers
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA; (S.A.); (C.M.)
| | - Jiafen Hu
- Jake Gittlen Laboratories for Cancer Research, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA; (S.B.); (N.C.); (K.B.); (N.C.)
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
- Correspondence:
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14
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Mikuličić S, Strunk J, Florin L. HPV16 Entry into Epithelial Cells: Running a Gauntlet. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122460. [PMID: 34960729 PMCID: PMC8706107 DOI: 10.3390/v13122460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
During initial infection, human papillomaviruses (HPV) take an unusual trafficking pathway through their host cell. It begins with a long period on the cell surface, during which the capsid is primed and a virus entry platform is formed. A specific type of clathrin-independent endocytosis and subsequent retrograde trafficking to the trans-Golgi network follow this. Cellular reorganization processes, which take place during mitosis, enable further virus transport and the establishment of infection while evading intrinsic cellular immune defenses. First, the fragmentation of the Golgi allows the release of membrane-encased virions, which are partially protected from cytoplasmic restriction factors. Second, the nuclear envelope breakdown opens the gate for these virus–vesicles to the cell nucleus. Third, the dis- and re-assembly of the PML nuclear bodies leads to the formation of modified virus-associated PML subnuclear structures, enabling viral transcription and replication. While remnants of the major capsid protein L1 and the viral DNA remain in a transport vesicle, the viral capsid protein L2 plays a crucial role during virus entry, as it adopts a membrane-spanning conformation for interaction with various cellular proteins to establish a successful infection. In this review, we follow the oncogenic HPV type 16 during its long journey into the nucleus, and contrast pro- and antiviral processes.
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Recent Advances in Our Understanding of the Infectious Entry Pathway of Human Papillomavirus Type 16. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9102076. [PMID: 34683397 PMCID: PMC8540256 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9102076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Papillomaviruses are a diverse viral species, but several types such as HPV16 are given special attention due to their contribution towards the pathogenesis of several major cancers. In this review, we will summarize how the knowledge of HPV16 entry has expanded since the last comprehensive HPV16 entry review our lab published in 2017.
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16
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Ozbun MA, Campos SK. The long and winding road: human papillomavirus entry and subcellular trafficking. Curr Opin Virol 2021; 50:76-86. [PMID: 34416595 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2021.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect and replicate in differentiating mucosal and cutaneous epithelium. Most HPV infections are asymptomatic or cause transient benign neoplasia. However, persistent infections by oncogenic HPV types can progress to cancer. During infectious entry into host keratinocytes, HPV particles interact with many host proteins, beginning with major capsid protein L1 binding to cellular heparan sulfate and a series of enzymatic capsid modifications that promote infectious cellular entry. After utilizing the endosomal pathway to uncoat the viral genome (vDNA), the minor capsid protein L2/vDNA complex is retrograde trafficked to the Golgi, and thereafter, to the nucleus where viral transcription initiates. Post-Golgi trafficking is dependent on mitosis, with L2-dependent tethering of vDNA to mitotic chromosomes before accumulation at nuclear substructures in G1. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the HPV entry pathway, the role of cellular proteins in this process, and notes many gaps in our understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A Ozbun
- Departments of Molecular Genetics & Microbiology, Obstetrics & Gynecology, The University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; The University of New Mexico Comprehensive Cancer Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.
| | - Samuel K Campos
- Departments of Immunobiology, Molecular & Cellular Biology, and the Cancer Biology Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; The BIO5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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17
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Schlich M, Palomba R, Costabile G, Mizrahy S, Pannuzzo M, Peer D, Decuzzi P. Cytosolic delivery of nucleic acids: The case of ionizable lipid nanoparticles. Bioeng Transl Med 2021; 6:e10213. [PMID: 33786376 PMCID: PMC7995196 DOI: 10.1002/btm2.10213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ionizable lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are the most clinically advanced nano-delivery system for therapeutic nucleic acids. The great effort put in the development of ionizable lipids with increased in vivo potency brought LNPs from the laboratory benches to the FDA approval of patisiran in 2018 and the ongoing clinical trials for mRNA-based vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. Despite these success stories, several challenges remain in RNA delivery, including what is known as "endosomal escape." Reaching the cytosol is mandatory for unleashing the therapeutic activity of RNA molecules, as their accumulation in other intracellular compartments would simply result in efficacy loss. In LNPs, the ability of ionizable lipids to form destabilizing non-bilayer structures at acidic pH is recognized as the key for endosomal escape and RNA cytosolic delivery. This is motivating a surge in studies aiming at designing novel ionizable lipids with improved biodegradation and safety profiles. In this work, we describe the journey of RNA-loaded LNPs across multiple intracellular barriers, from the extracellular space to the cytosol. In silico molecular dynamics modeling, in vitro high-resolution microscopy analyses, and in vivo imaging data are systematically reviewed to distill out the regulating mechanisms underlying the endosomal escape of RNA. Finally, a comparison with strategies employed by enveloped viruses to deliver their genetic material into cells is also presented. The combination of a multidisciplinary analytical toolkit for endosomal escape quantification and a nature-inspired design could foster the development of future LNPs with improved cytosolic delivery of nucleic acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Schlich
- Fondazione Istituto Italiano di TecnologiaLaboratory of Nanotechnology for Precision MedicineGenoaItaly
- Department of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of CagliariCagliariItaly
| | - Roberto Palomba
- Fondazione Istituto Italiano di TecnologiaLaboratory of Nanotechnology for Precision MedicineGenoaItaly
| | - Gabriella Costabile
- Fondazione Istituto Italiano di TecnologiaLaboratory of Nanotechnology for Precision MedicineGenoaItaly
| | - Shoshy Mizrahy
- Fondazione Istituto Italiano di TecnologiaLaboratory of Nanotechnology for Precision MedicineGenoaItaly
- Laboratory of Precision NanoMedicine, Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life SciencesTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of EngineeringTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- Center for Nanoscience and NanotechnologyTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- Cancer Biology Research CenterTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
| | - Martina Pannuzzo
- Fondazione Istituto Italiano di TecnologiaLaboratory of Nanotechnology for Precision MedicineGenoaItaly
| | - Dan Peer
- Laboratory of Precision NanoMedicine, Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, George S. Wise Faculty of Life SciencesTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of EngineeringTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- Center for Nanoscience and NanotechnologyTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- Cancer Biology Research CenterTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
| | - Paolo Decuzzi
- Fondazione Istituto Italiano di TecnologiaLaboratory of Nanotechnology for Precision MedicineGenoaItaly
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The role of the multifunctional antimicrobial peptide melittin in gene delivery. Drug Discov Today 2021; 26:1053-1059. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2021.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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19
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Yong X, Mao L, Shen X, Zhang Z, Billadeau DD, Jia D. Targeting Endosomal Recycling Pathways by Bacterial and Viral Pathogens. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:648024. [PMID: 33748141 PMCID: PMC7970000 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.648024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Endosomes are essential cellular stations where endocytic and secretory trafficking routes converge. Proteins transiting at endosomes can be degraded via lysosome, or recycled to the plasma membrane, trans-Golgi network (TGN), or other cellular destinations. Pathways regulating endosomal recycling are tightly regulated in order to preserve organelle identity, to maintain lipid homeostasis, and to support other essential cellular functions. Recent studies have revealed that both pathogenic bacteria and viruses subvert host endosomal recycling pathways for their survival and replication. Several host factors that are frequently targeted by pathogens are being identified, including retromer, TBC1D5, SNX-BARs, and the WASH complex. In this review, we will focus on the recent advances in understanding how intracellular bacteria, human papillomavirus (HPV), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) hijack host endosomal recycling pathways. This exciting work not only reveals distinct mechanisms employed by pathogens to manipulate host signaling pathways, but also deepens our understanding of the molecular intricacies regulating endosomal receptor trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Yong
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Department of Paediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Lejiao Mao
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Department of Paediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaofei Shen
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhen Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Department of Paediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Daniel D. Billadeau
- Division of Oncology Research and Schulze Center for Novel Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Da Jia
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Department of Paediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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20
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Chandra A, Newman A, Mullens D, Lin CC. Human Papillomavirus (HPV)-Associated Squamous Cell Carcinoma In situ With Positive p16 and Ki-67 Immunohistochemical Stains in a Young Immunocompetent Patient. Cureus 2020; 12:e9673. [PMID: 32923268 PMCID: PMC7485991 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.9673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an oncogenic role of human papillomavirus (HPV) in the development of premalignant and malignant skin cancers, especially squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs). Some of the major risk factors for SCC include older age, fair skin types, immunosuppression, ultraviolet radiation (UVR), history of epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV), and co-carcinogenesis by the HPV. Our case report exemplifies a unique case of a low-risk, 34-year-old female who developed an HPV-associated squamous cell carcinoma in situ (SCCIS) on her left palmar hand, despite having none of the contributing risk factors. The biopsy also showed full-thickness keratinocyte atypia and increased mitotic activity throughout all the layers of the epidermis. Immunohistochemical stains showed strong and diffuse nuclear staining of p16 and Ki-67 throughout the SCCIS, confirming HPV etiology. We speculate that tumor development in our patient relied on the combined effects of UVR exposure, localized immunosuppression, and the co-carcinogenic effects of HPV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditi Chandra
- Dermatology, Midwestern University, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, Phoenix, USA
| | - Andrew Newman
- Dermatology, Affiliated Dermatology, Scottsdale, USA
| | - Dustin Mullens
- Dermatology, Honor Health/Affiliated Dermatology, Scottsdale, USA
| | - Christine C Lin
- Dermatology, Honor Health/Affiliated Dermatology, Scottsdale, USA
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21
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Molecular biology and structure of a novel penaeid shrimp densovirus elucidate convergent parvoviral host capsid evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:20211-20222. [PMID: 32747554 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2008191117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) is a decapod crustacean widely reared for human consumption. Currently, viruses of two distinct lineages of parvoviruses (PVs, family Parvoviridae; subfamily Hamaparvovirinae) infect penaeid shrimp. Here, a PV was isolated and cloned from Vietnamese P. monodon specimens, designated Penaeus monodon metallodensovirus (PmMDV). This is the first member of a third divergent lineage shown to infect penaeid decapods. PmMDV has a transcription strategy unique among invertebrate PVs, using extensive alternative splicing and incorporating transcription elements characteristic of vertebrate-infecting PVs. The PmMDV proteins have no significant sequence similarity with other PVs, except for an SF3 helicase domain in its nonstructural protein. Its capsid structure, determined by cryoelectron microscopy to 3-Å resolution, has a similar surface morphology to Penaeus stylirostris densovirus, despite the lack of significant capsid viral protein (VP) sequence similarity. Unlike other PVs, PmMDV folds its VP without incorporating a βA strand and displayed unique multimer interactions, including the incorporation of a Ca2+ cation, attaching the N termini under the icosahedral fivefold symmetry axis, and forming a basket-like pentamer helix bundle. While the PmMDV VP sequence lacks a canonical phospholipase A2 domain, the structure of an EDTA-treated capsid, determined to 2.8-Å resolution, suggests an alternative membrane-penetrating cation-dependent mechanism in its N-terminal region. PmMDV is an observed example of convergent evolution among invertebrate PVs with respect to host-driven capsid structure and unique as a PV showing a cation-sensitive/dependent basket structure for an alternative endosomal egress.
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22
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Xie J, Zhang P, Crite M, DiMaio D. Papillomaviruses Go Retro. Pathogens 2020; 9:E267. [PMID: 32272661 PMCID: PMC7238053 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9040267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses are important pathogens responsible for approximately 5% of cancer as well as other important human diseases, but many aspects of the papillomavirus life cycle are poorly understood. To undergo genome replication, HPV DNA must traffic from the cell surface to the nucleus. Recent findings have revolutionized our understanding of HPV entry, showing that it requires numerous cellular proteins and proceeds via a series of intracellular membrane-bound vesicles that comprise the retrograde transport pathway. This paper reviews the evidence supporting this unique entry mechanism with a focus on the crucial step by which the incoming virus particle is transferred from the endosome into the retrograde pathway. This new understanding provides novel insights into basic cellular biology and suggests novel rational approaches to inhibit HPV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Xie
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, P.O. Box 208005, New Haven, CT 06520-8005, USA; (J.X.); (P.Z.)
| | - Pengwei Zhang
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, P.O. Box 208005, New Haven, CT 06520-8005, USA; (J.X.); (P.Z.)
| | - Mac Crite
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale School of Medicine, 295 Congress Avenue, New Haven, CT 06519, USA;
| | - Daniel DiMaio
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, P.O. Box 208005, New Haven, CT 06520-8005, USA; (J.X.); (P.Z.)
- Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Yale School of Medicine, P.O. Box 208040, New Haven, CT 06520-8040, USA
- Department of Molecular Biophysics & Biochemistry, Yale University, P.O. Box 208024, New Haven, CT 06520-8024, USA
- Yale Cancer Center, P.O. Box 208028, New Haven, CT 06520-8028, USA
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23
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Ferreira AR, Ramalho AC, Marques M, Ribeiro D. The Interplay between Antiviral Signalling and Carcinogenesis in Human Papillomavirus Infections. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12030646. [PMID: 32164347 PMCID: PMC7139948 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12030646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are the causative agents of the most common sexually transmitted infection worldwide. While infection is generally asymptomatic and can be cleared by the host immune system, when persistence occurs, HPV can become a risk factor for malignant transformation. Progression to cancer is actually an unintended consequence of the complex HPV life cycle. Different antiviral defence mechanisms recognize HPV early in infection, leading to the activation of the innate immune response. However, the virus has evolved several specific strategies to efficiently evade the antiviral immune signalling. Here, we review and discuss the interplay between HPV and the host cell innate immunity. We further highlight the evasion strategies developed by different HPV to escape this cellular response and focus on the correlation with HPV-induced persistence and tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Daniela Ribeiro
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-234-247 014; Fax: +351-234-372-587
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24
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Yadav R, Zhai L, Tumban E. Virus-like Particle-Based L2 Vaccines against HPVs: Where Are We Today? Viruses 2019; 12:v12010018. [PMID: 31877975 PMCID: PMC7019592 DOI: 10.3390/v12010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Revised: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are the most common sexually transmitted infections worldwide. Ninety percent of infected individuals clear the infection within two years; however, in the remaining 10% of infected individuals, the infection(s) persists and ultimately leads to cancers (anogenital cancers and head and neck cancers) and genital warts. Fortunately, three prophylactic vaccines have been approved to protect against HPV infections. The most recent HPV vaccine, Gardasil-9 (a nonavalent vaccine), protects against seven HPV types associated with ~90% of cervical cancer and against two HPV types associated with ~90% genital warts with little cross-protection against non-vaccine HPV types. The current vaccines are based on virus-like particles (VLPs) derived from the major capsid protein, L1. The L1 protein is not conserved among HPV types. The minor capsid protein, L2, on the other hand, is highly conserved among HPV types and has been an alternative target antigen, for over two decades, to develop a broadly protective HPV vaccine. The L2 protein, unlike the L1, cannot form VLPs and as such, it is less immunogenic. This review summarizes current studies aimed at developing HPV L2 vaccines by multivalently displaying L2 peptides on VLPs derived from bacteriophages and eukaryotic viruses. Recent data show that a monovalent HPV L1 VLP as well as bivalent MS2 VLPs displaying HPV L2 peptides (representing amino acids 17–36 and/or consensus amino acids 69–86) elicit robust broadly protective antibodies against diverse HPV types (6/11/16/18/26/31/33/34/35/39/43/44/45/51/52/53/56/58/59/66/68/73) associated with cancers and genital warts. Thus, VLP-based L2 vaccines look promising and may be favorable, in the near future, over current L1-based HPV vaccines and should be explored further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rashi Yadav
- Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA; (R.Y.); (L.Z.)
| | - Lukai Zhai
- Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA; (R.Y.); (L.Z.)
- Current address: Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Ebenezer Tumban
- Department of Biological Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA; (R.Y.); (L.Z.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-906-487-2256; Fax: +1-906-487-3167
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25
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Yan H, Foo SS, Chen W, Yoo JS, Shin WJ, Wu C, Jung JU. Efficient Inhibition of Human Papillomavirus Infection by L2 Minor Capsid-Derived Lipopeptide. mBio 2019; 10:e01834-19. [PMID: 31387913 PMCID: PMC6686047 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01834-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The amino (N)-terminal region of human papillomavirus (HPV) minor capsid protein (L2) is a highly conserved region which is essential for establishing viral infection. Despite its importance in viral infectivity, the role of the HPV N-terminal domain has yet to be fully characterized. Using fine mapping analysis, we identified a 36-amino-acid (aa) peptide sequence of the L2 N terminus, termed L2N, that is critical for HPV infection. Ectopic expression of L2N with the transmembrane sequence on the target cell surface conferred resistance to HPV infection. Additionally, L2N peptide with chemical or enzymatic lipidation at the carboxyl (C) terminus efficiently abrogated HPV infection in target cells. Among the synthetic L2N lipopeptides, a stearoylated lipopeptide spanning aa 13 to 46 (13-46st) exhibited the most potent anti-HPV activity, with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of ∼200 pM. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the 13-46st lipopeptide inhibited HPV entry by blocking trans-Golgi network retrograde trafficking of virion particles, leading to rapid degradation. Fundamentally, the inhibitory effect of L2N lipopeptides appeared to be evolutionarily conserved, as they showed cross-type inhibition among various papillomaviruses. In conclusion, our findings provide new insights into the critical role of the L2N sequence in the HPV entry mechanism and identify the therapeutic potential of L2N lipopeptide as an effective anti-HPV agent.IMPORTANCE HPV is a human oncogenic virus that causes a major public health problem worldwide, which is responsible for approximately 5% of total human cancers and almost all cases of cervical cancers. HPV capsid consists of two structure proteins, the major capsid L1 protein and the minor capsid L2 protein. While L2 plays critical roles during the viral life cycle, the molecular mechanism in viral entry remains elusive. Here, we performed fine mapping of the L2 N-terminal region and defined a short 36-amino-acid peptide, called L2N, which is critical for HPV infection. Specifically, L2N peptide with carboxyl-terminal lipidation acted as a potent and cross-type HPV inhibitor. Taken together, data from our study highlight the essential role of the L2N sequence at the early step of HPV entry and suggests the L2N lipopeptide as a new strategy to broadly prevent HPV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Yan
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Suan-Sin Foo
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Weiqiang Chen
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Ji-Seung Yoo
- Department of Immunology, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Woo-Jin Shin
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Christine Wu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Jae U Jung
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Abstract
Viruses must navigate the complex endomembranous network of the host cell to cause infection. In the case of a non-enveloped virus that lacks a surrounding lipid bilayer, endocytic uptake from the plasma membrane is not sufficient to cause infection. Instead, the virus must travel within organelle membranes to reach a specific cellular destination that supports exposure or arrival of the virus to the cytosol. This is achieved by viral penetration across a host endomembrane, ultimately enabling entry of the virus into the nucleus to initiate infection. In this review, we discuss the entry mechanisms of three distinct non-enveloped DNA viruses-adenovirus (AdV), human papillomavirus (HPV), and polyomavirus (PyV)-highlighting how each exploit different intracellular transport machineries and membrane penetration apparatus associated with the endosome, Golgi, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane systems to infect a host cell. These processes not only illuminate a highly-coordinated interplay between non-enveloped viruses and their host, but may provide new strategies to combat non-enveloped virus-induced diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsey C Spriggs
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Mara C Harwood
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States; Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Billy Tsai
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States; Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.
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Strategies in the design of endosomolytic agents for facilitating endosomal escape in nanoparticles. Biochimie 2019; 160:61-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2019.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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28
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Breiner B, Preuss L, Roos N, Conrady M, Lilie H, Iftner T, Simon C. Refolding and in vitro characterization of human papillomavirus 16 minor capsid protein L2. Biol Chem 2019; 400:513-522. [PMID: 30375341 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2018-0311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The minor capsid protein L2 of papillomaviruses exhibits multiple functions during viral entry including membrane interaction. Information on the protein is scarce, because of its high tendency of aggregation. We determined suitable conditions to produce a functional human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 L2 protein and thereby provide the opportunity for extensive in vitro analysis with respect to structural and biochemical information on L2 proteins and mechanistic details in viral entry. We produced the L2 protein of high-risk HPV 16 in Escherichia coli as inclusion bodies and purified the protein under denaturing conditions. A successive buffer screen resulted in suitable conditions for the biophysical characterization of 16L2. Analytical ultracentrifugation of the refolded protein showed a homogenous monomeric species. Furthermore, refolded 16L2 shows secondary structure elements. The N-terminal region including the proposed transmembrane region of 16L2 shows alpha-helical characteristics. However, overall 16L2 appears largely unstructured. Refolded 16L2 is capable of binding to DNA indicating that the putative DNA-binding regions are accessible in refolded 16L2. Further the refolded protein interacts with liposomal membranes presumably via the proposed transmembrane region at neutral pH without structural changes. This indicates that 16L2 can initially interact with membranes via pre-existing structural features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bastian Breiner
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 06, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Laura Preuss
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 06, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Nora Roos
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 06, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Marcel Conrady
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 06, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Hauke Lilie
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Kurt-Mothes-Str. 03, D-06120, Halle/Saale, Germany
| | - Thomas Iftner
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 06, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Claudia Simon
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Tübingen, Elfriede-Aulhorn-Str. 06, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany
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29
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Zhang P, Monteiro da Silva G, Deatherage C, Burd C, DiMaio D. Cell-Penetrating Peptide Mediates Intracellular Membrane Passage of Human Papillomavirus L2 Protein to Trigger Retrograde Trafficking. Cell 2018; 174:1465-1476.e13. [PMID: 30122350 PMCID: PMC6128760 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are short protein segments that can transport cargos into cells. Although CPPs are widely studied as potential drug delivery tools, their role in normal cell physiology is poorly understood. Early during infection, the L2 capsid protein of human papillomaviruses binds retromer, a cytoplasmic trafficking factor required for delivery of the incoming non-enveloped virus into the retrograde transport pathway. Here, we show that the C terminus of HPV L2 proteins contains a conserved cationic CPP that drives passage of a segment of the L2 protein through the endosomal membrane into the cytoplasm, where it binds retromer, thereby sorting the virus into the retrograde pathway for transport to the trans-Golgi network. These experiments define the cell-autonomous biological role of a CPP in its natural context and reveal how a luminal viral protein engages an essential cytoplasmic entry factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengwei Zhang
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8005, USA
| | | | - Catherine Deatherage
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8002, USA
| | - Christopher Burd
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8002, USA
| | - Daniel DiMaio
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8005, USA; Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8040, USA; Department of Molecular Biophysics & Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-8024, USA; Yale Cancer Center, New Haven, CT 06520-8028, USA.
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30
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Papillomaviruses and Endocytic Trafficking. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19092619. [PMID: 30181457 PMCID: PMC6163501 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19092619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Endocytic trafficking plays a major role in transport of incoming human papillomavirus (HPVs) from plasma membrane to the trans Golgi network (TGN) and ultimately into the nucleus. During this infectious entry, several cellular sorting factors are recruited by the viral capsid protein L2, which plays a critical role in ensuring successful transport of the L2/viral DNA complex to the nucleus. Later in the infection cycle, two viral oncoproteins, E5 and E6, have also been shown to modulate different aspects of endocytic transport pathways. In this review, we highlight how HPV makes use of and perturbs normal endocytic transport pathways, firstly to achieve infectious virus entry, secondly to produce productive infection and the completion of the viral life cycle and, finally, on rare occasions, to bring about the development of malignancy.
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31
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Falanga A, Galdiero M, Morelli G, Galdiero S. Membranotropic peptides mediating viral entry. Pept Sci (Hoboken) 2018; 110:e24040. [PMID: 32328541 PMCID: PMC7167733 DOI: 10.1002/pep2.24040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Revised: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The means used by enveloped viruses to bypass cellular membranes are well characterized; however, the mechanisms used by non-enveloped viruses to deliver their genome inside the cell remain unresolved and poorly defined. The discovery of short, membrane interacting, amphipathic or hydrophobic sequences (known as membranotropic peptides) in both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses suggests that these small peptides are strongly involved in breaching the host membrane and in the delivery of the viral genome into the host cell. Thus, in spite of noticeable differences in entry, this short stretches of membranotropic peptides are probably associated with similar entry-related events. This review will uncover the intrinsic features of viral membranotropic peptides involved in viral entry of both naked viruses and the ones encircled with a biological membrane with the objective to better elucidate their different functional properties and possible applications in the biomedical field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annarita Falanga
- Department of Pharmacy, School of MedicineNaples80134Italy
- CIRPEB University of Naples Federico II, Via Mezzocannone 16Naples80134Italy
| | - Massimiliano Galdiero
- CIRPEB University of Naples Federico II, Via Mezzocannone 16Naples80134Italy
- Department of Experimental MedicineUniversity of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli,” Via de CrecchioNaples80134Italy
| | - Giancarlo Morelli
- Department of Pharmacy, School of MedicineNaples80134Italy
- CIRPEB University of Naples Federico II, Via Mezzocannone 16Naples80134Italy
| | - Stefania Galdiero
- Department of Pharmacy, School of MedicineNaples80134Italy
- CIRPEB University of Naples Federico II, Via Mezzocannone 16Naples80134Italy
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32
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Bywaters SM, Brendle SA, Biryukov J, Wang JW, Walston J, Milici J, Roden RB, Meyers C, Christensen ND. Production and characterization of a novel HPV anti-L2 monoclonal antibody panel. Virology 2018; 524:106-113. [PMID: 30170240 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2018.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Revised: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The major capsid protein of HPV, L1, assembles into pentamers that form a T = 7 icosahedral particle, but the location of the co-assembled minor capsid protein, L2, remains controversial. Several researchers have developed useful monoclonal antibodies targeting L2, but most react with linear epitopes toward the N-terminus. As a means to better define the virus capsid and better assess the localization and exposure of L2 epitopes in the context of assembled HPV, we have developed a panel of 30 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) which target the N-terminus of L2 amino acids 11-200, previously defined as a broadly protective immunogen. Select mAbs were processed with enzymes and anti-L2 Fabs were generated. These new mAb/Fab probes will be beneficial in future studies to unravel the placement of L2 and to help better define the role of L2 in the HPV lifecycle and the nature of the broadly protective epitopes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Bywaters
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA.
| | - S A Brendle
- Jake Gittlen Laboratories for Cancer Research, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA.
| | - J Biryukov
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA.
| | - J W Wang
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - J Walston
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA.
| | - J Milici
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA.
| | - R B Roden
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - C Meyers
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA.
| | - N D Christensen
- Jake Gittlen Laboratories for Cancer Research, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA.
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Numata K, Horii Y, Oikawa K, Miyagi Y, Demura T, Ohtani M. Library screening of cell-penetrating peptide for BY-2 cells, leaves of Arabidopsis, tobacco, tomato, poplar, and rice callus. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10966. [PMID: 30030484 PMCID: PMC6054692 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-29298-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are used for various applications, especially in the biomedical field. Recently, CPPs have been used as a part of carrier to deliver proteins and/or genes into plant cells and tissues; hence, these peptides are attractive tools for plant biotechnological and agricultural applications, but require more efficient delivery rates and optimization by species before wide-scale use can be achieved. Here, we developed a library containing 55 CPPs to determine the optimal CPP characteristics for penetration of BY-2 cells and leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana, Arabidopsis thaliana, tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), poplar (hybrid aspen Populus tremula × tremuloides line T89), and rice (Oryza sativa). By investigating the cell penetration efficiency of CPPs in the library, we identified several efficient CPPs for all the plants studied except rice leaf. In the case of rice, several CPPs showed efficient penetration into rice callus. Furthermore, we examined the relationship between cell penetration efficiency and CPP secondary structural characteristics. The cell penetration efficiency of Lys-containing CPPs was relatively greater in plant than in animal cells, which could be due to differences in lipid composition and surface charge of the cell membranes. The variation in optimal CPPs across the plants studied here suggests that CPPs must be optimized for each plant species and target tissues of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiji Numata
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako-shi, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan.
| | - Yoko Horii
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako-shi, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Kazusato Oikawa
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako-shi, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Yu Miyagi
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako-shi, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Taku Demura
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako-shi, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, 630-0192, Japan
| | - Misato Ohtani
- Biomacromolecules Research Team, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako-shi, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Nara, 630-0192, Japan
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34
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Inoue T, Zhang P, Zhang W, Goodner-Bingham K, Dupzyk A, DiMaio D, Tsai B. γ-Secretase promotes membrane insertion of the human papillomavirus L2 capsid protein during virus infection. J Cell Biol 2018; 217:3545-3559. [PMID: 30006461 PMCID: PMC6168257 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201804171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Although human papillomaviruses (HPVs) cause many human cancers, the cellular basis of HPV infection remains mysterious. This manuscript reveals that the transmembrane protease γ-secretase harbors a novel chaperone activity, promoting insertion of the HPV L2 protein into endosomal membranes. L2 membrane insertion is required for further progression of infection. Despite their importance as human pathogens, entry of human papillomaviruses (HPVs) into cells is poorly understood. The transmembrane protease γ-secretase executes a crucial function during the early stages of HPV infection, but the role of γ-secretase in infection and the identity of its critical substrate are unknown. Here we demonstrate that γ-secretase harbors a previously uncharacterized chaperone function, promoting low pH–dependent insertion of the HPV L2 capsid protein into endosomal membranes. Upon membrane insertion, L2 recruits the cytosolic retromer, which enables the L2 viral genome complex to enter the retrograde transport pathway and traffic to the Golgi en route for infection. Although a small fraction of membrane-inserted L2 is also cleaved by γ-secretase, this proteolytic event appears dispensable for HPV infection. Our findings demonstrate that γ-secretase is endowed with an activity that can promote membrane insertion of L2, thereby targeting the virus to the productive infectious pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takamasa Inoue
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Pengwei Zhang
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | | | - Allison Dupzyk
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Daniel DiMaio
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT .,Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT.,Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT.,Yale Cancer Center, New Haven, CT
| | - Billy Tsai
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI
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35
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Di Domenico M, Giovane G, Kouidhi S, Iorio R, Romano M, De Francesco F, Feola A, Siciliano C, Califano L, Giordano A. HPV epigenetic mechanisms related to Oropharyngeal and Cervix cancers. Cancer Biol Ther 2018; 19:850-857. [PMID: 28362190 DOI: 10.1080/15384047.2017.1310349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Human Papilloma Virus infection is very frequent in humans and is mainly transmitted sexually. The majority of infections are transient and asymptomatic, however, if the infection persists, it can occur with a variety of injuries to skin and mucous membranes, depending on the type of HPV involved. Some types of HPV are classified as high oncogenic risk as associated with the onset of cancer. The tumors most commonly associated with HPV are cervical and oropharyngeal cancer, epigenetic mechanisms related to HPV infection include methylation changes to host and viral DNA and chromatin modification in host species. This review is focused about epigenethic mechanism, such as MiRNAs expression, related to cervix and oral cancer. Specifically it discuss about molecular markers associated to a more aggressive phenotype. In this way we will analyze genes involved in meiotic sinaptonemal complex, transcriptional factors, of orthokeratins, sinaptogirin, they are all expressed in cancer in a way not more dependent on cell differentiation but HPV-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Di Domenico
- a Department of Biochemistry , Biophysics and General Pathology, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" , Italy.,b IRCCS Institute of Women's Health Malzoni Clinic , Avellino , Italy.,c Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Center for Biotechnology, Temple University , Philadelphia , PA , USA
| | - Giancarlo Giovane
- d Department of Experimental Medicine , Section of Hygiene, Occupational Medicine and Forensic Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" , Italy
| | - Soumaya Kouidhi
- e Laboratory BVBGR, LR11ES31, ISBST, Higher Institute of Biotechnology of Sidi Thabet, University of Manouba , Tunis , Tunisia.,f Laboratory of Genetics, Immunology and Human Pathology, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar , Tunis
| | - Rosamaria Iorio
- a Department of Biochemistry , Biophysics and General Pathology, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" , Italy
| | - Maurizio Romano
- g Hepatobiliary and Liver Transplantation Unit, Azienda Ospedaliera , Padova , Italy.,h Department of Surgical , Gastrointestinal and Oncological Sciences (DiSCOG), University of Padova , Padova ( PD ), Italy
| | - Francesco De Francesco
- h Department of Surgical , Gastrointestinal and Oncological Sciences (DiSCOG), University of Padova , Padova ( PD ), Italy
| | - Antonia Feola
- a Department of Biochemistry , Biophysics and General Pathology, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" , Italy
| | - Camilla Siciliano
- a Department of Biochemistry , Biophysics and General Pathology, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" , Italy
| | - Luigi Califano
- i Department of Maxillofacial Surgery , University of Naples "Federico II" , Naples , Italy
| | - Antonio Giordano
- c Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Center for Biotechnology, Temple University , Philadelphia , PA , USA.,j Department of Medicine , Surgery and Neuroscience, University of Siena , Siena , Italy
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36
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Campos SK. Subcellular Trafficking of the Papillomavirus Genome during Initial Infection: The Remarkable Abilities of Minor Capsid Protein L2. Viruses 2017; 9:v9120370. [PMID: 29207511 PMCID: PMC5744145 DOI: 10.3390/v9120370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Since 2012, our understanding of human papillomavirus (HPV) subcellular trafficking has undergone a drastic paradigm shift. Work from multiple laboratories has revealed that HPV has evolved a unique means to deliver its viral genome (vDNA) to the cell nucleus, relying on myriad host cell proteins and processes. The major breakthrough finding from these recent endeavors has been the realization of L2-dependent utilization of cellular sorting factors for the retrograde transport of vDNA away from degradative endo/lysosomal compartments to the Golgi, prior to mitosis-dependent nuclear accumulation of L2/vDNA. An overview of current models of HPV entry, subcellular trafficking, and the role of L2 during initial infection is provided below, highlighting unresolved questions and gaps in knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel K Campos
- The Department of Immunobiology, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721-0240, USA.
- The Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721-0240, USA.
- The Cancer Biology Graduate Interdisciplinary Program, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721-0240, USA.
- The BIO5 Institute, Tucson, AZ 85721-0240, USA.
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37
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Lipovsky A, Erden A, Kanaya E, Zhang W, Crite M, Bradfield C, MacMicking J, DiMaio D, Schoggins JW, Iwasaki A. The cellular endosomal protein stannin inhibits intracellular trafficking of human papillomavirus during virus entry. J Gen Virol 2017; 98:2821-2836. [PMID: 29058661 PMCID: PMC5845663 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are the most common sexually transmitted viruses and one of the most important infectious causes of cancers worldwide. While prophylactic vaccines are effective against certain strains of HPV, established infections still cause deadly cancers in both men and women. HPV traffics to the nucleus via the retrograde transport pathway, but the mechanism of intracellular transport of non-enveloped viruses such as HPV is incompletely understood. Using an overexpression screen, we identify several genes that control HPV16 entry. We focused on the mechanism by which one of the screen hits, stannin, blocks HPV16 infection. Stannin has not been previously implicated in virus entry. Overexpression of stannin specifically inhibits infection by several HPV types, but not other viruses tested. Stannin is constitutively expressed in human keratinocytes, and its basal levels limit entry by HPV16. Stannin is localized to the endolysosomal compartment and does not affect HPV16 binding to cells, virus uptake, or virus uncoating, but inhibits the entry of HPV into the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and stimulates HPV degradation. We further show that stannin interacts with L1 major capsid protein and impairs the interaction of the L2 minor capsid protein with retromer, which is required for virus trafficking to the TGN. Our findings shed light on a novel cellular protein that interferes with HPV entry and highlight the role of retrograde transport in HPV entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Lipovsky
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8011, P.O. Box 208011, USA
| | - Asu Erden
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8011, P.O. Box 208011, USA
| | - Eriko Kanaya
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8011, P.O. Box 208011, USA
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8005, P.O. Box 208005, USA
| | - Mac Crite
- Microbiology Graduate Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, 295 Congress Avenue, USA
| | - Clinton Bradfield
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06536-0812, P.O. Box 9812, USA
| | - John MacMicking
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06536-0812, P.O. Box 9812, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20814, USA
| | - Daniel DiMaio
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8005, P.O. Box 208005, USA
- Yale Cancer Center, New Haven, CT 06520-8028, PO Box 208028, USA
| | - John W. Schoggins
- Department of Microbiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Akiko Iwasaki
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8011, P.O. Box 208011, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20814, USA
- Yale Cancer Center, New Haven, CT 06520-8028, PO Box 208028, USA
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38
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Somiya M, Liu Q, Kuroda S. Current Progress of Virus-mimicking Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery. Nanotheranostics 2017; 1:415-429. [PMID: 29188175 PMCID: PMC5704007 DOI: 10.7150/ntno.21723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanomedicines often involve the use of nanocarriers as a delivery system for drugs or genes for maximizing the therapeutic effect and/or minimizing the adverse effect. From drug administration to therapeutic activity, nanocarriers must evade the host's immune system, specifically and efficiently target and enter the cell, and release their payload into the cell cytoplasm by endosomal escape. These processes constitute the early infection stage of viruses. Viruses are a powerful natural nanomaterial for the efficient delivery of genetic information by sophisticated mechanisms. Over the past two decades, many virus-inspired nanocarriers have been generated to permit successful drug and gene delivery. In this review, we summarize the early infection machineries of viruses, of which the part has so far been utilized for delivery systems. Furthermore, we describe basics and applications of the bio-nanocapsule, which is a hepatitis B virus-mimicking nanoparticle harboring nearly all activities involved in the early infection machineries (i.e., stealth activity, targeting activity, cell entry activity, endosomal escaping activity).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Shun'ichi Kuroda
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
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Schäfer G, Graham LM, Lang DM, Blumenthal MJ, Bergant Marušič M, Katz AA. Vimentin Modulates Infectious Internalization of Human Papillomavirus 16 Pseudovirions. J Virol 2017; 91:e00307-17. [PMID: 28566373 PMCID: PMC5533935 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00307-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the most common viral infection of the reproductive tract, with virtually all cases of cervical cancer being attributable to infection by oncogenic HPVs. However, the exact mechanism and receptors used by HPV to infect epithelial cells are controversial. The current entry model suggests that HPV initially attaches to heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the cell surface, followed by conformational changes, cleavage by furin convertase, and subsequent transfer of the virus to an as-yet-unidentified high-affinity receptor. In line with this model, we established an in vitro infection system using the HSPG-deficient cell line pgsD677 together with HPV16 pseudovirions (HPV16-PsVs). While pgsD677 cells were nonpermissive for untreated HPV16-PsVs, furin cleavage of the particles led to a substantial increase in infection. Biochemical pulldown assays followed by mass spectrometry analysis showed that furin-precleaved HPV16-PsVs specifically interacted with surface-expressed vimentin on pgsD677 cells. We further demonstrated that both furin-precleaved and uncleaved HPV16-PsVs colocalized with surface-expressed vimentin on pgsD677, HeLa, HaCaT, and NIKS cells, while binding of incoming viral particles to soluble vimentin protein before infection led to a substantial decrease in viral uptake. Interestingly, decreasing cell surface vimentin by small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown in HeLa and NIKS cells significantly increased HPV16-PsV infectious internalization, while overexpression of vimentin had the opposite effect. The identification of vimentin as an HPV restriction factor enhances our understanding of the initial steps of HPV-host interaction and may lay the basis for the design of novel antiviral drugs preventing HPV internalization into epithelial cells.IMPORTANCE Despite HPV being a highly prevalent sexually transmitted virus causing significant disease burden worldwide, particularly cancer of the cervix, cell surface events preceding oncogenic HPV internalization are poorly understood. We herein describe the identification of surface-expressed vimentin as a novel molecule not previously implicated in the infectious internalization of HPV16. Contrary to our expectations, vimentin was found to act not as a receptor but rather as a restriction factor dampening the initial steps of HPV16 infection. These results importantly contribute to our current understanding of the molecular events during the infectious internalization of HPV16 and open a new direction in the development of alternative drugs to prevent HPV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Schäfer
- Division of Medical Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- UCT Receptor Biology Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- SA-MRC Gynecology Cancer Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Lisa M Graham
- Division of Medical Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- UCT Receptor Biology Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- SA-MRC Gynecology Cancer Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Dirk M Lang
- Division of Physiological Sciences, Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Melissa J Blumenthal
- Division of Medical Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- UCT Receptor Biology Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- SA-MRC Gynecology Cancer Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Martina Bergant Marušič
- Laboratory for Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Nova Gorica, Nova Gorica, Slovenia
| | - Arieh A Katz
- Division of Medical Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- UCT Receptor Biology Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- SA-MRC Gynecology Cancer Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
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Human Papillomavirus Major Capsid Protein L1 Remains Associated with the Incoming Viral Genome throughout the Entry Process. J Virol 2017; 91:JVI.00537-17. [PMID: 28566382 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00537-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
During infectious entry, acidification within the endosome triggers uncoating of the human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid, whereupon host cyclophilins facilitate the release of most of the major capsid protein, L1, from the minor capsid protein L2 and the viral genome. The L2/DNA complex traffics to the trans-Golgi network (TGN). After the onset of mitosis, HPV-harboring transport vesicles bud from the TGN, followed by association with mitotic chromosomes. During this time, the HPV genome remains in a vesicular compartment until the nucleus has completely reformed. Recent data suggest that while most of L1 protein dissociates and is degraded in the endosome, some L1 protein remains associated with the viral genome. The L1 protein has DNA binding activity, and the L2 protein has multiple domains capable of interacting with L1 capsomeres. In this study, we report that some L1 protein traffics with L2 and viral genome to the nucleus. The accompanying L1 protein is mostly full length and retains conformation-dependent epitopes, which are recognized by neutralizing antibodies. Since more than one L1 molecule contributes to these epitopes and requires assembly into capsomeres, we propose that L1 protein is present in the form of pentamers. Furthermore, we provide evidence that the L1 protein interacts directly with viral DNA within the capsid. Based on our findings, we propose that the L1 protein, likely arranged as capsomeres, stabilizes the viral genome within the subviral complex during intracellular trafficking.IMPORTANCE After internalization, the nonenveloped human papillomavirus virion uncoats in the endosome, whereupon conformational changes result in a dissociation of a subset of the major capsid protein L1 from the minor capsid protein L2, which remains in complex with the viral DNA. Recent data suggest that some L1 protein may accompany the viral genome beyond the endosomal compartment. We demonstrate that conformationally intact L1 protein, likely still arranged as capsomeres, remains associated with the incoming viral genome throughout mitosis and transiently resides in the nucleus until after the viral DNA is released from the transport vesicle.
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Bergant M, Peternel Š, Pim D, Broniarczyk J, Banks L. Characterizing the spatio-temporal role of sorting nexin 17 in human papillomavirus trafficking. J Gen Virol 2017; 98:715-725. [PMID: 28475030 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The human papillomavirus (HPV) L2 capsid protein plays an essential role during the early stages of viral infection. Previous studies have shown that the interaction between HPV L2 and endosomal sorting nexin 17 (SNX17) is conserved across multiple PV types where it plays an essential role in infectious entry, suggesting an evolutionarily conserved pathway of PV trafficking. Here we show that the peak time of interaction between HPV-16 L2 and SNX17 is rather early, at 2 h post-infection. Interestingly, the L2-SNX17 interaction appears to be important for facilitating capsid disassembly and L1 dissociation, suggesting that L2 recruitment of SNX17 occurs prior to capsid disassembly. Furthermore, we also found evidence of L2-SNX17 association at the later stages of infectious entry, suggesting that the SNX17-mediated sorting machinery is either involved at different stages of HPV trafficking or that L2-SNX17 interaction is a long-lasting event in HPV trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Bergant
- Centre for Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, University of Nova Gorica, Nova Gorica, Slovenia
- Laboratory for Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Nova Gorica, Nova Gorica, Slovenia
| | - Špela Peternel
- Centre for Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, University of Nova Gorica, Nova Gorica, Slovenia
| | - David Pim
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Trieste, Italy
| | - Justyna Broniarczyk
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Trieste, Italy
- Department of Molecular Virology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
| | - Lawrence Banks
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Trieste, Italy
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A central region in the minor capsid protein of papillomaviruses facilitates viral genome tethering and membrane penetration for mitotic nuclear entry. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006308. [PMID: 28464022 PMCID: PMC5412989 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Incoming papillomaviruses (PVs) depend on mitotic nuclear envelope breakdown to gain initial access to the nucleus for viral transcription and replication. In our previous work, we hypothesized that the minor capsid protein L2 of PVs tethers the incoming vDNA to mitotic chromosomes to direct them into the nascent nuclei. To re-evaluate how dynamic L2 recruitment to cellular chromosomes occurs specifically during prometaphase, we developed a quantitative, microscopy-based assay for measuring the degree of chromosome recruitment of L2-EGFP. Analyzing various HPV16 L2 truncation-mutants revealed a central chromosome-binding region (CBR) of 147 amino acids that confers binding to mitotic chromosomes. Specific mutations of conserved motifs (IVAL286AAAA, RR302/5AA, and RTR313EEE) within the CBR interfered with chromosomal binding. Moreover, assembly-competent HPV16 containing the chromosome-binding deficient L2(RTR313EEE) or L2(IVAL286AAAA) were inhibited for infection despite their ability to be transported to intracellular compartments. Since vDNA and L2 were not associated with mitotic chromosomes either, the infectivity was likely impaired by a defect in tethering of the vDNA to mitotic chromosomes. However, L2 mutations that abrogated chromatin association also compromised translocation of L2 across membranes of intracellular organelles. Thus, chromatin recruitment of L2 may in itself be a requirement for successful penetration of the limiting membrane thereby linking both processes mechanistically. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the association of L2 with mitotic chromosomes is conserved among the alpha, beta, gamma, and iota genera of Papillomaviridae. However, different binding patterns point to a certain variance amongst the different genera. Overall, our data suggest a common strategy among various PVs, in which a central region of L2 mediates tethering of vDNA to mitotic chromosomes during cell division thereby coordinating membrane translocation and delivery to daughter nuclei. Papillomaviruses can cause carcinogenic malignancies such as cervical cancer. Like most DNA viruses, papillomaviruses must deliver their genome to the cell nucleus during initial infection, where it is expressed and replicated. However, papillomaviruses make use of unconventional mechanisms for genome delivery. They reside on the cell surface for protracted, hour-long times, before they are taken up by a novel endocytic mechanism. Moreover, they are delivered to the trans-Golgi-network by non-canonical endosomal trafficking prior to nuclear delivery. For entry into the nucleus, papillomaviruses access the nuclear space after nuclear envelope breakdown during mitosis unlike most other intranuclear viruses. The detailed mechanism how the viral genome is directed to nascent nuclei during mitosis remains elusive. Our previous work suggested that the minor capsid protein L2 may tether the incoming viral genome to mitotic chromosomes to direct it to the nascent nuclei. This work identifies a conserved central region in L2 protein to be necessary and sufficient for tethering. Moreover, it demonstrates that this mechanism is conserved across different papillomavirus genera. Importantly, this report also provides evidence that the processes of nuclear import by tethering and membrane penetration are mechanistically linked.
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43
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Aksoy P, Gottschalk EY, Meneses PI. HPV entry into cells. MUTATION RESEARCH. REVIEWS IN MUTATION RESEARCH 2017; 772:13-22. [PMID: 28528686 PMCID: PMC5443120 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2016.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Revised: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a sexually transmitted virus responsible for the development of cervical cancer, anal cancer, head and throat cancers, as well as genital area warts. A major focus of current HPV research is on preventing the virus from entering a cell and transferring its genetic material to the nucleus, thus potentially preventing the development of cancer. Although the available HPV vaccines are extremely successful, approximately 15 additional cancer-causing HPVs have been identified that the vaccines do not protect against. Therefore, roughly 150,000 cancer cases will not be prevented annually with the current vaccines. Research efforts focused on the basic cell biology of HPV infection have a goal of identifying common infectious events that may lead to inexpensive vaccines or anti-virals to prevent infection by most, if not all, HPVs. In this review we attempt to summarize what is known regarding the process of HPV binding, entry, and intracellular trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pinar Aksoy
- Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, NY, USA
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44
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Porter SS, Stepp WH, Stamos JD, McBride AA. Host cell restriction factors that limit transcription and replication of human papillomavirus. Virus Res 2017; 231:10-20. [PMID: 27863967 PMCID: PMC5325803 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Revised: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The life cycle of human papillomaviruses (HPV) is tightly regulated by the differentiation state of mucosal and cutaneous keratinocytes. To counteract viral infection, constitutively expressed cellular factors, which are defined herein as restriction factors, directly mitigate viral gene expression and replication. In turn, some HPV gene products target these restriction factors and abrogate their anti-viral effects to establish efficient gene expression and replication programs. Ironically, in certain circumstances, this delicate counterbalance between viral gene products and restriction factors facilitates persistent infection by HPVs. This review serves to recapitulate the current knowledge of nuclear restriction factors that directly affect the HPV infectious cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel S Porter
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, 33 North Drive, MSC3209, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; Biological Sciences Graduate Program, University of Maryland, University of Maryland, 4066 Campus Drive, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Wesley H Stepp
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, 33 North Drive, MSC3209, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - James D Stamos
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, 33 North Drive, MSC3209, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Alison A McBride
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, 33 North Drive, MSC3209, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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45
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Groppelli E, Levy HC, Sun E, Strauss M, Nicol C, Gold S, Zhuang X, Tuthill TJ, Hogle JM, Rowlands DJ. Picornavirus RNA is protected from cleavage by ribonuclease during virion uncoating and transfer across cellular and model membranes. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006197. [PMID: 28166307 PMCID: PMC5325612 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Revised: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Picornaviruses are non-enveloped RNA viruses that enter cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Because they lack an envelope, picornaviruses face the challenge of delivering their RNA genomes across the membrane of the endocytic vesicle into the cytoplasm to initiate infection. Currently, the mechanism of genome release and translocation across membranes remains poorly understood. Within the enterovirus genus, poliovirus, rhinovirus 2, and rhinovirus 16 have been proposed to release their genomes across intact endosomal membranes through virally induced pores, whereas one study has proposed that rhinovirus 14 releases its RNA following disruption of endosomal membranes. For the more distantly related aphthovirus genus (e.g. foot-and-mouth disease viruses and equine rhinitis A virus) acidification of endosomes results in the disassembly of the virion into pentamers and in the release of the viral RNA into the lumen of the endosome, but no details have been elucidated as how the RNA crosses the vesicle membrane. However, more recent studies suggest aphthovirus RNA is released from intact particles and the dissociation to pentamers may be a late event. In this study we have investigated the RNase A sensitivity of genome translocation of poliovirus using a receptor-decorated-liposome model and the sensitivity of infection of poliovirus and equine-rhinitis A virus to co-internalized RNase A. We show that poliovirus genome translocation is insensitive to RNase A and results in little or no release into the medium in the liposome model. We also show that infectivity is not reduced by co-internalized RNase A for poliovirus and equine rhinitis A virus. Additionally, we show that all poliovirus genomes that are internalized into cells, not just those resulting in infection, are protected from RNase A. These results support a finely coordinated, directional model of viral RNA delivery that involves viral proteins and cellular membranes. Picornaviruses are a large family of important human and animal pathogens that include poliovirus, human rhinovirus and foot-and-mouth disease virus. Picornaviruses enter the host cell by hijacking one of the vesicle-mediated cellular entry routes. However, once the virus is internalized, the mechanism used to deliver the viral genome across the vesicle membrane and into the cytoplasm remains unclear and even controversial. Here we show that for poliovirus (a member of the enterovirus genus), viral RNA is translocated directly from the particle, across the vesicle membrane into the lumen of liposomes in a receptor-decorated liposome model, or cytoplasm during infection, without being exposed to external medium surrounding the liposomes or the lumen of the entry vesicle, respectively. Our results suggest that the interaction between the viral particle and the membrane results in a specific mechanism of viral genome delivery that not only directs but also protects the RNA so that it reaches the cytoplasm as an intact and functional molecule. Additionally, we show that this is also the case for equine rhinitis A virus, a member of the aphthovirus genus, whose genome delivery mechanism has previously been thought to differ significantly from the mechanism used by enteroviruses suggesting the possibility of a unified mechanism of RNA delivery for the entire picornavirus family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Groppelli
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology & Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Hazel C. Levy
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Eileen Sun
- Program in Virology and Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Mike Strauss
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Clare Nicol
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology & Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Gold
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Xiaowei Zhuang
- Howard Hughes Institute and Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | | | - James M. Hogle
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JMH); (DJR)
| | - David J. Rowlands
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology & Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (JMH); (DJR)
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α-Defensin HD5 Inhibits Human Papillomavirus 16 Infection via Capsid Stabilization and Redirection to the Lysosome. mBio 2017; 8:mBio.02304-16. [PMID: 28119475 PMCID: PMC5263252 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02304-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
α-Defensins are an important class of abundant innate immune effectors that are potently antiviral against a number of nonenveloped viral pathogens; however, a common mechanism to explain their ability to block infection by these unrelated viruses is lacking. We previously found that human defensin 5 (HD5) blocks a critical host-mediated proteolytic processing step required for human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Here, we show that bypassing the requirement for this cleavage failed to abrogate HD5 inhibition. Instead, HD5 altered HPV trafficking in the cell. In the presence of an inhibitory concentration of HD5, HPV was internalized and reached the early endosome. The internalized capsid became permeable to antibodies and proteases; however, HD5 prevented dissociation of the viral capsid from the genome, reduced viral trafficking to the trans-Golgi network, redirected the incoming viral particle to the lysosome, and accelerated the degradation of internalized capsid proteins. This mechanism is equivalent to the mechanism by which HD5 inhibits human adenovirus. Thus, our data support capsid stabilization and redirection to the lysosome during infection as a general antiviral mechanism of α-defensins against nonenveloped viruses. IMPORTANCE Although the antiviral activity of α-defensins against enveloped viruses can be largely explained by interference with receptor binding and fusion, a common mechanism for inhibition of nonenveloped viruses remains elusive. In studies of a prominent human α-defensin that is expressed in the gut and in the male and female genitourinary tract, we discovered striking parallels between the mechanisms of inhibition of HPV and human adenovirus infection. Thus, detailed studies of the impact of α-defensins on the intracellular trafficking of two disparate viruses support a general mechanism of α-defensin antiviral activity against nonenveloped viruses.
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Wüstenhagen E, Hampe L, Boukhallouk F, Schneider MA, Spoden GA, Negwer I, Koynov K, Kast WM, Florin L. The Cytoskeletal Adaptor Obscurin-Like 1 Interacts with the Human Papillomavirus 16 (HPV16) Capsid Protein L2 and Is Required for HPV16 Endocytosis. J Virol 2016; 90:10629-10641. [PMID: 27654294 PMCID: PMC5110159 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01222-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The human papillomavirus (HPV) capsid protein L2 is essential for viral entry. To gain a deeper understanding of the role of L2, we searched for novel cellular L2-interacting proteins. A yeast two-hybrid analysis uncovered the actin-depolymerizing factor gelsolin, the membrane glycoprotein dysadherin, the centrosomal protein 68 (Cep68), and the cytoskeletal adaptor protein obscurin-like 1 protein (OBSL1) as putative L2 binding molecules. Pseudovirus (PsV) infection assays identified OBSL1 as a host factor required for gene transduction by three oncogenic human papillomavirus types, HPV16, HPV18, and HPV31. In addition, we detected OBSL1 expression in cervical tissue sections and noted the involvement of OBSL1 during gene transduction of primary keratinocytes by HPV16 PsV. Complex formation of HPV16 L2 with OBSL1 was demonstrated in coimmunofluorescence and coimmunoprecipitation studies after overexpression of L2 or after PsV exposure. We observed a strong colocalization of OBSL1 with HPV16 PsV and tetraspanin CD151 at the plasma membrane, suggesting a role for OBSL1 in viral endocytosis. Indeed, viral entry assays exhibited a reduction of viral endocytosis in OBSL1-depleted cells. Our results suggest OBSL1 as a novel L2-interacting protein and endocytosis factor in HPV infection. IMPORTANCE Human papillomaviruses infect mucosal and cutaneous epithelia, and the high-risk HPV types account for 5% of cancer cases worldwide. As recently discovered, HPV entry occurs by a clathrin-, caveolin-, and dynamin-independent endocytosis via tetraspanin-enriched microdomains. At present, the cellular proteins involved in the underlying mechanism of this type of endocytosis are under investigation. In this study, the cytoskeletal adaptor OBSL1 was discovered as a previously unrecognized interaction partner of the minor capsid protein L2 and was identified as a proviral host factor required for HPV16 endocytosis into target cells. The findings of this study advance the understanding of a so far less well-characterized endocytic pathway that is used by oncogenic HPV subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Wüstenhagen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Laura Hampe
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Fatima Boukhallouk
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Marc A Schneider
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Translational Research Unit, Thoraxklinik at Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Gilles A Spoden
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Inka Negwer
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Mainz, Germany
| | - Kaloian Koynov
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Mainz, Germany
| | - W Martin Kast
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, USC/Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Luise Florin
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
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Ullah I, Chung K, Beloor J, Kim J, Cho M, Kim N, Lee KY, Kumar P, Lee SK. Trileucine residues in a ligand-CPP-based siRNA delivery platform improve endosomal escape of siRNA. J Drug Target 2016; 25:320-329. [PMID: 27820977 DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2016.1258566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
siRNA entrapment within endosomes is a significant problem encountered with siRNA delivery platforms that co-opt receptor-mediated entry pathways. Attachment of a cell-penetrating peptide (CPP), such as nona-arginine (9R) to a cell receptor-binding ligand like the Rabies virus glycoprotein, RVG, allows effective siRNA delivery to the cytoplasm by non-endocytic pathways, but a significant amount of siRNA complexes also enters the cell by ligand-induced receptor endocytosis and remain localized in endosomes. Here, we report that the incorporation of trileucine (3 Leu) residues as an endo-osmolytic moiety in the peptide improves endosomal escape and intracellular delivery of siRNA. The trileucine motif did not affect early non-endosomal mechanism of cytoplasmic siRNA delivery but enhanced target gene silencing by >20% only beyond 24 h of transfection when siRNA delivery is mostly through the endocytic route and siRNA trapped in the endosomes at later stages were subject to release into cytoplasm. The mechanism may involve endosomal membrane disruption as trileucine residues lysed RBCs selectively under endosomal pH conditions. Interestingly <3 Leu or >3 Leu residues were not as effective, suggesting that 3 Leu residues are useful for enhancing cytoplasmic delivery of siRNA routed through endosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irfan Ullah
- a Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology , Hanyang University , Seoul , South Korea
| | - Kunho Chung
- a Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology , Hanyang University , Seoul , South Korea.,b Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases , Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven , CT, USA
| | - Jagadish Beloor
- b Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases , Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven , CT, USA
| | - Jongkil Kim
- a Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology , Hanyang University , Seoul , South Korea
| | - Minyoung Cho
- a Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology , Hanyang University , Seoul , South Korea
| | - Nahyun Kim
- a Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology , Hanyang University , Seoul , South Korea
| | - Kuen Yong Lee
- a Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology , Hanyang University , Seoul , South Korea
| | - Priti Kumar
- b Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases , Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven , CT, USA
| | - Sang-Kyung Lee
- a Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Nanoscience and Technology , Hanyang University , Seoul , South Korea
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DiGiuseppe S, Bienkowska-Haba M, Guion LG, Sapp M. Cruising the cellular highways: How human papillomavirus travels from the surface to the nucleus. Virus Res 2016; 231:1-9. [PMID: 27984059 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The non-enveloped human papillomaviruses (HPVs) specifically target epithelial cells of the skin and mucosa. Successful infection requires a lesion in the stratified tissue for access to the basal cells. Herein, we discuss our recent progress in understanding binding, internalization, uncoating, and intracellular trafficking of HPV particles. Our focus will be on HPV type 16, which is the most common HPV type associated with various anogenital and oropharyngeal carcinomas. The study of HPV entry has revealed a number of novel cellular pathways utilized during infection. These include but are not restricted to the following: a previously uncharacterized form of endocytosis, membrane penetration by a capsid protein, the use of retromer complexes for trafficking to the trans-Golgi network, the requirement for nuclear envelope breakdown and microtubule-mediated transport during mitosis for nuclear entry, the existence of membrane-bound intranuclear vesicles harboring HPV genome, and the requirement of PML protein for efficient transcription of incoming viral genome. The continued study of these pathways may reveal new roles in basic biological cellular processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen DiGiuseppe
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, USA
| | - Malgorzata Bienkowska-Haba
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, USA
| | - Lucile G Guion
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, USA
| | - Martin Sapp
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Tumor Virology, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, LSU Health Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, USA.
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