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da Silva CV, Velikkakam T, de Oliveira ECM, Silveira ACA, de Lima Júnior JP, Uombe NPI, da Silva PHR, Borges BC. Cellular dormancy: A widespread phenomenon that perpetuates infectious diseases. J Basic Microbiol 2024; 64:e2300389. [PMID: 38064123 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.202300389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Under adverse environmental conditions, microorganisms are able to enter a state of cellular dormancy which consists of cell cycle arrest and interruption of multiplication. This process ensures their perpetuation in the infected host organism and enables the spread of disease. Throughout biological evolution, dormancy allowed microorganisms to persist in a harsh niche until favorable conditions for their reactivation were re-established. Here, we propose to discuss the dormancy of bacteria and protozoa pathogens focusing on the potential mechanisms and components associated with dormancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio V da Silva
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Teresiama Velikkakam
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Elida C M de Oliveira
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Anna C A Silveira
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Joed P de Lima Júnior
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Nelsa P I Uombe
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Paulo H R da Silva
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Bruna C Borges
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
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2
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Zingales B, Macedo AM. Fifteen Years after the Definition of Trypanosoma cruzi DTUs: What Have We Learned? Life (Basel) 2023; 13:2339. [PMID: 38137940 PMCID: PMC10744745 DOI: 10.3390/life13122339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan causative of Chagas disease (ChD), exhibits striking genetic and phenotypic intraspecific diversity, along with ecoepidemiological complexity. Human-pathogen interactions lead to distinct clinical presentations of ChD. In 2009, an international consensus classified T. cruzi strains into six discrete typing units (DTUs), TcI to TcVI, later including TcBat, and proposed reproducible genotyping schemes for DTU identification. This article aims to review the impact of classifying T. cruzi strains into DTUs on our understanding of biological, ecoepidemiological, and pathogenic aspects of T. cruzi. We will explore the likely origin of DTUs and the intrinsic characteristics of each group of strains concerning genome organization, genomics, and susceptibility to drugs used in ChD treatment. We will also provide an overview of the association of DTUs with mammalian reservoirs, and summarize the geographic distribution, and the clinical implications, of prevalent specific DTUs in ChD patients. Throughout this review, we will emphasize the crucial roles of both parasite and human genetics in defining ChD pathogenesis and chemotherapy outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Zingales
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Andréa M. Macedo
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil;
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3
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González S, Wall RJ, Thomas J, Braillard S, Brunori G, Díaz IC, Cantizani J, Carvalho S, Castañeda Casado P, Chatelain E, Cotillo I, Fiandor JM, Francisco AF, Grimsditch D, Keenan M, Kelly JM, Kessler A, Luise C, Lyon JJ, MacLean L, Marco M, Martin JJ, Martinez MS, Paterson C, Read KD, Santos-Villarejo A, Zuccotto F, Wyllie S, Miles TJ, De Rycker M. Short-course combination treatment for experimental chronic Chagas disease. Sci Transl Med 2023; 15:eadg8105. [PMID: 38091410 PMCID: PMC7615676 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.adg8105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, affects millions of people in the Americas and across the world, leading to considerable morbidity and mortality. Current treatment options, benznidazole (BNZ) and nifurtimox, offer limited efficacy and often lead to adverse side effects because of long treatment durations. Better treatment options are therefore urgently required. Here, we describe a pyrrolopyrimidine series, identified through phenotypic screening, that offers an opportunity to improve on current treatments. In vitro cell-based washout assays demonstrate that compounds in the series are incapable of killing all parasites; however, combining these pyrrolopyrimidines with a subefficacious dose of BNZ can clear all parasites in vitro after 5 days. These findings were replicated in a clinically predictive in vivo model of chronic Chagas disease, where 5 days of treatment with the combination was sufficient to prevent parasite relapse. Comprehensive mechanism of action studies, supported by ligand-structure modeling, show that compounds from this pyrrolopyrimidine series inhibit the Qi active site of T. cruzi cytochrome b, part of the cytochrome bc1 complex of the electron transport chain. Knowledge of the molecular target enabled a cascade of assays to be assembled to evaluate selectivity over the human cytochrome b homolog. As a result, a highly selective and efficacious lead compound was identified. The combination of our lead compound with BNZ rapidly clears T. cruzi parasites, both in vitro and in vivo, and shows great potential to overcome key issues associated with currently available treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia González
- Global Health Medicines R&D, GSK, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Richard J. Wall
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - John Thomas
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | | | | | | | - Juan Cantizani
- Global Health Medicines R&D, GSK, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sandra Carvalho
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | | | | | - Ignacio Cotillo
- Global Health Medicines R&D, GSK, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose M. Fiandor
- Global Health Medicines R&D, GSK, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | | - John M. Kelly
- London School for Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Albane Kessler
- Global Health Medicines R&D, GSK, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Chiara Luise
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | | | - Lorna MacLean
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Maria Marco
- Global Health Medicines R&D, GSK, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - J. Julio Martin
- Global Health Medicines R&D, GSK, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Christy Paterson
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Kevin D. Read
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | | | - Fabio Zuccotto
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Susan Wyllie
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Tim J. Miles
- Global Health Medicines R&D, GSK, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Manu De Rycker
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
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4
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Dutra Barroso Gomes N, Paula Magalhães E, Rodrigues Ribeiro L, Cavalcante JW, Morais Gomes Maia M, Cunha da Silva FR, Ali A, Machado Marinho M, Silva Marinho E, Silva Dos Santos H, Costa Martins AM, Róseo Paula Pessoa Bezerra de Menezes R. Trypanocidal potential of synthetic p-aminochalcones: In silico and in vitro evaluation. Bioorg Chem 2023; 141:106931. [PMID: 37879182 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.106931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
Chagas disease (CD) is a neglected tropical disease of worldwide health concern, caused by the flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), endemic in Latin America and present in North America and Europe. The WHO recommended drug for CD, benznidazole has low safety profile and several limitations. Therefore, an entity with better therapeutic potential to treat CD is required. Chalcones are an important class of compounds, which have shown antichagasic potential. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the activity of synthetic p-aminochalcones against T. cruzi. Chalcones 1 and 2 were synthesized by Claisen-Schmidt condensation and characterized by both spectroscopic and theoretical methods. Initially, they were submitted to molecular docking simulations using cruzain and trypanothione reductase (TR) enzymes. It was expected to observe the possible interactions of chalcones with the catalytic site and other important regions of these main pharmacological targets of T. cruzi. Their cytotoxicity within host cells were assessed by MTT reduction assay using LLC-MK2 cells, with CC50 = 85.6 ± 9.2 µM and 1115 ± 381.7 µM for chalcones 1 and 2, respectively. These molecules were also tested against epimastigote and trypomastigote life forms of T. cruzi, causing reduction in the number of viable parasites. For the evaluation of the effect on intracellular amastigotes, infected LLC-MK2 cells were incubated with the chalcones for 24 h, causing reduction in the percentage of infected cells and the number of amastigotes/100 cells. Finally, flow cytometry assays were performed for analyzing cell death mechanisms (7-AAD/AxPE labelling), cytoplasmic ROS accumulation (DCFH-DA assay) and mitochondrial transmembrane potential disruption (Rho123 assay). Both chalcones (1 and 2) caused membrane damage, ROS accumulation and mitochondrial depolarization. In conclusion, the synthetic p-aminochalcones presented trypanocidal effect, causing membrane damage and oxidative stress. Their mechanism of action may be related to cruzain and TR inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Emanuel Paula Magalhães
- Post-Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Lyanna Rodrigues Ribeiro
- Post-Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Arif Ali
- Post-Graduate Program in Pharmacology, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Márcia Machado Marinho
- Theoretical and Eletrochemical Chemistry Research Group, State University of Ceará, Limoeiro do Norte, CE, Brazil; State University of Vale do Acaraú, Center for Exact Sciences and Technology, Sobral, CE, Brazil
| | - Emmanuel Silva Marinho
- Theoretical and Eletrochemical Chemistry Research Group, State University of Ceará, Limoeiro do Norte, CE, Brazil
| | - Hélcio Silva Dos Santos
- State University of Vale do Acaraú, Center for Exact Sciences and Technology, Sobral, CE, Brazil
| | - Alice Maria Costa Martins
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
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5
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Jayawardhana S, Ward AI, Francisco AF, Lewis MD, Taylor MC, Kelly JM, Olmo F. Benznidazole treatment leads to DNA damage in Trypanosoma cruzi and the persistence of rare widely dispersed non-replicative amastigotes in mice. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011627. [PMID: 37956215 PMCID: PMC10681306 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Benznidazole is the front-line drug used to treat infections with Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease. However, for reasons that are unknown, treatment failures are common. When we examined parasites that survived benznidazole treatment in mice using highly sensitive in vivo and ex vivo bioluminescence imaging, we found that recrudescence is not due to persistence of parasites in a specific organ or tissue that preferentially protects them from drug activity. Surviving parasites are widely distributed and located in host cells where the vast majority contained only one or two amastigotes. Therefore, infection relapse does not arise from a small number of intact large nests. Rather, persisters are either survivors of intracellular populations where co-located parasites have been killed, or amastigotes in single/low-level infected cells exist in a state where they are less susceptible to benznidazole. To better assess the nature of parasite persisters, we exposed infected mammalian cell monolayers to a benznidazole regimen that reduces the intracellular amastigote population to <1% of the pre-treatment level. Of host cells that remained infected, as with the situation in vivo, the vast majority contained only one or two surviving intracellular amastigotes. Analysis, based on non-incorporation of the thymidine analogue EdU, revealed these surviving parasites to be in a transient non-replicative state. Furthermore, treatment with benznidazole led to widespread parasite DNA damage. When the small number of parasites which survive in mice after non-curative treatment were assessed using EdU labelling, this revealed that these persisters were also initially non-replicative. A possible explanation could be that triggering of the T. cruzi DNA damage response pathway by the activity of benznidazole metabolites results in exit from the cell cycle as parasites attempt DNA repair, and that metabolic changes associated with non-proliferation act to reduce drug susceptibility. Alternatively, a small percentage of the parasite population may pre-exist in this non-replicative state prior to treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiromani Jayawardhana
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander I. Ward
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Amanda F. Francisco
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael D. Lewis
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Martin C. Taylor
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - John M. Kelly
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Francisco Olmo
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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6
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Tarannum A, Rodríguez-Almonacid CC, Salazar-Bravo J, Karamysheva ZN. Molecular Mechanisms of Persistence in Protozoan Parasites. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2248. [PMID: 37764092 PMCID: PMC10534552 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11092248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Protozoan parasites are known for their remarkable capacity to persist within the bodies of vertebrate hosts, which frequently results in prolonged infections and the recurrence of diseases. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that underlie the event of persistence is of paramount significance to develop innovative therapeutic approaches, given that these pathways still need to be thoroughly elucidated. The present article provides a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in the investigation of protozoan persistence in vertebrate hosts. The focus is primarily on the function of persisters, their formation within the host, and the specific molecular interactions between host and parasite while they persist. Additionally, we examine the metabolomic, transcriptional, and translational changes that protozoan parasites undergo during persistence within vertebrate hosts, focusing on major parasites such as Plasmodium spp., Trypanosoma spp., Leishmania spp., and Toxoplasma spp. Key findings of our study suggest that protozoan parasites deploy several molecular and physiological strategies to evade the host immune surveillance and sustain their persistence. Furthermore, some parasites undergo stage differentiation, enabling them to acclimate to varying host environments and immune challenges. More often, stressors such as drug exposure were demonstrated to impact the formation of protozoan persisters significantly. Understanding the molecular mechanisms regulating the persistence of protozoan parasites in vertebrate hosts can reinvigorate our current insights into host-parasite interactions and facilitate the development of more efficacious disease therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Zemfira N. Karamysheva
- Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA; (A.T.); (C.C.R.-A.); (J.S.-B.)
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7
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Pagura L, Dumoulin PC, Ellis CC, Mendes MT, Estevao IL, Almeida IC, Burleigh BA. Fatty acid elongases 1-3 have distinct roles in mitochondrial function, growth, and lipid homeostasis in Trypanosoma cruzi. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:104715. [PMID: 37061002 PMCID: PMC10203773 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.104715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosomatids are a diverse group of uniflagellate protozoan parasites that include globally relevant pathogens such as Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease. Trypanosomes lack the fatty acid synthase system typically used for de novo fatty acid (FA) synthesis in other eukaryotes. Instead, these microbes have evolved a modular FA elongase (ELO) system comprised of individual ELO enzymes (ELO1-4) that can operate processively to generate long chain- and very long chain-FAs. The importance of ELO's for maintaining lipid homeostasis in trypanosomatids is currently unclear, given their ability to take up and utilize exogenous FAs for lipid synthesis. To assess ELO function in T. cruzi, we generated individual KO lines, Δelo1, Δelo2, and Δelo3, in which the genes encoding ELO1-3 were functionally disrupted in the parasite insect stage (epimastigote). Using unbiased lipidomic and metabolomic analyses, in combination with metabolic tracing and biochemical approaches, we demonstrate that ELO2 and ELO3 are required for global lipid homeostasis, whereas ELO1 is dispensable for this function. Instead, ELO1 activity is needed to sustain mitochondrial activity and normal growth in T. cruzi epimastigotes. The cross-talk between microsomal ELO1 and the mitochondrion is a novel finding that, we propose, merits further examination of the trypanosomatid ELO pathway as critical for central metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Pagura
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Peter C Dumoulin
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Cameron C Ellis
- Department of Biological Sciences, Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, USA
| | - Maria T Mendes
- Department of Biological Sciences, Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, USA
| | - Igor L Estevao
- Department of Biological Sciences, Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, USA
| | - Igor C Almeida
- Department of Biological Sciences, Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, USA.
| | - Barbara A Burleigh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
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Won MM, Krüger T, Engstler M, Burleigh BA. The Intracellular Amastigote of Trypanosoma cruzi Maintains an Actively Beating Flagellum. mBio 2023; 14:e0355622. [PMID: 36840555 PMCID: PMC10128032 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03556-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Throughout its complex life cycle, the uniflagellate parasitic protist, Trypanosoma cruzi, adapts to different host environments by transitioning between elongated motile extracellular stages and a nonmotile intracellular amastigote stage that replicates in the cytoplasm of mammalian host cells. Intracellular T. cruzi amastigotes retain a short flagellum that extends beyond the opening of the flagellar pocket with access to the extracellular milieu. Contrary to the long-held view that the T. cruzi amastigote flagellum is inert, we report that this organelle is motile and displays quasiperiodic beating inside mammalian host cells. Kymograph analysis determined an average flagellar beat frequency of ~0.7 Hz for intracellular amastigotes and similar beat frequencies for extracellular amastigotes following their isolation from host cells. Inhibitor studies reveal that flagellar motility in T. cruzi amastigotes is critically dependent on parasite mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. These novel observations reveal that flagellar motility is an intrinsic property of T. cruzi amastigotes and suggest that this organelle may play an active role in the parasite infection process. IMPORTANCE Understanding the interplay between intracellular pathogens and their hosts is vital to the development of new treatments and preventive strategies. The intracellular "amastigote" stage of the Chagas disease parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi, is a critical but understudied parasitic life stage. Previous work established that cytosolically localized T. cruzi amastigotes engage physically and selectively with host mitochondria using their short, single flagellum. The current study was initiated to examine the dynamics of the parasite flagellum-host mitochondrial interaction through live confocal imaging and led to the unexpected discovery that the T. cruzi amastigote flagellum is motile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madalyn M. Won
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Timothy Krüger
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Biozentrum, University of Würzburg, Germany
| | - Markus Engstler
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Biozentrum, University of Würzburg, Germany
| | - Barbara A. Burleigh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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9
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Impact of Laboratory-Adapted Intracellular Trypanosoma cruzi Strains on the Activity Profiles of Compounds with Anti- T. cruzi Activity. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11020476. [PMID: 36838441 PMCID: PMC9967867 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11020476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease is caused by infection with the protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi. The disease causes ~12,000 deaths annually and is one of the world's 20 neglected tropical diseases, as defined by the World Health Organisation. The drug discovery pipeline for Chagas disease currently has few new clinical candidates, with high attrition rates an ongoing issue. To determine if the Trypanosoma cruzi strain utilised to assess in vitro compound activity impacts activity, a comparison of laboratory-adapted T. cruzi strains from differing geographical locations was undertaken for a selection of compounds with anti-T. cruzi activity. To minimise the possible effect of differences in experimental methodology, the same host cell and multiplicity of infection were utilised. To determine whether the compound exposure time influenced results, activity was determined following exposure for 48 and 72 h of incubation. To ascertain whether replication rates affected outcomes, comparative rates of replication of the T. cruzi strains were investigated, using the nucleoside analogue, 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine. Minimal differences in the in vitro activity of compounds between strains were observed following 48 h incubation, whereas significant differences were observed following 72 h incubation, in particular for the cytochrome P450 inhibitors tested and the cell cycle inhibitor, camptothecin. Thus, the use of panels of laboratory adapted strains in vitro may be dependent on the speed of action that is prioritised. For the identification of fast-acting compounds, an initial shorter duration assay using a single strain may be used. A longer incubation to identify compound activity may alternatively require profiling of compounds against multiple T. cruzi strains.
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10
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Ballesteros-Casallas A, Quiroga C, Ortiz C, Benítez D, Denis PA, Figueroa D, Salas CO, Bertrand J, Tapia RA, Sánchez P, Miscione GP, Comini MA, Paulino M. Mode of action of p-quinone derivatives with trypanocidal activity studied by experimental and in silico models. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 246:114926. [PMID: 36508970 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Quinones are attractive pharmacological scaffolds for developing new agents for the treatment of different transmissible and non-transmissible human diseases due to their capacity to alter the cell redox homeostasis. The bioactivity and potential mode of action of 19 p-quinone derivatives fused to different aromatic rings (carbo or heterocycles) and harboring distinct substituents were investigated in infective Trypanosoma brucei brucei. All the compounds, except for a furanequinone (EC50=38 μM), proved to be similarly or even more potent (EC50 = 0.5-5.5 μM) than the clinical drug nifurtimox (EC50 = 5.3 μM). Three furanequinones and one thiazolequinone displayed a higher selectivity than nifurtimox. Two of these selective hits resulted potent inhibitors of T. cruzi proliferation (EC50=0.8-1.1 μM) but proved inactive against Leishmania infantum amastigotes. Most of the p-quinones induced a rapid and marked intracellular oxidation in T. b. brucei. DFT calculations on the oxidized quinone (Q), semiquinone (Q•-) and hydroquinone (QH2) suggest that all quinones have negative ΔG for the formation of Q•-. Qualitative and quantitative structure-activity relationship analyses in two or three dimensions of different electronic and biophysical descriptors of quinones and their corresponding bioactivities (killing potency and oxidative capacity) were performed. Charge distribution over the quinone ring carbons of Q and Q.- and the frontier orbitals energies of SUMO (Q.-) and LUMO (Q) correlate with their oxidative and trypanocidal activity. QSAR analysis also highlighted that both bromine substitution in the p-quinone ring and a bulky phenyl group attached to the furane and thiazole rings (which generates a negative charge due to the π electron system polarized by the nearby heteroatoms) are favorable for activity. By combining experimental and in silico procedures, this study disclosed important information about p-quinones that may help to rationally tune their electronic properties and biological activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andres Ballesteros-Casallas
- COBO, Computational Bio-Organic Chemistry, Chemistry Department, Universidad de Los Andes, Carrera 1 18A-12, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia; Bioinformatics Center, DETEMA Department, Faculty of Chemistry, Universidad de la República, General Flores 2124, Montevideo, 11600, Uruguay
| | - Cristina Quiroga
- Laboratory Redox Biology of Trypanosomes, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Mataojo 2020, Montevideo, 11400, Uruguay
| | - Cecilia Ortiz
- Laboratory Redox Biology of Trypanosomes, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Mataojo 2020, Montevideo, 11400, Uruguay
| | - Diego Benítez
- Laboratory Redox Biology of Trypanosomes, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Mataojo 2020, Montevideo, 11400, Uruguay
| | - Pablo A Denis
- Computational Nanotechnology, DETEMA Department, Faculty of Chemistry, Universidad de la República, General Flores 2124, Montevideo, 11600, Uruguay
| | - David Figueroa
- COBO, Computational Bio-Organic Chemistry, Chemistry Department, Universidad de Los Andes, Carrera 1 18A-12, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia
| | - Cristian O Salas
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Química y de Farmacia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Av. Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Santiago, 6094411, Chile
| | - Jeanluc Bertrand
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Química y de Farmacia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Av. Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Santiago, 6094411, Chile
| | - Ricardo A Tapia
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Química y de Farmacia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Av. Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Santiago, 6094411, Chile
| | - Patricio Sánchez
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Química y de Farmacia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Av. Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Santiago, 6094411, Chile
| | - Gian Pietro Miscione
- COBO, Computational Bio-Organic Chemistry, Chemistry Department, Universidad de Los Andes, Carrera 1 18A-12, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia.
| | - Marcelo A Comini
- Laboratory Redox Biology of Trypanosomes, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Mataojo 2020, Montevideo, 11400, Uruguay.
| | - Margot Paulino
- Bioinformatics Center, DETEMA Department, Faculty of Chemistry, Universidad de la República, General Flores 2124, Montevideo, 11600, Uruguay.
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Abstract
Leishmaniasis (visceral and cutaneous), Chagas disease and human African trypanosomiasis cause substantial death and morbidity, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Although the situation has improved for human African trypanosomiasis, there remains an urgent need for new medicines to treat leishmaniasis and Chagas disease; the clinical development pipeline is particularly sparse for Chagas disease. In this Review, we describe recent advances in our understanding of the biology of the causative pathogens, particularly from the drug discovery perspective, and we explore the progress that has been made in the development of new drug candidates and the identification of promising molecular targets. We also explore the challenges in developing new clinical candidates and discuss potential solutions to overcome such hurdles.
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12
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Rossi IV, Nunes MAF, Sabatke B, Ribas HT, Winnischofer SMB, Ramos ASP, Inal JM, Ramirez MI. An induced population of Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes more resistant to complement lysis promotes a phenotype with greater differentiation, invasiveness, and release of extracellular vesicles. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1046681. [PMID: 36590580 PMCID: PMC9795005 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1046681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Chagas disease is a neglected tropical disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, which uses blood-feeding triatomine bugs as a vector to finally infect mammalian hosts. Upon entering the host, the parasite needs to effectively evade the attack of the complement system and quickly invade cells to guarantee an infection. In order to accomplish this, T. cruzi expresses different molecules on its surface and releases extracellular vesicles (EVs). Methods Here, we have selected a population of epimastigotes (a replicative form) from T. cruzi through two rounds of exposure to normal human serum (NHS), to reach 30% survival (2R population). This 2R population was characterized in several aspects and compared to Wild type population. Results The 2R population had a favored metacyclogenesis compared with wild-type (WT) parasites. 2R metacyclic trypomastigotes had a two-fold increase in resistance to complementmediated lysis and were at least three times more infective to eukaryotic cells, probably due to a higher GP82 expression in the resistant population. Moreover, we have shown that EVs from resistant parasites can transfer the invasive phenotype to the WT population. In addition, we showed that the virulence phenotype of the selected population remains in the trypomastigote form derived from cell culture, which is more infective and also has a higher rate of release of trypomastigotes from infected cells. Conclusions Altogether, these data indicate that it is possible to select parasites after exposure to a particular stress factor and that the phenotype of epimastigotes remained in the infective stage. Importantly, EVs seem to be an important virulence fator increasing mechanism in this context of survival and persistence in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izadora Volpato Rossi
- Graduate Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil,Carlos Chagas Institute, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ-PR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | | | - Bruna Sabatke
- Carlos Chagas Institute, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ-PR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil,Graduate Program in Microbiology, Pathology and Parasitology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Hennrique Taborda Ribas
- Graduate Program in Biochemistry Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Sheila Maria Brochado Winnischofer
- Graduate Program in Biochemistry Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | | | - Jameel Malhador Inal
- School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, London, United Kingdom,School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marcel Ivan Ramirez
- Carlos Chagas Institute, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ-PR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil,*Correspondence: Marcel Ivan Ramirez,
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13
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Slow growing behavior in African trypanosomes during adipose tissue colonization. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7548. [PMID: 36481558 PMCID: PMC9732351 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34622-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
When Trypanosoma brucei parasites, the causative agent of sleeping sickness, colonize the adipose tissue, they rewire gene expression. Whether this adaptation affects population behavior and disease treatment remained unknown. By using a mathematical model, we estimate that the population of adipose tissue forms (ATFs) proliferates slower than blood parasites. Analysis of the ATFs proteome, measurement of protein synthesis and proliferation rates confirm that the ATFs divide on average every 12 h, instead of 6 h in the blood. Importantly, the population of ATFs is heterogeneous with parasites doubling times ranging between 5 h and 35 h. Slow-proliferating parasites remain capable of reverting to the fast proliferation profile in blood conditions. Intravital imaging shows that ATFs are refractory to drug treatment. We propose that in adipose tissue, a subpopulation of T. brucei parasites acquire a slow growing behavior, which contributes to disease chronicity and treatment failure.
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14
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Dumoulin PC, Vollrath J, Won MM, Wang JX, Burleigh BA. Endogenous Sterol Synthesis Is Dispensable for Trypanosoma cruzi Epimastigote Growth but Not Stress Tolerance. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:937910. [PMID: 35783434 PMCID: PMC9248972 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.937910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to scavenging exogenous cholesterol, the parasitic kinetoplastid Trypanosoma cruzi can endogenously synthesize sterols. Similar to fungal species, T. cruzi synthesizes ergostane type sterols and is sensitive to a class of azole inhibitors of ergosterol biosynthesis that target the enzyme lanosterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51). In the related kinetoplastid parasite Leishmania donovani, CYP51 is essential, yet in Leishmania major, the cognate enzyme is dispensable for growth; but not heat resistance. The essentiality of CYP51 and the specific role of ergostane-type sterol products in T. cruzi has not been established. To better understand the importance of this pathway, we have disrupted the CYP51 gene in T. cruzi epimastigotes (ΔCYP51). Disruption of CYP51 leads to accumulation of 14-methylated sterols and a concurrent absence of the final sterol product ergosterol. While ΔCYP51 epimastigotes have slowed proliferation compared to wild type parasites, the enzyme is not required for growth; however, ΔCYP51 epimastigotes exhibit sensitivity to elevated temperature, an elevated mitochondrial membrane potential and fail to establish growth as intracellular amastigotes in vitro. Further genetic disruption of squalene epoxidase (ΔSQLE) results in the absence of all endogenous sterols and sterol auxotrophy, yet failed to rescue tolerance to stress in ΔCYP51 parasites, suggesting the loss of ergosterol and not accumulation of 14-methylated sterols modulates stress tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter C. Dumoulin
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Peter C. Dumoulin, ;
| | - Joshua Vollrath
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
- Institute for Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Madalyn M. Won
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Jennifer X. Wang
- Harvard Center for Mass Spectrometry, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Barbara A. Burleigh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
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15
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Mora-Criollo P, Basu R, Qian Y, Costales JA, Guevara-Aguirre J, Grijalva MJ, Kopchick JJ. Growth hormone modulates Trypanosoma cruzi infection in vitro. Growth Horm IGF Res 2022; 64:101460. [PMID: 35490602 DOI: 10.1016/j.ghir.2022.101460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Chagas disease (CD) is caused by the protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi. It affects 7 to 8 million people worldwide and leads to approximately 50,000 deaths per year. In vitro and in vivo studies had demonstrated that Trypanosoma cruziinfection causes an imbalance in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis that is accompanied by a progressive decrease in growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL) production. In humans, inactivating mutations in the GH receptor gene cause Laron Syndrome (LS), an autosomal recessive disorder. Affected subjects are short, have increased adiposity, decreased insulin-like growth factor-I (IGFI), increased serum GH levels, are highly resistant to diabetes and cancer, and display slow cognitive decline. In addition, CD incidence in these individuals is diminished despite living in highly endemic areas. Consequently, we decided to investigate the in vitro effect of GH/IGF-I on T. cruzi infection. DESIGN We first treated the parasite and/or host cells with different peptide hormones including GH, IGFI, and PRL. Then, we treated cells using different combinations of GH/IGF-I attempting to mimic the GH/IGF-I serum levels observed in LS subjects. RESULTS We found that exogenous GH confers protection against T. cruzi infection. Moreover, this effect is mediated by GH and not IGFI. The combination of relatively high GH (50 ng/ml) and low IGF-I (20 ng/ml), mimicking the hormonal pattern seen in LS individuals, consistently decreased T. cruzi infection in vitro. CONCLUSIONS The combination of relatively high GH and low IGF-I serum levels in LS individuals may be an underlying condition providing partial protection against T. cruzi infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Reetobrata Basu
- Edison Biotechnology Institute, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
| | - Yanrong Qian
- Edison Biotechnology Institute, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
| | - Jaime A Costales
- Centro de Investigación para la Salud en América Latina, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Jaime Guevara-Aguirre
- Colegio de ciencias de la salud, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Cumbaya, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Mario J Grijalva
- Infectious and Tropical Disease Institute, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA; Centro de Investigación para la Salud en América Latina, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - John J Kopchick
- Edison Biotechnology Institute, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA; Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA.
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16
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Teixeira TL, Chiurillo MA, Lander N, Rodrigues CC, Onofre TS, Ferreira ÉR, Yonamine CM, Santos JDG, Mortara RA, da Silva CV, da Silveira JF. Ablation of the P21 Gene of Trypanosoma cruzi Provides Evidence of P21 as a Mediator in the Control of Epimastigote and Intracellular Amastigote Replication. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:799668. [PMID: 35252026 PMCID: PMC8895596 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.799668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
P21 is an immunomodulatory protein expressed throughout the life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that P21 plays an important role in the invasion of mammalian host cells and establishment of infection in a murine model. P21 functions as a signal transducer, triggering intracellular cascades in host cells and resulting in the remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton and parasite internalization. Furthermore, in vivo studies have shown that P21 inhibits angiogenesis, induces inflammation and fibrosis, and regulates intracellular amastigote replication. In this study, we used the CRISPR/Cas9 system for P21 gene knockout and investigated whether the ablation of P21 results in changes in the phenotypes associated with this protein. Ablation of P21 gene resulted in a lower growth rate of epimastigotes and delayed cell cycle progression, accompanied by accumulation of parasites in G1 phase. However, P21 knockout epimastigotes were viable and able to differentiate into metacyclic trypomastigotes, which are infective to mammalian cells. In comparison with wild-type parasites, P21 knockout cells showed a reduced cell invasion rate, demonstrating the role of this protein in host cell invasion. However, there was a higher number of intracellular amastigotes per cell, suggesting that P21 is a negative regulator of amastigote proliferation in mammalian cells. Here, for the first time, we demonstrated the direct correlation between P21 and the replication of intracellular amastigotes, which underlies the chronicity of T. cruzi infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thaise Lara Teixeira
- Departmento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Miguel Angel Chiurillo
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Noelia Lander
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | | | - Thiago Souza Onofre
- Departmento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Éden Ramalho Ferreira
- Departmento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Camila Miyagui Yonamine
- Departmento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Renato Arruda Mortara
- Departmento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Claudio Vieira da Silva
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Claudio Vieira da Silva, ; José Franco da Silveira,
| | - José Franco da Silveira
- Departmento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Claudio Vieira da Silva, ; José Franco da Silveira,
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17
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Svensen N, Wyllie S, Gray DW, De Rycker M. Live-imaging rate-of-kill compound profiling for Chagas disease drug discovery with a new automated high-content assay. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009870. [PMID: 34634052 PMCID: PMC8530327 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan intracellular parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is a highly neglected tropical disease, causing significant morbidity and mortality in central and south America. Current treatments are inadequate, and recent clinical trials of drugs inhibiting CYP51 have failed, exposing a lack of understanding of how to translate laboratory findings to the clinic. Following these failures many new model systems have been developed, both in vitro and in vivo, that provide improved understanding of the causes for clinical trial failures. Amongst these are in vitro rate-of-kill (RoK) assays that reveal how fast compounds kill intracellular parasites. Such assays have shown clear distinctions between the compounds that failed in clinical trials and the standard of care. However, the published RoK assays have some key drawbacks, including low time-resolution and inability to track the same cell population over time. Here, we present a new, live-imaging RoK assay for intracellular T. cruzi that overcomes these issues. We show that the assay is highly reproducible and report high time-resolution RoK data for key clinical compounds as well as new chemical entities. The data generated by this assay allow fast acting compounds to be prioritised for progression, the fate of individual parasites to be tracked, shifts of mode-of-action within series to be monitored, better PKPD modelling and selection of suitable partners for combination therapy. Chagas disease is caused by the single cell protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. Millions of people suffer from this disease in central and south America, which frequently causes heart disease and can result in death. Chagas disease is classified as a neglected tropical disease due to the lack of investment in development of new medicines. The currently available medicines are inadequate as they require long treatments, often with severe side-effects. To develop new medicines, it is critical to build laboratory assays and tools that help predict the ability of new compounds to cure patients. Rate-of-kill assays measure how quickly compounds can kill parasites, providing a route to differentiate promising compounds from poor ones. Here, we describe development of an advanced rate-of-kill assay that, unlike existing assays, can monitor the same cell population over the duration of compound treatment. Using live-cell microscopy, parasite-infected host cells and their response to compound treatment can be continuously monitored. This enables better defined rate-of-kill profiles to be produced, in turn allowing better informed decisions on subsequent compound progression. Here, we report the live-imaging rate-of-kill profiles for several key compounds, including current drugs and compounds in clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Svensen
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Susan Wyllie
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - David W Gray
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Manu De Rycker
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
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18
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Liu Z, Ulrich vonBargen R, McCall LI. Central role of metabolism in Trypanosoma cruzi tropism and Chagas disease pathogenesis. Curr Opin Microbiol 2021; 63:204-209. [PMID: 34455304 PMCID: PMC8463485 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2021.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Chagas disease is a neglected tropical disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi parasites. During mammalian infection, T. cruzi alternates between an intracellular stage and extracellular stage. T. cruzi adapts its metabolism to this lifestyle, while also reshaping host metabolic pathways. Such host metabolic adaptations compensate for parasite-induced stress, but may promote parasite survival and proliferation. Recent work has demonstrated that metabolism controls parasite tropism and location of Chagas disease symptoms, and regulates whether infection is mild or severe. Such findings have important translational applications with regards to treatment and diagnostic test development, though further research is needed with regards to in vivo parasite metabolic gene expression, relationship between magnitude of local metabolic perturbation, parasite strain and disease location, and host-parasite-microbiota co-metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zongyuan Liu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73019, United States; Laboratories of Molecular Anthropology and Microbiome Research, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73019, United States
| | - Rebecca Ulrich vonBargen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73019, United States
| | - Laura-Isobel McCall
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73019, United States; Laboratories of Molecular Anthropology and Microbiome Research, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73019, United States; Department of Microbiology and Plant Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73019, United States.
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19
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Dumoulin PC, Burleigh BA. Metabolic flexibility in Trypanosoma cruzi amastigotes: implications for persistence and drug sensitivity. Curr Opin Microbiol 2021; 63:244-249. [PMID: 34455305 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2021.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Throughout their life cycle, parasitic organisms experience a variety of environmental conditions. To ensure persistence and transmission, some protozoan parasites are capable of adjusting their replication or converting to distinct life cycle stages. Trypanosoma cruzi is a 'generalist' parasite that is competent to infect various insect (triatomine) vectors and mammalian hosts. Within the mammalian host, T. cruzi replicates intracellularly as amastigotes and can persist for the lifetime of the host. The persistence of the parasites in tissues can lead to the development of Chagas disease. Recent work has identified growth plasticity and metabolic flexibility as aspects of amastigote biology that are important determinants of persistence in varied growth conditions and under drug pressure. A better understanding of the link between amastigote and host/tissue metabolism will aid in the development of new drugs or therapies that can limit disease pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter C Dumoulin
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, United States.
| | - Barbara A Burleigh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, United States
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20
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Identification of Metabolically Quiescent Leishmania mexicana Parasites in Peripheral and Cured Dermal Granulomas Using Stable Isotope Tracing Imaging Mass Spectrometry. mBio 2021; 12:mBio.00129-21. [PMID: 33824211 PMCID: PMC8092208 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00129-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmania are sandfly-transmitted protists that induce granulomatous lesions in their mammalian host. Although infected host cells in these tissues can exist in different activation states, the extent to which intracellular parasites stages also exist in different growth or physiological states remains poorly defined. Here, we have mapped the spatial distribution of metabolically quiescent and active subpopulations of Leishmania mexicana in dermal granulomas in susceptible BALB/c mice, using in vivo heavy water labeling and ultra high-resolution imaging mass spectrometry. Quantitation of the rate of turnover of parasite and host-specific lipids at high spatial resolution, suggested that the granuloma core comprised mixed populations of metabolically active and quiescent parasites. Unexpectedly, a significant population of metabolically quiescent parasites was also identified in the surrounding collagen-rich, dermal mesothelium. Mesothelium-like tissues harboring quiescent parasites progressively replaced macrophage-rich granuloma tissues following treatment with the first-line drug, miltefosine. In contrast to the granulomatous tissue, neither the mesothelium nor newly deposited tissue sequestered miltefosine. These studies suggest that the presence of quiescent parasites in acute granulomatous tissues, together with the lack of miltefosine accumulation in cured lesion tissue, may contribute to drug failure and nonsterile cure.IMPORTANCE Many microbial pathogens switch between different growth and physiological states in vivo in order to adapt to local nutrient levels and host microbicidal responses. Heterogeneity in microbial growth and metabolism may also contribute to nongenetic mechanisms of drug resistance and drug failure. In this study, we have developed a new approach for measuring spatial heterogeneity in microbial metabolism in vivo using a combination of heavy water (2H2O) labeling and imaging mass spectrometry. Using this approach, we show that lesions contain a patchwork of metabolically distinct parasite populations, while the underlying dermal tissues contain a large population of metabolically quiescent parasites. Quiescent parasites also dominate drug-depleted tissues in healed animals, providing an explanation for failure of some first line drugs to completely eradicate parasites. This approach is broadly applicable to study the metabolic and growth dynamics in other host-pathogen interactions.
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21
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Parab AR, McCall LI. Tryp-ing Up Metabolism: Role of Metabolic Adaptations in Kinetoplastid Disease Pathogenesis. Infect Immun 2021; 89:e00644-20. [PMID: 33526564 PMCID: PMC8090971 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00644-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Today, more than a billion people-one-sixth of the world's population-are suffering from neglected tropical diseases. Human African trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease, and leishmaniasis are neglected tropical diseases caused by protozoan parasites belonging to the genera Trypanosoma and Leishmania About half a million people living in tropical and subtropical regions of the world are at risk of contracting one of these three infections. Kinetoplastids have complex life cycles with different morphologies and unique physiological requirements at each life cycle stage. This review covers the latest findings on metabolic pathways impacting disease pathogenesis of kinetoplastids within the mammalian host. Nutrient availability is a key factor shaping in vivo parasite metabolism; thus, kinetoplastids display significant metabolic flexibility. Proteomic and transcriptomic profiles show that intracellular trypanosomatids are able to switch to an energy-efficient metabolism within the mammalian host system. Host metabolic changes can also favor parasite persistence, and contribute to symptom development, in a location-specific fashion. Ultimately, targeted and untargeted metabolomics studies have been a valuable approach to elucidate the specific biochemical pathways affected by infection within the host, leading to translational drug development and diagnostic insights.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adwaita R Parab
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Laura-Isobel McCall
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
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22
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Docampo R, Vercesi AE, Huang G, Lander N, Chiurillo MA, Bertolini M. Mitochondrial Ca 2+ homeostasis in trypanosomes. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 362:261-289. [PMID: 34253297 PMCID: PMC10424509 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2021.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial calcium ion (Ca2+) uptake is important for buffering cytosolic Ca2+ levels, for regulating cell bioenergetics, and for cell death and autophagy. Ca2+ uptake is mediated by a mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter (MCU) and the discovery of this channel in trypanosomes has been critical for the identification of the molecular nature of the channel in all eukaryotes. However, the trypanosome uniporter, which has been studied in detail in Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of Chagas disease, and T. brucei, the agent of human and animal African trypanosomiasis, has lineage-specific adaptations which include the lack of some homologues to mammalian subunits, and the presence of unique subunits. Here, we review newly emerging insights into the role of mitochondrial Ca2+ homeostasis in trypanosomes, the composition of the uniporter, its functional characterization, and its role in general physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Docampo
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States.
| | - Anibal E Vercesi
- Departamento de Patologia Clinica, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Guozhong Huang
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Noelia Lander
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Miguel A Chiurillo
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Mayara Bertolini
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
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23
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Maran SR, de Lemos Padilha Pitta JL, Dos Santos Vasconcelos CR, McDermott SM, Rezende AM, Silvio Moretti N. Epitranscriptome machinery in Trypanosomatids: New players on the table? Mol Microbiol 2021; 115:942-958. [PMID: 33513291 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma and Leishmania parasites cause devastating tropical diseases resulting in serious global health consequences. These organisms have complex life cycles with mammalian hosts and insect vectors. The parasites must, therefore, survive in different environments, demanding rapid physiological and metabolic changes. These responses depend upon regulation of gene expression, which primarily occurs posttranscriptionally. Altering the composition or conformation of RNA through nucleotide modifications is one posttranscriptional mechanism of regulating RNA fate and function, and modifications including N6-methyladenosine (m6A), N1-methyladenosine (m1A), N5-methylcytidine (m5C), N4-acetylcytidine (ac4C), and pseudouridine (Ψ), dynamically regulate RNA stability and translation in diverse organisms. Little is known about RNA modifications and their machinery in Trypanosomatids, but we hypothesize that they regulate parasite gene expression and are vital for survival. Here, we identified Trypanosomatid homologs for writers of m1A, m5C, ac4C, and Ψ and analyze their evolutionary relationships. We systematically review the evidence for their functions and assess their potential use as therapeutic targets. This work provides new insights into the roles of these proteins in Trypanosomatid parasite biology and treatment of the diseases they cause and illustrates that Trypanosomatids provide an excellent model system to study RNA modifications, their molecular, cellular, and biological consequences, and their regulation and interplay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suellen Rodrigues Maran
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Suzanne M McDermott
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Nilmar Silvio Moretti
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
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24
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Ward AI, Olmo F, Atherton RL, Taylor MC, Kelly JM. Trypanosoma cruzi amastigotes that persist in the colon during chronic stage murine infections have a reduced replication rate. Open Biol 2020; 10:200261. [PMID: 33321060 PMCID: PMC7776577 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.200261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic Trypanosoma cruzi infections are typically lifelong, with small numbers of parasites surviving in restricted tissue sites, which include the gastrointestinal tract. There is considerable debate about the replicative status of these persistent parasites and whether there is a role for dormancy in long-term infection. Here, we investigated T. cruzi proliferation in the colon of chronically infected mice using 5-ethynyl-2′deoxyuridine incorporation into DNA to provide ‘snapshots’ of parasite replication status. Highly sensitive imaging of the extremely rare infection foci, at single-cell resolution, revealed that parasites are three times more likely to be in S-phase during the acute stage than during the chronic stage. By implication, chronic infections of the colon are associated with a reduced rate of parasite replication. Despite this, very few host cells survived infection for more than 14 days, suggesting that T. cruzi persistence continues to involve regular cycles of replication, host cell lysis and re-infection. We could find no evidence for wide-spread dormancy in parasites that persist in this tissue reservoir.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander I Ward
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Francisco Olmo
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Richard L Atherton
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Martin C Taylor
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - John M Kelly
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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25
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Dumoulin PC, Vollrath J, Tomko SS, Wang JX, Burleigh B. Glutamine metabolism modulates azole susceptibility in Trypanosoma cruzi amastigotes. eLife 2020; 9:60226. [PMID: 33258448 PMCID: PMC7707839 DOI: 10.7554/elife.60226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms underlying resistance of the Chagas disease parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi, to current therapies are not well understood, including the role of metabolic heterogeneity. We found that limiting exogenous glutamine protects actively dividing amastigotes from ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors (azoles), independent of parasite growth rate. The antiparasitic properties of azoles are derived from inhibition of lanosterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) in the endogenous sterol synthesis pathway. We find that carbons from 13C-glutamine feed into amastigote sterols and into metabolic intermediates that accumulate upon CYP51 inhibition. Incorporation of 13C-glutamine into endogenously synthesized sterols is increased with BPTES treatment, an inhibitor of host glutamine metabolism that sensitizes amastigotes to azoles. Similarly, amastigotes are re-sensitized to azoles following addition of metabolites upstream of CYP51, raising the possibility that flux through the sterol synthesis pathway is a determinant of sensitivity to azoles and highlighting the potential role for metabolic heterogeneity in recalcitrant T. cruzi infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter C Dumoulin
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States
| | - Joshua Vollrath
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States.,Institute for Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sheena Shah Tomko
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States
| | - Jennifer X Wang
- Harvard Center for Mass Spectrometry, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States
| | - Barbara Burleigh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States
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26
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Pérez-Mazliah D, Ward AI, Lewis MD. Host-parasite dynamics in Chagas disease from systemic to hyper-local scales. Parasite Immunol 2020; 43:e12786. [PMID: 32799361 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is a remarkably versatile parasite. It can parasitize almost any nucleated cell type and naturally infects hundreds of mammal species across much of the Americas. In humans, it is the cause of Chagas disease, a set of mainly chronic conditions predominantly affecting the heart and gastrointestinal tract, which can progress to become life threatening. Yet around two thirds of infected people are long-term asymptomatic carriers. Clinical outcomes depend on many factors, but the central determinant is the nature of the host-parasite interactions that play out over the years of chronic infection in diverse tissue environments. In this review, we aim to integrate recent developments in the understanding of the spatial and temporal dynamics of T. cruzi infections with established and emerging concepts in host immune responses in the corresponding phases and tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damián Pérez-Mazliah
- York Biomedical Research Institute, Hull York Medical School, University of York, York, UK
| | - Alexander I Ward
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Michael D Lewis
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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27
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Martins FA, Dos Santos MA, Santos JDG, da Silva AA, Borges BC, da Costa MS, Tavares PCB, Teixeira SC, Brígido RTES, Teixeira TL, Rodrigues CC, Silva NSDL, de Oliveira RC, de Faria LC, Lemes MR, Zanon RG, Tomiosso TC, Machado JR, da Silva MV, Oliveira CJF, da Silva CV. The Recombinant Form of Trypanosoma cruzi P21 Controls Infection by Modulating Host Immune Response. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1010. [PMID: 32655546 PMCID: PMC7325895 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi P21 protein (P21) is a putative secreted and immunomodulatory molecule with potent bioactive properties such as induction of phagocytosis and actin cytoskeleton polymerization. Despite the bioactive properties described so far, the action of P21 on parasite replication in muscle cell lineage or T. cruzi parasitism during acute experimental infection is unclear. We observed that recombinant P21 (rP21) decreased the multiplication of T. cruzi in C2C12 myoblasts, phenomenon associated with greater actin polymerization and IFN-γ and IL-4 higher expression. During experimental infection, lower cardiac nests, inflammatory infiltrate and fibrosis were observed in mice infected and treated with rP21. These results were correlated with large expression of IFN-γ counterbalanced by high levels of IL-10, which was consistent with the lower cardiac tissue injury found in these mice. We have also observed that upon stress, such as that induced by the presence of the IFN-γ cytokine, T. cruzi produced more P21. The effect of P21 in controlling the replication of T. cruzi, may indicate an evolutionary mechanism of survival developed by the parasite. Thus, when subjected to different stress conditions, the protozoan produces more P21, which induces T. cruzi latency in the host organism, enabling the protozoan to evade the host's immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flávia Alves Martins
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Marlus Alves Dos Santos
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Júlia de Gouveia Santos
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Aline Alves da Silva
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Bruna Cristina Borges
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Mylla Spirandelli da Costa
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Paula Cristina Brígido Tavares
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Samuel Cota Teixeira
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Rebecca Tavares E Silva Brígido
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Thaise Lara Teixeira
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil.,Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Cassiano Costa Rodrigues
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | | | - Rayane Cristina de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Laura Caroline de Faria
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Brazil
| | - Marcela Rezende Lemes
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Brazil
| | - Renata Graciele Zanon
- Departamento de Anatomia Humana, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Tatiana Carla Tomiosso
- Setor de Histologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Juliana Reis Machado
- Departamento de Patologia, Genética e Evolução, Universidade Federal do Triangulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Brazil
| | - Marcos Vinicius da Silva
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Brazil
| | - Carlo José Freire Oliveira
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Brazil
| | - Claudio Vieira da Silva
- Laboratório de Tripanosomatídeos, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
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28
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Altamura F, Rajesh R, Catta-Preta CMC, Moretti NS, Cestari I. The current drug discovery landscape for trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis: Challenges and strategies to identify drug targets. Drug Dev Res 2020; 83:225-252. [PMID: 32249457 DOI: 10.1002/ddr.21664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Human trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis are vector-borne neglected tropical diseases caused by infection with the protozoan parasites Trypanosoma spp. and Leishmania spp., respectively. Once restricted to endemic areas, these diseases are now distributed worldwide due to human migration, climate change, and anthropogenic disturbance, causing significant health and economic burden globally. The current chemotherapy used to treat these diseases has limited efficacy, and drug resistance is spreading. Hence, new drugs are urgently needed. Phenotypic compound screenings have prevailed as the leading method to discover new drug candidates against these diseases. However, the publication of the complete genome sequences of multiple strains, advances in the application of CRISPR/Cas9 technology, and in vivo bioluminescence-based imaging have set the stage for advancing target-based drug discovery. This review analyses the limitations of the narrow pool of available drugs presently used for treating these diseases. It describes the current drug-based clinical trials highlighting the most promising leads. Furthermore, the review presents a focused discussion on the most important biological and pharmacological challenges that target-based drug discovery programs must overcome to advance drug candidates. Finally, it examines the advantages and limitations of modern research tools designed to identify and validate essential genes as drug targets, including genomic editing applications and in vivo imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Altamura
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
| | - Rishi Rajesh
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
| | | | - Nilmar S Moretti
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Igor Cestari
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
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29
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Taylor MC, Ward A, Olmo F, Jayawardhana S, Francisco AF, Lewis MD, Kelly JM. Intracellular DNA replication and differentiation of Trypanosoma cruzi is asynchronous within individual host cells in vivo at all stages of infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008007. [PMID: 32196491 PMCID: PMC7112235 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Investigations into intracellular replication and differentiation of Trypanosoma cruzi within the mammalian host have been restricted by limitations in our ability to detect parasitized cells throughout the course of infection. We have overcome this problem by generating genetically modified parasites that express a bioluminescent/fluorescent fusion protein. By combining in vivo imaging and confocal microscopy, this has enabled us to routinely visualise murine infections at the level of individual host cells. These studies reveal that intracellular parasite replication is an asynchronous process, irrespective of tissue location or disease stage. Furthermore, using TUNEL assays and EdU labelling, we demonstrate that within individual infected cells, replication of both mitochondrial (kDNA) and nuclear genomes is not co-ordinated within the parasite population, and that replicating amastigotes and non-replicating trypomastigotes can co-exist in the same cell. Finally, we report the presence of distinct non-canonical morphological forms of T. cruzi in the mammalian host. These appear to represent transitional forms in the amastigote to trypomastigote differentiation process. Therefore, the intracellular life-cycle of T. cruzi in vivo is more complex than previously realised, with potential implications for our understanding of disease pathogenesis, immune evasion and drug development. Dissecting the mechanisms involved will be an important experimental challenge. Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is becoming an emerging threat in non-endemic countries and establishing new foci in endemic countries. The treatment available has not changed significantly in over 40 years. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a greater understanding of parasite biology and disease pathogenesis to identify new therapeutic targets and to maximise the efficient use of existing drugs. We have used genetically modified strains of T. cruzi carrying a bioluminescence/fluorescence dual reporter fusion gene to monitor parasite replication in vivo during both acute and chronic infections in a mouse model. Utilising TUNEL assays for mitochondrial DNA replication and EdU incorporation for total DNA replication, we have found that parasite division within infected cells is asynchronous in all phases of infection. Differentiation also appears to be uncoordinated, with replicating amastigotes co-existing with non-dividing trypomastigotes in the same host cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin C. Taylor
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Alexander Ward
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Francisco Olmo
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Shiromani Jayawardhana
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Amanda F. Francisco
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael D. Lewis
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - John M. Kelly
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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30
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Sykes ML, Hilko DH, Kung LI, Poulsen SA, Avery VM. Investigation of pyrimidine nucleoside analogues as chemical probes to assess compound effects on the proliferation of Trypanosoma cruzi intracellular parasites. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008068. [PMID: 32163414 PMCID: PMC7112222 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi parasites utilise de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis to produce DNA and survive within mammalian host cells. This pathway can be hijacked to assess the replication of intracellular parasites with the exogenous addition of a DNA specific probe. To identify suitable probe compounds for this application, a collection of pyrimidine nucleoside analogues was assessed for incorporation into T. cruzi intracellular amastigote DNA using image-based technology and script-based analysis. Associated mammalian cell toxicity of these compounds was also determined against both the parasite host cells (3T3 cells) and HEK293 cells. Incorporation of 5-ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine (EdU) into parasite DNA was the most effective of the probes tested, with minimal growth inhibition observed following either two or four hours EdU exposure. EdU was subsequently utilised as a DNA probe, followed by visualisation with click chemistry to a fluorescent azide, to assess the impact of drugs and compounds with previously demonstrated activity against T. cruzi parasites, on parasite replication. The inhibitory profiles of these molecules highlight the benefit of this approach for identifying surviving parasites post-treatment in vitro and classifying compounds as either fast or slow-acting. F-ara-EdU resulted in <50% activity observed against T. cruzi amastigotes following 48 hours incubation, at 73 μM. Collectively, this supports the further development of pyrimidine nucleosides as chemical probes to investigate replication of the parasite T. cruzi. Chagas disease occurs within 21 countries in the Americas, causes over 10, 000 deaths per year and a further 25 million people are at risk of being infected. The cause of Chagas disease is Trypanosoma cruzi, a single celled protozoan parasite, which enters the bloodstream of a host by the bite of a “kissing bug”. In advanced disease stages, the parasite hides in heart and gut tissue and is difficult to treat. Identifying the replicative ability of these parasites is important to understanding Chagas disease progression and the effectiveness of compounds and drugs for treatment. By testing a panel of nucleoside analogues that may incorporate into DNA during synthesis, we developed an image-based method with a fluorescently-labelled DNA probe to identify replicating parasites. This method has effectively shown that drugs used to treat the parasite are able to clear intracellular infection, whilst a compound that was not efficacious in clinical trials leaves replicating T. cruzi behind. This methodology can be used to understand the action of further compounds and supports the identification of new, less toxic probes to assess intracellular parasite replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Louise Sykes
- Discovery Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
| | - David Hugh Hilko
- Chemical Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
| | - Livia Isabella Kung
- Discovery Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia.,Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sally-Ann Poulsen
- Chemical Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
| | - Vicky Marie Avery
- Discovery Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
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31
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Resende BC, Oliveira ACS, Guañabens ACP, Repolês BM, Santana V, Hiraiwa PM, Pena SDJ, Franco GR, Macedo AM, Tahara EB, Fragoso SP, Andrade LO, Machado CR. The Influence of Recombinational Processes to Induce Dormancy in Trypanosoma cruzi. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:5. [PMID: 32117793 PMCID: PMC7025536 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of Chagas disease, a neglected tropical disease that affects around 8 million people worldwide. Chagas disease can be divided into two stages: an acute stage with high parasitemia followed by a low parasitemia chronic stage. Recently, the importance of dormancy concerning drug resistance in T. cruzi amastigotes has been shown. Here, we quantify the percentage of dormant parasites from different T. cruzi DTUs during their replicative epimastigote and amastigote stages. For this study, cells of T. cruzi CL Brener (DTU TcVI); Bug (DTU TcV); Y (DTU TcII); and Dm28c (DTU TcI) were used. In order to determine the proliferation rate and percentage of dormancy in epimastigotes, fluorescent-labeled cells were collected every 24 h for flow cytometer analysis, and cells showing maximum fluorescence after 144 h of growth were considered dormant. For the quantification of dormant amastigotes, fluorescent-labeled trypomastigotes were used for infection of LLC-MK2 cells. The number of amastigotes per infected LLC-MK2 cell was determined, and those parasites that presented fluorescent staining after 96 h of infection were considered dormant. A higher number of dormant cells was observed in hybrid strains when compared to non-hybrid strains for both epimastigote and amastigote forms. In order to investigate, the involvement of homologous recombination in the determination of dormancy in T. cruzi, we treated CL Brener cells with gamma radiation, which generates DNA lesions repaired by this process. Interestingly, the dormancy percentage was increased in gamma-irradiated cells. Since, we have previously shown that naturally-occurring hybrid T. cruzi strains present higher transcription of RAD51—a key gene in recombination process —we also measured the percentage of dormant cells from T. cruzi clone CL Brener harboring single knockout for RAD51. Our results showed a significative reduction of dormant cells in this T. cruzi CL Brener RAD51 mutant, evidencing a role of homologous recombination in the process of dormancy in this parasite. Altogether, our data suggest the existence of an adaptive difference between T. cruzi strains to generate dormant cells, and that homologous recombination may be important for dormancy in this parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Carvalho Resende
- Laboratory of Biochemistry Genetics, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Anny Carolline Silva Oliveira
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Department of Morphology, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Anna Carolina Paganini Guañabens
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Department of Morphology, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Bruno Marçal Repolês
- Laboratory of Biochemistry Genetics, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Verônica Santana
- Laboratory of Biochemistry Genetics, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Priscila Mazzochi Hiraiwa
- Laboratory of Functional Genomics, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Sérgio Danilo Junho Pena
- Laboratory of Biochemistry Genetics, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Glória Regina Franco
- Laboratory of Biochemistry Genetics, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Andrea Mara Macedo
- Laboratory of Biochemistry Genetics, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Erich Birelli Tahara
- Laboratory of Biochemistry Genetics, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Stênio Perdigão Fragoso
- Laboratory of Functional Genomics, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Luciana Oliveira Andrade
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Department of Morphology, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Carlos Renato Machado
- Laboratory of Biochemistry Genetics, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
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32
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Dumoulin PC, Burleigh BA. Methods for the Investigation of Trypanosoma cruzi Amastigote Proliferation in Mammalian Host Cells. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2116:535-554. [PMID: 32221941 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0294-2_32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In its mammalian host, the kinetoplastid protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi, is obliged to establish intracellular residence in order to replicate. This parasite can infect and replicate within a diverse array of cell and tissue types across many mammalian host species. The establishment of quantitative assays to assess the replicative capacity of intracellular T. cruzi amastigotes under different conditions is a critical facet to understanding this host-pathogen interaction. Several complementary methods are outlined here. Their strengths and deficiencies in quantifying intracellular amastigote growth and death are discussed. We describe three assays to assess growth/replication. (1) A high throughput multiplexed plate-based assay that quantifies both host cell and parasite abundance. This method allows for the rapid and simultaneous screening of many conditions (e.g., small molecule inhibitors, the impact of host gene knockdown or of altered environmental parameters). (2) Simple fluorescence microscopy-based enumeration of amastigotes within host cells and (3) flow cytometry-based quantification of amastigote proliferation following isolation from host cells. Each approach has advantages but none of these can assess lethal outcomes in a quantitative manner. For this, we describe a clonal outgrowth assay that identifies the proportion of parasites that succumb to a defined exposure. Even using these assays, it can be challenging to differentiate between direct (targeting the parasite) and/or indirect (targeting the host) effects of a given treatment on amastigote growth. Therefore, we also outline a method of purification of intracellular amastigotes that allows for downstream biochemical and metabolic investigations specifically on the isolated amastigote.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter C Dumoulin
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Barbara A Burleigh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
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Barrett MP, Kyle DE, Sibley LD, Radke JB, Tarleton RL. Protozoan persister-like cells and drug treatment failure. Nat Rev Microbiol 2019; 17:607-620. [PMID: 31444481 PMCID: PMC7024564 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-019-0238-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial treatment failure threatens our ability to control infections. In addition to antimicrobial resistance, treatment failures are increasingly understood to derive from cells that survive drug treatment without selection of genetically heritable mutations. Parasitic protozoa, such as Plasmodium species that cause malaria, Toxoplasma gondii and kinetoplastid protozoa, including Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp., cause millions of deaths globally. These organisms can evolve drug resistance and they also exhibit phenotypic diversity, including the formation of quiescent or dormant forms that contribute to the establishment of long-term infections that are refractory to drug treatment, which we refer to as 'persister-like cells'. In this Review, we discuss protozoan persister-like cells that have been linked to persistent infections and discuss their impact on therapeutic outcomes following drug treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Barrett
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
| | - Dennis E Kyle
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Joshua B Radke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rick L Tarleton
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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Wesley M, Moraes A, Rosa ADC, Lott Carvalho J, Shiroma T, Vital T, Dias N, de Carvalho B, do Amaral Rabello D, Borges TKDS, Dallago B, Nitz N, Hagström L, Hecht M. Correlation of Parasite Burden, kDNA Integration, Autoreactive Antibodies, and Cytokine Pattern in the Pathophysiology of Chagas Disease. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1856. [PMID: 31496999 PMCID: PMC6712995 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease (CD), caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), is the main parasitic disease in the Western Hemisphere. Unfortunately, its physiopathology is not completely understood, and cardiomegaly development is hard to predict. Trying to explain tissue lesion and the fact that only a percentage of the infected individuals develops clinical manifestations, a variety of mechanisms have been suggested as the provokers of CD, such as parasite persistence and autoimmune responses. However, holistic analysis of how parasite and host-related elements may connect to each other and influence clinical outcome is still scarce in the literature. Here, we investigated murine models of CD caused by three different pathogen strains: Colombian, CL Brener and Y strains, and employed parasitological and immunological tests to determine parasite load, antibody reactivity, and cytokine production during the acute and chronic phases of the disease. Also, we developed a quantitative PCR (qPCR) protocol to quantify T. cruzi kDNA minicircle integration into the mammalian host genome. Finally, we used a correlation analysis to interconnect parasite- and host-related factors over time. Higher parasite load in the heart and in the intestine was significantly associated with IgG raised against host cardiac proteins. Also, increased heart and bone marrow parasitism was associated with a more intense leukocyte infiltration. kDNA integration rates correlated to the levels of IgG antibodies reactive to host cardiac proteins and interferon production, both influencing tissue inflammation. In conclusion, our results shed light into how inflammatory process associates with parasite load, kDNA transfer to the host, autoreactive autoantibody production and cytokine profile. Altogether, our data support the proposal of an updated integrative theory regarding CD pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moisés Wesley
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biosciences, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Aline Moraes
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biosciences, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Ana de Cássia Rosa
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biosciences, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Juliana Lott Carvalho
- Genomic Sciences and Biotechnology Program, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil.,Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Tatiana Shiroma
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biosciences, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Tamires Vital
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biosciences, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Nayra Dias
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biosciences, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Bruna de Carvalho
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biosciences, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Doralina do Amaral Rabello
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathology of Cancer, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Tatiana Karla Dos Santos Borges
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Bruno Dallago
- Laboratory of Animal Welfare, Faculty of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Nadjar Nitz
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biosciences, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Luciana Hagström
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biosciences, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Mariana Hecht
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Biosciences, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
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Gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase and tryparedoxin 1 exert high control on the antioxidant system in Trypanosoma cruzi contributing to drug resistance and infectivity. Redox Biol 2019; 26:101231. [PMID: 31203195 PMCID: PMC6581782 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2019.101231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanothione (T(SH)2) is the main antioxidant metabolite for peroxide reduction in Trypanosoma cruzi; therefore, its metabolism has attracted attention for therapeutic intervention against Chagas disease. To validate drug targets within the T(SH)2 metabolism, the strategies and methods of Metabolic Control Analysis and kinetic modeling of the metabolic pathway were used here, to identify the steps that mainly control the pathway fluxes and which could be appropriate sites for therapeutic intervention. For that purpose, gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γECS), trypanothione synthetase (TryS), trypanothione reductase (TryR) and the tryparedoxin cytosolic isoform 1 (TXN1) were separately overexpressed to different levels in T. cruzi epimastigotes and their degrees of control on the pathway flux as well as their effect on drug resistance and infectivity determined. Both experimental in vivo as well as in silico analyses indicated that γECS and TryS control T(SH)2 synthesis by 60–74% and 15–31%, respectively. γECS overexpression prompted up to a 3.5-fold increase in T(SH)2 concentration, whereas TryS overexpression did not render an increase in T(SH)2 levels as a consequence of high T(SH)2 degradation. The peroxide reduction flux was controlled for 64–73% by TXN1, 17–20% by TXNPx and 11–16% by TryR. TXN1 and TryR overexpression increased H2O2 resistance, whereas TXN1 overexpression increased resistance to the benznidazole plus buthionine sulfoximine combination. γECS overexpression led to an increase in infectivity capacity whereas that of TXN increased trypomastigote bursting. The present data suggested that inhibition of high controlling enzymes such as γECS and TXN1 in the T(SH)2 antioxidant pathway may compromise the parasite's viability and infectivity. The trypanothione synthesis flux is primarily but not exclusively controlled by γECS. Tryparedoxin exerts high control on the peroxide reduction flux. Kinetic metabolic modeling may reliably predict the in vivo pathway behavior. TXN1 overexpression provides benznidazole resistance. γECS and TXN contribute to parasite infectivity.
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Low-Level Parasite Persistence Drives Vasculitis and Myositis in Skeletal Muscle of Mice Chronically Infected with Trypanosoma cruzi. Infect Immun 2019; 87:IAI.00081-19. [PMID: 30936158 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00081-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In chronic Trypanosoma cruzi infection, the cause of Chagas disease, life-threatening inflammatory diseases develop over time in the heart, esophagus, and colon of some patients. C57BL/6 mice infected with the myotropic Colombiana strain of T. cruzi model many of the immunological and parasitological features of human infection but succumb to chronic paralyzing myositis and skeletal muscle vasculitis, not cardiomyopathy or gastrointestinal disease. Here we show that T cell depletion in the chronic phase of this model increased tissue parasitism to acute-phase levels and induced neutrophilic skeletal muscle inflammation. Conversely, after daily treatment with the trypanocide benznidazole for 8 weeks during the chronic phase, viable parasites were no longer detectable, myositis completely resolved, vasculitis was ∼80% reduced, fibrosis was reduced, and myofiber morphology normalized. After the drug was discontinued, parasitism rebounded, and immunopathology recurred. The parasite load was statistically strongly correlated with the severity of inflammation. Thus, both T cell immunity and trypanocidal pharmacotherapy suppress to very low levels, but do not cure, T. cruzi infection, which is necessary and possibly sufficient to induce crippling chronic skeletal muscle myositis and vasculitis in the model.
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Chiurillo MA, Lander N, Bertolini MS, Vercesi AE, Docampo R. Functional analysis and importance for host cell infection of the Ca 2+-conducting subunits of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter of Trypanosoma cruzi. Mol Biol Cell 2019; 30:1676-1690. [PMID: 31091170 PMCID: PMC6727756 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e19-03-0152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We report here that Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease, possesses two unique paralogues of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter complex TcMCU subunit that we named TcMCUc and TcMCUd. The predicted structure of the proteins indicates that, as predicted for the TcMCU and TcMCUb paralogues, they are composed of two helical membrane-spanning domains and contain a WDXXEPXXY motif. Overexpression of each gene led to a significant increase in mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake, while knockout (KO) of either TcMCUc or TcMCUd led to a loss of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake, without affecting the mitochondrial membrane potential. TcMCUc-KO and TcMCUd-KO epimastigotes exhibited reduced growth rate in low-glucose medium and alterations in their respiratory rate, citrate synthase activity, and AMP/ATP ratio, while trypomastigotes had reduced ability to efficiently infect host cells and replicate intracellularly as amastigotes. By gene complementation of KO cell lines or by a newly developed CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knock-in approach, we also studied the importance of critical amino acid residues of the four paralogues on mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake. In conclusion, the results predict a hetero-oligomeric structure for the T. cruzi MCU complex, with structural and functional differences, as compared with those in the mammalian complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A Chiurillo
- Departamento de Patologia Clínica, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13083, Brazil
| | - Noelia Lander
- Departamento de Patologia Clínica, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13083, Brazil
| | - Mayara S Bertolini
- Departamento de Patologia Clínica, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13083, Brazil
| | - Anibal E Vercesi
- Departamento de Patologia Clínica, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13083, Brazil
| | - Roberto Docampo
- Departamento de Patologia Clínica, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13083, Brazil.,Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
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