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Wang X, Chen Y, Qi C, Li F, Zhang Y, Zhou J, Wu H, Zhang T, Qi A, Ouyang H, Xie Z, Pang D. Mechanism, structural and functional insights into nidovirus-induced double-membrane vesicles. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1340332. [PMID: 38919631 PMCID: PMC11196420 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1340332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
During infection, positive-stranded RNA causes a rearrangement of the host cell membrane, resulting in specialized membrane structure formation aiding viral genome replication. Double-membrane vesicles (DMVs), typical structures produced by virus-induced membrane rearrangements, are platforms for viral replication. Nidoviruses, one of the most complex positive-strand RNA viruses, have the ability to infect not only mammals and a few birds but also invertebrates. Nidoviruses possess a distinctive replication mechanism, wherein their nonstructural proteins (nsps) play a crucial role in DMV biogenesis. With the participation of host factors related to autophagy and lipid synthesis pathways, several viral nsps hijack the membrane rearrangement process of host endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, and other organelles to induce DMV formation. An understanding of the mechanisms of DMV formation and its structure and function in the infectious cycle of nidovirus may be essential for the development of new and effective antiviral strategies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Yiwu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Chunyun Qi
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Feng Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Yuanzhu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Jian Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Heyong Wu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Tianyi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Aosi Qi
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Hongsheng Ouyang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
- Chongqing Research Institute, Jilin University, Chongqing, China
- Center for Animal Science and Technology Research, Chongqing Jitang Biotechnology Research Institute Co., Ltd, Chongqing, China
| | - Zicong Xie
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
- Chongqing Research Institute, Jilin University, Chongqing, China
| | - Daxin Pang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
- Chongqing Research Institute, Jilin University, Chongqing, China
- Center for Animal Science and Technology Research, Chongqing Jitang Biotechnology Research Institute Co., Ltd, Chongqing, China
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2
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Hasan ME, Samir A, Khalil MM, Shafaa MW. Bioinformatics approach for prediction and analysis of the Non-Structural Protein 4B (NSP4B) of the Zika virus. J Genet Eng Biotechnol 2024; 22:100336. [PMID: 38494248 PMCID: PMC10860876 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgeb.2023.100336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Nonstructural Protein (NSP) 4B of Zika virus of 251 amino acids from (ZIKV/Human/POLG_ZIKVF) with accession number (A0A024B7W1), Induces the production of Endoplasmic Reticulum ER-derived membrane vesicles, which are the sites of viral replication. To understand the physical basis of how proteins fold in nature and to solve the challenge of protein structure prediction, Ab-initio and comparative modeling are crucial tools. RESULTS The systematic in silico technique, ThreaDom, had only predicted one domain (4 - 190) of NSP4B. I-TASSER, and Alphafold were ranked as the best servers for full-length 3-D protein structure predictions of NSP4B, where the predicted models were evaluated quantitatively using benchmarked metrics including C-score (-3.43), TM-score (0.77949), RMSD (2.73), and Z-score (1.561). The functional and protein binding motifs were realized using motif databases, secondary and surface accessibility predictions combined with Post-Translational Modification Sites (PTMs) prediction. Two highly conserved protein-binding motifs (Flavi NS4B and Bacillus papRprotein), together with three (PTMs) (Casein Kinase II, Myristyl site, and ASN-Glycosylation site) were predicted utilizing the Motif scan and Scanprosite servers. These patterns and PTMs were associated with NSP4B's role in triggering the development of the viral replication complex and its participation in the localization of NS3 and NS5 on the membrane. Only one hit from Structural Classification of Protein (SCOP) matched the protein sequence at positions 10 to 397 and was categorized six-hairpin glycosidases superfamily according to CATH (Class, Architecture, Topology, and Homology). Integrating this NSP4B information with the templates' SCOP and CATH annotations achieves it easier to attribute structure-function/evolution links to both previously known and recently discovered protein structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed E Hasan
- Bioinformatics Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute, University of Sadat City, Sadat City 32897, Egypt.
| | - Aya Samir
- Physics Department, Medical Biophysics Division, Faculty of Science, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Magdy M Khalil
- Physics Department, Medical Biophysics Division, Faculty of Science, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt; School of Biotechnology, Badr University in Cairo, Egypt
| | - Medhat W Shafaa
- Physics Department, Medical Biophysics Division, Faculty of Science, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt
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Suleman M, Ishaq I, Khan H, Ullah khan S, Masood R, Albekairi NA, Alshammari A, Crovella S. Elucidating the binding mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 NSP6-TBK1 and structure-based designing of phytocompounds inhibitors for instigating the host immune response. Front Chem 2024; 11:1346796. [PMID: 38293247 PMCID: PMC10824840 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2023.1346796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2, also referred to as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, is the virus responsible for causing COVID-19, an infectious disease that emerged in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. Among its crucial functions, NSP6 plays a vital role in evading the human immune system by directly interacting with a receptor called TANK-binding kinase (TBK1), leading to the suppression of IFNβ production. Consequently, in the present study we used the structural and biophysical approaches to analyze the effect of newly emerged mutations on the binding of NSP6 and TBK1. Among the identified mutations, four (F35G, L37F, L125F, and I162T) were found to significantly destabilize the structure of NSP6. Furthermore, the molecular docking analysis highlighted that the mutant NSP6 displayed its highest binding affinity with TBK1, exhibiting docking scores of -1436.2 for the wildtype and -1723.2, -1788.6, -1510.2, and -1551.7 for the F35G, L37F, L125F, and I162T mutants, respectively. This suggests the potential for an enhanced immune system evasion capability of NSP6. Particularly, the F35G mutation exhibited the strongest binding affinity, supported by a calculated binding free energy of -172.19 kcal/mol. To disrupt the binding between NSP6 and TBK1, we conducted virtual drug screening to develop a novel inhibitor derived from natural products. From this screening, we identified the top 5 hit compounds as the most promising candidates with a docking score of -6.59 kcal/mol, -6.52 kcal/mol, -6.32 kcal/mol, -6.22 kcal/mol, and -6.21 kcal/mol. The molecular dynamic simulation of top 3 hits further verified the dynamic stability of drugs-NSP6 complexes. In conclusion, this study provides valuable insight into the higher infectivity of the SARS-CoV-2 new variants and a strong rationale for the development of novel drugs against NSP6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Suleman
- Laboratory of Animal Research Center (LARC), Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
- Center for Biotechnology and Microbiology, University of Swat, Swat, Pakistan
| | - Iqra Ishaq
- Center for Biotechnology and Microbiology, University of Swat, Swat, Pakistan
| | - Haji Khan
- Center for Biotechnology and Microbiology, University of Swat, Swat, Pakistan
| | - Safir Ullah khan
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, School of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Rehana Masood
- Department of Biochemistry, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Women University, Peshawar, Pakistan
| | - Norah A. Albekairi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulrahman Alshammari
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sergio Crovella
- Laboratory of Animal Research Center (LARC), Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
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Chen Y, Zhang Y, Wang X, Zhou J, Ma L, Li J, Yang L, Ouyang H, Yuan H, Pang D. Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus: An Update Review and Perspective. Viruses 2023; 15:v15020359. [PMID: 36851573 PMCID: PMC9958687 DOI: 10.3390/v15020359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) is a member of the alphacoronavirus genus, which has caused huge threats and losses to pig husbandry with a 100% mortality in infected piglets. TGEV is observed to be recombining and evolving unstoppably in recent years, with some of these recombinant strains spreading across species, which makes the detection and prevention of TGEV more complex. This paper reviews and discusses the basic biological properties of TGEV, factors affecting virulence, viral receptors, and the latest research advances in TGEV infection-induced apoptosis and autophagy to improve understanding of the current status of TGEV and related research processes. We also highlight a possible risk of TGEV being zoonotic, which could be evidenced by the detection of CCoV-HuPn-2018 in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiwu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Yuanzhu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Xi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Jian Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Lerong Ma
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Jianing Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Lin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Hongsheng Ouyang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
- Chongqing Research Institute, Jilin University, Chongqing 401120, China
- Chongqing Jitang Biotechnology Research Institute Co., Ltd., Chongqing 401120, China
| | - Hongming Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
- Chongqing Research Institute, Jilin University, Chongqing 401120, China
- Correspondence: (H.Y.); (D.P.); Tel.: +86-431-8783-6175 (D.P.)
| | - Daxin Pang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
- Chongqing Research Institute, Jilin University, Chongqing 401120, China
- Chongqing Jitang Biotechnology Research Institute Co., Ltd., Chongqing 401120, China
- Correspondence: (H.Y.); (D.P.); Tel.: +86-431-8783-6175 (D.P.)
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Jassey A, Wagner MA, Galitska G, Paudel B, Miller K, Jackson WT. Starvation after infection restricts enterovirus D68 replication. Autophagy 2023; 19:112-125. [PMID: 35446171 PMCID: PMC9809931 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2022.2062888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) is a respiratory pathogen associated with acute flaccid myelitis, a childhood paralysis disease. No approved vaccine or antiviral treatment exists against EV-D68. Infection with this virus induces the formation of autophagosomes to enhance its replication but blocks the downstream autophagosome- lysosome fusion steps. Here, we examined the impact of autophagy induction through starvation, either before (starvation before infection, SBI) or after (starvation after infection, SAI) EV-D68 infection. We showed that SAI, but not SBI, attenuated EV-D68 replication in multiple cell lines and abrogated the viral-mediated cleavage of host autophagic flux-related proteins. Furthermore, SAI induced autophagic flux during EV-D68 replication and prevented production of virus-induced membranes, which are required for picornavirus replication. Pharmacological inhibition of autophagic flux during SAI did not rescue EV-D68 titers. SAI had the same effect in multiple cell types, and restricted the replication of several medically relevant picornaviruses. Our results highlight the significance of autophagosomes for picornavirus replication and identify SAI as an attractive broad-spectrum anti-picornavirus strategy.Abbreviations: BAF: bafilomycin A1; CCCP: carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone; CQ: chloroquine; CVB3: coxsackievirus B3; EV-D68: enterovirus D68; hpi: hour post-infection; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MOI: multiplicity of infection; NSP2B: nonstructural protein 2B; PV: poliovirus; RES: resveratrol; RV14: rhinovirus 14; SAI: starvation after infection; SBI: starvation before infection; SNAP29: synaptosome associated protein 29; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; TFEB: transcription factor EB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alagie Jassey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Center for Pathogen Research, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Michael A. Wagner
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Center for Pathogen Research, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ganna Galitska
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Center for Pathogen Research, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Bimal Paudel
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Center for Pathogen Research, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Katelyn Miller
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Center for Pathogen Research, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - William T. Jackson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Center for Pathogen Research, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA,CONTACT William T. Jackson Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Center for Pathogen Research University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
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6
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Ávila-Pérez G, Rejas MT, Chichón FJ, Guerra M, Fernández JJ, Rodríguez D. Architecture of torovirus replicative organelles. Mol Microbiol 2021; 117:837-850. [PMID: 34967475 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Plus-stranded RNA viruses replicate in the cytosol of infected cells, in membrane-bound replication complexes. We previously identified double membrane vesicles (DMVs) in the cytoplasm of cells infected with Berne virus (BEV), the prototype member of Torovirus genus (Nidovirales Order). Our previous analysis by transmission electron microscopy suggested that the DMVs form a reticulovesicular network (RVN) analogous those described for the related severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-1). Here, we used serial sectioning and electron tomography to characterize the architecture of torovirus replication organelles, and to learn about their biogenesis and dynamics during the infection. The formation of a RVN in BEV infected cells was confirmed, where the outer membranes of the DMVs are interconnected with each other and with the ER. Paired or zippered ER membranes connected with the DMVs were also observed, and likely represent early structures that evolve to give rise to DMVs. Also, paired membranes forming small spherule-like invaginations were observed at late time post-infection. Although resembling in size, the tomographic analysis show that these structures are clearly different from the true spherules described previously for coronaviruses. Hence, BEV shows important similarities, but also some differences, in the architecture of the replication organelles with other nidoviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ginés Ávila-Pérez
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC, C/Nicolás Cabrera 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Teresa Rejas
- Servicio de Microscopía Electrónica, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC, C/Nicolás Cabrera 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Javier Chichón
- Servicio de Criomicroscopía Electrónica (cryoEM-CSIC) and Department of Macromolecular Structures, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, CSIC, C/Darwin 3, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Milagros Guerra
- Servicio de Microscopía Electrónica, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC, C/Nicolás Cabrera 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Jesús Fernández
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), CINN-CSIC, Av Hospital Universitario s/n, 33011, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Dolores Rodríguez
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC, C/Nicolás Cabrera 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain
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7
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Tummino TA, Rezelj VV, Fischer B, Fischer A, O’Meara MJ, Monel B, Vallet T, Zhang Z, Alon A, O’Donnell HR, Lyu J, Schadt H, White KM, Krogan NJ, Urban L, Shokat KM, Kruse AC, García-Sastre A, Schwartz O, Moretti F, Vignuzzi M, Pognan F, Shoichet BK. Phospholipidosis is a shared mechanism underlying the in vitro antiviral activity of many repurposed drugs against SARS-CoV-2. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2021:2021.03.23.436648. [PMID: 33791693 PMCID: PMC8010720 DOI: 10.1101/2021.03.23.436648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Repurposing drugs as treatments for COVID-19 has drawn much attention. A common strategy has been to screen for established drugs, typically developed for other indications, that are antiviral in cells or organisms. Intriguingly, most of the drugs that have emerged from these campaigns, though diverse in structure, share a common physical property: cationic amphiphilicity. Provoked by the similarity of these repurposed drugs to those inducing phospholipidosis, a well-known drug side effect, we investigated phospholipidosis as a mechanism for antiviral activity. We tested 23 cationic amphiphilic drugs-including those from phenotypic screens and others that we ourselves had found-for induction of phospholipidosis in cell culture. We found that most of the repurposed drugs, which included hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin, amiodarone, and four others that have already progressed to clinical trials, induced phospholipidosis in the same concentration range as their antiviral activity; indeed, there was a strong monotonic correlation between antiviral efficacy and the magnitude of the phospholipidosis. Conversely, drugs active against the same targets that did not induce phospholipidosis were not antiviral. Phospholipidosis depends on the gross physical properties of drugs, and does not reflect specific target-based activities, rather it may be considered a confound in early drug discovery. Understanding its role in infection, and detecting its effects rapidly, will allow the community to better distinguish between drugs and lead compounds that more directly impact COVID-19 from the large proportion of molecules that manifest this confounding effect, saving much time, effort and cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tia A. Tummino
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA, USA
- Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences and Pharmacogenomics, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI), UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- QBI COVID-19 Research Group (QCRG), San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Veronica V. Rezelj
- Institut Pasteur, Viral Populations and Pathogenesis Unit, CNRS UMR 3569, 75724 Paris, Cedex 15, France
| | - Benoit Fischer
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Preclinical Safety, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Audrey Fischer
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Preclinical Safety, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthew J. O’Meara
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Blandine Monel
- Institut Pasteur, Virus and Immunity Unit, CNRS UMR 3569, 75724 Paris, Cedex 15, France
| | - Thomas Vallet
- Institut Pasteur, Viral Populations and Pathogenesis Unit, CNRS UMR 3569, 75724 Paris, Cedex 15, France
| | - Ziyang Zhang
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI), UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- QBI COVID-19 Research Group (QCRG), San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Assaf Alon
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Henry R. O’Donnell
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jiankun Lyu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA, USA
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI), UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- QBI COVID-19 Research Group (QCRG), San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Heiko Schadt
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Preclinical Safety, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Kris M White
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Nevan J. Krogan
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI), UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- QBI COVID-19 Research Group (QCRG), San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Gladstone Institute of Data Science and Biotechnology, J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Laszlo Urban
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Preclinical Safety, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kevan M. Shokat
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI), UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- QBI COVID-19 Research Group (QCRG), San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Andrew C. Kruse
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Adolfo García-Sastre
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Olivier Schwartz
- Institut Pasteur, Virus and Immunity Unit, CNRS UMR 3569, 75724 Paris, Cedex 15, France
| | - Francesca Moretti
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Preclinical Safety, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marco Vignuzzi
- Institut Pasteur, Viral Populations and Pathogenesis Unit, CNRS UMR 3569, 75724 Paris, Cedex 15, France
| | - Francois Pognan
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Preclinical Safety, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Brian K. Shoichet
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA, USA
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI), UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- QBI COVID-19 Research Group (QCRG), San Francisco, CA, USA
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8
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V'kovski P, Kratzel A, Steiner S, Stalder H, Thiel V. Coronavirus biology and replication: implications for SARS-CoV-2. Nat Rev Microbiol 2021; 19:155-170. [PMID: 33116300 PMCID: PMC7592455 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-020-00468-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1665] [Impact Index Per Article: 555.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and its unprecedented global societal and economic disruptive impact has marked the third zoonotic introduction of a highly pathogenic coronavirus into the human population. Although the previous coronavirus SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV epidemics raised awareness of the need for clinically available therapeutic or preventive interventions, to date, no treatments with proven efficacy are available. The development of effective intervention strategies relies on the knowledge of molecular and cellular mechanisms of coronavirus infections, which highlights the significance of studying virus-host interactions at the molecular level to identify targets for antiviral intervention and to elucidate critical viral and host determinants that are decisive for the development of severe disease. In this Review, we summarize the first discoveries that shape our current understanding of SARS-CoV-2 infection throughout the intracellular viral life cycle and relate that to our knowledge of coronavirus biology. The elucidation of similarities and differences between SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses will support future preparedness and strategies to combat coronavirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip V'kovski
- Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI), Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Annika Kratzel
- Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI), Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Silvio Steiner
- Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI), Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Hanspeter Stalder
- Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI), Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Volker Thiel
- Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI), Bern, Switzerland.
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
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9
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Wong NA, Saier MH. The SARS-Coronavirus Infection Cycle: A Survey of Viral Membrane Proteins, Their Functional Interactions and Pathogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:1308. [PMID: 33525632 PMCID: PMC7865831 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a novel epidemic strain of Betacoronavirus that is responsible for the current viral pandemic, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a global health crisis. Other epidemic Betacoronaviruses include the 2003 SARS-CoV-1 and the 2009 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV), the genomes of which, particularly that of SARS-CoV-1, are similar to that of the 2019 SARS-CoV-2. In this extensive review, we document the most recent information on Coronavirus proteins, with emphasis on the membrane proteins in the Coronaviridae family. We include information on their structures, functions, and participation in pathogenesis. While the shared proteins among the different coronaviruses may vary in structure and function, they all seem to be multifunctional, a common theme interconnecting these viruses. Many transmembrane proteins encoded within the SARS-CoV-2 genome play important roles in the infection cycle while others have functions yet to be understood. We compare the various structural and nonstructural proteins within the Coronaviridae family to elucidate potential overlaps and parallels in function, focusing primarily on the transmembrane proteins and their influences on host membrane arrangements, secretory pathways, cellular growth inhibition, cell death and immune responses during the viral replication cycle. We also offer bioinformatic analyses of potential viroporin activities of the membrane proteins and their sequence similarities to the Envelope (E) protein. In the last major part of the review, we discuss complement, stimulation of inflammation, and immune evasion/suppression that leads to CoV-derived severe disease and mortality. The overall pathogenesis and disease progression of CoVs is put into perspective by indicating several stages in the resulting infection process in which both host and antiviral therapies could be targeted to block the viral cycle. Lastly, we discuss the development of adaptive immunity against various structural proteins, indicating specific vulnerable regions in the proteins. We discuss current CoV vaccine development approaches with purified proteins, attenuated viruses and DNA vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A. Wong
- Department of Molecular Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0116, USA
| | - Milton H. Saier
- Department of Molecular Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0116, USA
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10
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Cabbab ILN, Manalo RVM. Anti-inflammatory drugs and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system: Current knowledge and potential effects on early SARS-CoV-2 infection. Virus Res 2021; 291:198190. [PMID: 33039544 PMCID: PMC7543703 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the etiologic agent of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), and is genetically related to the 2003 SARS and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV) coronaviruses. Recent studies have reported that similar to SARS-CoV, this strain expresses a spike protein (S) with a receptor binding domain (RBD) that binds to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) - an enzyme expressed mostly in the endothelium, kidneys, heart, gastrointestinal tract and lungs - to facilitate viral entry and intracellular replication. Incidentally, the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is integral to physiologic control of both ACE and ACE2 expression, and is an essential system utilized by SARS-CoV-2, albeit with varying schools of thought on how it can affect viral entry. In this paper, we will review current knowledge on the RAAS and how it can be affected by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and corticosteroid use at the organ and cellular levels. We will then discuss the relevance of these interactions on organ-specific ACE2 expression, and provide scientific insights on how this mechanism can potentially affect SARS-CoV-2 infection in the early phases of disease. From the standpoint of other known viruses, we will then aim to discuss the potential uses or restrictions of these drugs in viral infection, and provide an update on relevant studies about COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Louise N Cabbab
- College of Medicine - William Quasha H. Memorial, St. Luke's Medical Center, Quezon City, 1112, Philippines; National Institutes of Health, University of the Philippines Manila, Ermita, Manila, 1000, Philippines
| | - Rafael Vincent M Manalo
- College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Ermita, Manila, 1000, Philippines.
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11
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Cortese M, Lee JY, Cerikan B, Neufeldt CJ, Oorschot VMJ, Köhrer S, Hennies J, Schieber NL, Ronchi P, Mizzon G, Romero-Brey I, Santarella-Mellwig R, Schorb M, Boermel M, Mocaer K, Beckwith MS, Templin RM, Gross V, Pape C, Tischer C, Frankish J, Horvat NK, Laketa V, Stanifer M, Boulant S, Ruggieri A, Chatel-Chaix L, Schwab Y, Bartenschlager R. Integrative Imaging Reveals SARS-CoV-2-Induced Reshaping of Subcellular Morphologies. Cell Host Microbe 2020; 28:853-866.e5. [PMID: 33245857 PMCID: PMC7670925 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2020.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Pathogenesis induced by SARS-CoV-2 is thought to result from both an inflammation-dominated cytokine response and virus-induced cell perturbation causing cell death. Here, we employ an integrative imaging analysis to determine morphological organelle alterations induced in SARS-CoV-2-infected human lung epithelial cells. We report 3D electron microscopy reconstructions of whole cells and subcellular compartments, revealing extensive fragmentation of the Golgi apparatus, alteration of the mitochondrial network and recruitment of peroxisomes to viral replication organelles formed by clusters of double-membrane vesicles (DMVs). These are tethered to the endoplasmic reticulum, providing insights into DMV biogenesis and spatial coordination of SARS-CoV-2 replication. Live cell imaging combined with an infection sensor reveals profound remodeling of cytoskeleton elements. Pharmacological inhibition of their dynamics suppresses SARS-CoV-2 replication. We thus report insights into virus-induced cytopathic effects and provide alongside a comprehensive publicly available repository of 3D datasets of SARS-CoV-2-infected cells for download and smooth online visualization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Cortese
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Ji-Young Lee
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; German Center for Infection Research, Heidelberg partner site, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Berati Cerikan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christopher J Neufeldt
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Viola M J Oorschot
- Electron Microscopy Core Facility, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Köhrer
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany; Clinical Cooperation Unit Molecular Hematology/Oncology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Julian Hennies
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany; Collaboration for joint PhD degree between EMBL and Heidelberg University, Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Nicole L Schieber
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Paolo Ronchi
- Electron Microscopy Core Facility, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Giulia Mizzon
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany; Electron Microscopy Core Facility, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Inés Romero-Brey
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | | | - Martin Schorb
- Electron Microscopy Core Facility, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mandy Boermel
- Electron Microscopy Core Facility, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Karel Mocaer
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marianne S Beckwith
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rachel M Templin
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Viktoriia Gross
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Constantin Pape
- Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany; European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christian Tischer
- Center for Bioimage Analysis, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jamie Frankish
- BioMed X Institute, BioMed X GmbH, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Natalie K Horvat
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), 69117 Heidelberg, Germany; Molecular Medicine Partnership Unit (MMPU), Otto-Meyerhof-Zentrum, Im Neuenheimer Feld 350, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Vibor Laketa
- German Center for Infection Research, Heidelberg partner site, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Megan Stanifer
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Steeve Boulant
- Research Group "Cellular polarity and viral infection," German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Infectious Diseases, Virology, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Alessia Ruggieri
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Laurent Chatel-Chaix
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, 531, Boulevard des Prairies Laval, Québec, QC H7V 1B7, Canada
| | - Yannick Schwab
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany; Electron Microscopy Core Facility, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Ralf Bartenschlager
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; German Center for Infection Research, Heidelberg partner site, Heidelberg, Germany; Division Virus-Associated Carcinogenesis, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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12
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Lin P, Wang M, Wei Y, Kim T, Wei X. Coronavirus in human diseases: Mechanisms and advances in clinical treatment. MedComm (Beijing) 2020; 1:270-301. [PMID: 33173860 PMCID: PMC7646666 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses (CoVs), a subfamily of coronavirinae, are a panel of single-stranded RNA virus. Human coronavirus (HCoV) strains (HCoV-229E, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-HKU1, HCoV-NL63) usually cause mild upper respiratory diseases and are believed to be harmless. However, other HCoVs, associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome, Middle East respiratory syndrome, and COVID-19, have been identified as important pathogens due to their potent infectivity and lethality worldwide. Moreover, currently, no effective antiviral drugs treatments are available so far. In this review, we summarize the biological characters of HCoVs, their association with human diseases, and current therapeutic options for the three severe HCoVs. We also highlight the discussion about novel treatment strategies for HCoVs infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panpan Lin
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics West China Hospital Sichuan University Chengdu China
| | - Manni Wang
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics West China Hospital Sichuan University Chengdu China
| | - Yuquan Wei
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics West China Hospital Sichuan University Chengdu China
| | - Taewan Kim
- Wexner Medical Center The Ohio State University Columbus Ohio 43210 USA
| | - Xiawei Wei
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics West China Hospital Sichuan University Chengdu China
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13
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Balgoma D, Gil-de-Gómez L, Montero O. Lipidomics Issues on Human Positive ssRNA Virus Infection: An Update. Metabolites 2020; 10:E356. [PMID: 32878290 PMCID: PMC7569815 DOI: 10.3390/metabo10090356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenic mechanisms underlying the Biology and Biochemistry of viral infections are known to depend on the lipid metabolism of infected cells. From a lipidomics viewpoint, there are a variety of mechanisms involving virus infection that encompass virus entry, the disturbance of host cell lipid metabolism, and the role played by diverse lipids in regard to the infection effectiveness. All these aspects have currently been tackled separately as independent issues and focused on the function of proteins. Here, we review the role of cholesterol and other lipids in ssRNA+ infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Balgoma
- Analytical Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala University, Husarg. 3, 75123 Uppsala, Sweden;
| | - Luis Gil-de-Gómez
- Center of Childhood Cancer Center, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Colket Translational Research Center, 3501 Civic Center Blvd, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA;
| | - Olimpio Montero
- Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Boecillo’s Technological Park Bureau, Av. Francisco Vallés 8, 47151 Boecillo, Spain
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14
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Wolff G, Melia CE, Snijder EJ, Bárcena M. Double-Membrane Vesicles as Platforms for Viral Replication. Trends Microbiol 2020; 28:1022-1033. [PMID: 32536523 PMCID: PMC7289118 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2020.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Viruses, as obligate intracellular parasites, exploit cellular pathways and resources in a variety of fascinating ways. A striking example of this is the remodelling of intracellular membranes into specialized structures that support the replication of positive-sense ssRNA (+RNA) viruses infecting eukaryotes. These distinct forms of virus-induced structures include double-membrane vesicles (DMVs), found during viral infections as diverse and notorious as those of coronaviruses, enteroviruses, noroviruses, or hepatitis C virus. Our understanding of these DMVs has evolved over the past 15 years thanks to advances in imaging techniques and modern molecular biology tools. In this article, we review contemporary understanding of the biogenesis, structure, and function of virus-induced DMVs as well as the open questions posed by these intriguing structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Wolff
- Section Electron Microscopy, Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Charlotte E Melia
- Section Electron Microscopy, Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Eric J Snijder
- Molecular Virology laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Montserrat Bárcena
- Section Electron Microscopy, Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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15
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Kikkert M. Innate Immune Evasion by Human Respiratory RNA Viruses. J Innate Immun 2019; 12:4-20. [PMID: 31610541 PMCID: PMC6959104 DOI: 10.1159/000503030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 237] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The impact of respiratory virus infections on the health of children and adults can be very significant. Yet, in contrast to most other childhood infections as well as other viral and bacterial diseases, prophylactic vaccines or effective antiviral treatments against viral respiratory infections are either still not available, or provide only limited protection. Given the widespread prevalence, a general lack of natural sterilizing immunity, and/or high morbidity and lethality rates of diseases caused by influenza, respiratory syncytial virus, coronaviruses, and rhinoviruses, this difficult situation is a genuine societal challenge. A thorough understanding of the virus-host interactions during these respiratory infections will most probably be pivotal to ultimately meet these challenges. This review attempts to provide a comparative overview of the knowledge about an important part of the interaction between respiratory viruses and their host: the arms race between host innate immunity and viral innate immune evasion. Many, if not all, viruses, including the respiratory viruses listed above, suppress innate immune responses to gain a window of opportunity for efficient virus replication and setting-up of the infection. The consequences for the host's immune response are that it is often incomplete, delayed or diminished, or displays overly strong induction (after the delay) that may cause tissue damage. The affected innate immune response also impacts subsequent adaptive responses, and therefore viral innate immune evasion often undermines fully protective immunity. In this review, innate immune responses relevant for respiratory viruses with an RNA genome will briefly be summarized, and viral innate immune evasion based on shielding viral RNA species away from cellular innate immune sensors will be discussed from different angles. Subsequently, viral enzymatic activities that suppress innate immune responses will be discussed, including activities causing host shut-off and manipulation of stress granule formation. Furthermore, viral protease-mediated immune evasion and viral manipulation of the ubiquitin system will be addressed. Finally, perspectives for use of the reviewed knowledge for the development of novel antiviral strategies will be sketched.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjolein Kikkert
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Molecular Virology Laboratory, Leiden, The Netherlands,
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16
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Widagdo W, Sooksawasdi Na Ayudhya S, Hundie GB, Haagmans BL. Host Determinants of MERS-CoV Transmission and Pathogenesis. Viruses 2019; 11:E280. [PMID: 30893947 PMCID: PMC6466079 DOI: 10.3390/v11030280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is a zoonotic pathogen that causes respiratory infection in humans, ranging from asymptomatic to severe pneumonia. In dromedary camels, the virus only causes a mild infection but it spreads efficiently between animals. Differences in the behavior of the virus observed between individuals, as well as between humans and dromedary camels, highlight the role of host factors in MERS-CoV pathogenesis and transmission. One of these host factors, the MERS-CoV receptor dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4), may be a critical determinant because it is variably expressed in MERS-CoV-susceptible species as well as in humans. This could partially explain inter- and intraspecies differences in the tropism, pathogenesis, and transmissibility of MERS-CoV. In this review, we explore the role of DPP4 and other host factors in MERS-CoV transmission and pathogenesis-such as sialic acids, host proteases, and interferons. Further characterization of these host determinants may potentially offer novel insights to develop intervention strategies to tackle ongoing outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Widagdo
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Gadissa B Hundie
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Bart L Haagmans
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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17
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Zhang W, Chen K, Zhang X, Guo C, Chen Y, Liu X. An integrated analysis of membrane remodeling during porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus replication and assembly. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0200919. [PMID: 30040832 PMCID: PMC6057628 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Recently, three-dimensional (3D) imaging techniques have been used to detect viral invasion and the appearance of specialized structures established in virus-infected cells. These methods have had a positive impact in the field of virology and helped to further our knowledge of how viruses invade cells. Nearly all positive-strand RNA viruses propagate their viral genomes in part through intracellular membranes. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), an Arterivirus, accumulates viral RNA that forms replication complexes (RCs) in infected cells. In this study, using immunofluorescence and electron microscopy (EM), we dissected PRRSV-induced membrane structures in infected cells and determined the correlations between PRRSV particles and vesicles stimulated by PRRSV to understand the structural and dynamic aspects of PRRSV infection. Methods We identified the appropriate time point by determining the 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) and using qRT-PCR and Western blotting. The co-localization of viruses and organelles was determined by immunofluorescence and immune-electron microscopy (IEM). The ultrastructure of cells infected by PRRSV was observed using EM and electron tomography (ET). Results In our study, we found that PRRSV dsRNA was located at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and autophagosomes; in addition, the N protein was located at the mitochondria, ER and autophagosomes. Vesicles induced by PRRSV appeared at 16 hours post-infection (h.p.i.) and increased in size with time during the infection period. In addition, our findings demonstrated that the virus vesicles originated from the ER, and these two organelle structures connected with each other to form a reticulovesicular network (RVN) that provided a site for virus replication and assembly. Conclusion Our results revealed that membrane vesicles induced by PRRSV were derived from the ER. The vesicles may provide a location for PRRSV replication and assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Keren Chen
- School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Xueqing Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Chunhe Guo
- School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Yaosheng Chen
- School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Xiaohong Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
- * E-mail:
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18
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Brown HM, Biering SB, Zhu A, Choi J, Hwang S. Demarcation of Viral Shelters Results in Destruction by Membranolytic GTPases: Antiviral Function of Autophagy Proteins and Interferon-Inducible GTPases. Bioessays 2018; 40:e1700231. [PMID: 29603284 PMCID: PMC5986617 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201700231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A hallmark of positive-sense RNA viruses is the formation of membranous shelters for safe replication in the cytoplasm. Once considered invisible to the immune system, these viral shelters are now found to be antagonized through the cooperation of autophagy proteins and anti-microbial GTPases. This coordinated effort of autophagy proteins guiding GTPases functions against not only the shelters of viruses but also cytoplasmic vacuoles containing bacteria or protozoa, suggesting a broad immune-defense mechanism against disparate vacuolar pathogens. Fundamental questions regarding this process remain: how the host recognizes these membranous structures as a target, how the autophagy proteins bring the GTPases to the shelters, and how the recruited GTPases disrupt these shelters. In this review, these questions are discussed, the answers to which will significantly advance our understanding of the response to vacuole-like structures of pathogens, thereby paving the way for the development of broadly effective anti-microbial strategies for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailey M. Brown
- Committee on Immunology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Scott B. Biering
- Committee on Microbiology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Allen Zhu
- Committee on Cancer Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Jayoung Choi
- Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Seungmin Hwang
- Committee on Immunology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- Committee on Microbiology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- Committee on Cancer Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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19
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Nonstructural proteins nsp2TF and nsp2N of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) play important roles in suppressing host innate immune responses. Virology 2018; 517:164-176. [PMID: 29325778 PMCID: PMC5884420 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Recently, we identified a unique -2/-1 ribosomal frameshift mechanism in PRRSV, which yields two truncated forms of nonstructural protein (nsp) 2 variants, nsp2TF and nsp2N. Here, in vitro expression of individual PRRSV nsp2TF and nsp2N demonstrated their ability to suppress cellular innate immune responses in transfected cells. Two recombinant viruses were further analyzed, in which either nsp2TF was C-terminally truncated (vKO1) or expression of both nsp2TF and nsp2N was knocked out (vKO2). Host cellular mRNA profiling showed that a panel of cellular immune genes, in particular those involved in innate immunity, was upregulated in cells infected with vKO1 and vKO2. Compared to the wild-type virus, vKO1 and vKO2 expedited the IFN-α response and increased NK cell cytotoxicity, and subsequently enhanced T cell immune responses in infected pigs. Our data strongly implicate nsp2TF/nsp2N in arteriviral immune evasion and demonstrate that nsp2TF/nsp2N-deficient PRRSV is less capable of counteracting host innate immune responses. In vitro expression of PRRSV nsp2TF/nsp2N affects cellular innate immune response. Nsp2TF/nsp2N suppressed immune genes expression in PRRSV-infected cells. Nsp2TF/nsp2N-deficient mutants showed attenuated growth in vivo. Nsp2TF/nsp2N-deficient mutants induced augmented immune responses in infected pigs.
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20
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Coronaviruses and arteriviruses display striking differences in their cyclophilin A-dependence during replication in cell culture. Virology 2017; 517:148-156. [PMID: 29249267 PMCID: PMC7112125 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2017] [Revised: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cyclophilin A (CypA) is an important host factor in the replication of a variety of RNA viruses. Also the replication of several nidoviruses was reported to depend on CypA, although possibly not to the same extent. These prior studies are difficult to compare, since different nidoviruses, cell lines and experimental set-ups were used. Here, we investigated the CypA dependence of three distantly related nidoviruses that can all replicate in Huh7 cells: the arterivirus equine arteritis virus (EAV), the alphacoronavirus human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E), and the betacoronavirus Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). The replication of these viruses was compared in the same parental Huh7 cells and in CypA-knockout Huh7 cells generated using CRISPR/Cas9-technology. CypA depletion reduced EAV yields by ~ 3-log, whereas MERS-CoV progeny titers were modestly reduced (3-fold) and HCoV-229E replication was unchanged. This study reveals that the replication of nidoviruses can differ strikingly in its dependence on cellular CypA. Nidoviruses display differences in sensitivity towards cyclophilin A depletion. Replication of MERS-coronavirus is reduced modestly in cyclophilin A-knockout cells. Equine arteritis virus replication is strongly inhibited by cyclophilin A depletion. Chromosomal anomalies complicate CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in Huh7 cells.
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Expression and Cleavage of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus nsp3-4 Polyprotein Induce the Formation of Double-Membrane Vesicles That Mimic Those Associated with Coronaviral RNA Replication. mBio 2017; 8:mBio.01658-17. [PMID: 29162711 PMCID: PMC5698553 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01658-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Betacoronaviruses, such as Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), are important pathogens causing potentially lethal infections in humans and animals. Coronavirus RNA synthesis is thought to be associated with replication organelles (ROs) consisting of modified endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes. These are transformed into double-membrane vesicles (DMVs) containing viral double-stranded RNA and into other membranous elements such as convoluted membranes, together forming a reticulovesicular network. Previous evidence suggested that the nonstructural proteins (nsp’s) 3, 4, and 6 of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), which contain transmembrane domains, would all be required for DMV formation. We have now expressed MERS-CoV replicase self-cleaving polyprotein fragments encompassing nsp3-4 or nsp3-6, as well as coexpressed nsp3 and nsp4 of either MERS-CoV or SARS-CoV, to characterize the membrane structures induced. Using electron tomography, we demonstrate that for both MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV coexpression of nsp3 and nsp4 is required and sufficient to induce DMVs. Coexpression of MERS-CoV nsp3 and nsp4 either as individual proteins or as a self-cleaving nsp3-4 precursor resulted in very similar DMVs, and in both setups we observed proliferation of zippered ER that appeared to wrap into nascent DMVs. Moreover, when inactivating nsp3-4 polyprotein cleavage by mutagenesis, we established that cleavage of the nsp3/nsp4 junction is essential for MERS-CoV DMV formation. Addition of the third MERS-CoV transmembrane protein, nsp6, did not noticeably affect DMV formation. These findings provide important insight into the biogenesis of coronavirus DMVs, establish strong similarities with other nidoviruses (specifically, the arteriviruses), and highlight possible general principles in viral DMV formation. The RNA replication of positive stranded RNA viruses of eukaryotes is thought to take place at cytoplasmic membranous replication organelles (ROs). Double-membrane vesicles are a prominent type of viral ROs. They are induced by coronaviruses, such as SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, as well as by a number of other important pathogens, yet little is known about their biogenesis. In this study, we explored the viral protein requirements for the formation of MERS-CoV- and SARS-CoV-induced DMVs and established that coexpression of two of the three transmembrane subunits of the coronavirus replicase polyprotein, nonstructural proteins (nsp’s) 3 and 4, is required and sufficient to induce DMV formation. Moreover, release of nsp3 and nsp4 from the polyprotein by proteolytic maturation is essential for this process. These findings provide a strong basis for further research on the biogenesis and functionality of coronavirus ROs and may point to more general principles of viral DMV formation.
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Yu L, Zhang X, Wu T, Su J, Wang Y, Wang Y, Ruan B, Niu X, Wu Y. Avian infectious bronchitis virus disrupts the melanoma differentiation associated gene 5 (MDA5) signaling pathway by cleavage of the adaptor protein MAVS. BMC Vet Res 2017; 13:332. [PMID: 29132350 PMCID: PMC5683607 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-017-1253-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Melanoma differentiation associated gene 5 (MDA5) and retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) selectively sense cytoplasmic viral RNA to induce an antiviral immune response. Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is one of the most important infectious agents in chickens, and in chicken cells, it can be recognized by MDA5 to activate interferon production. RIG-I is considered to be absent in chickens. However, the absence of RIG-I in chickens raises the question of whether this protein influences the antiviral immune response against IBV infection. RESULTS Here, we showed that chicken cells transfected with domestic goose RIG-I (dgRIG-I) exhibited increased IFN-β activity after IBV infection. We also found that IBV can cleave MAVS, an adaptor protein downstream of RIG-I and MDA5 that acts as a platform for antiviral innate immunity at an early stage of infection. CONCLUSIONS Although chicken MDA5 (chMDA5) is functionally active during IBV infection, the absence of RIG-I may increase the susceptibility of chickens to IBV infection, and IBV may disrupt the activation of the host antiviral response through the cleavage of MAVS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Yu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention of Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Xiaorong Zhang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention of Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Tianqi Wu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention of Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Jin Su
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention of Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Yuyang Wang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention of Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Yuexin Wang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention of Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Baoyang Ruan
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention of Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Xiaosai Niu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention of Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Yantao Wu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention of Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.
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Ertel KJ, Benefield D, Castaño-Diez D, Pennington JG, Horswill M, den Boon JA, Otegui MS, Ahlquist P. Cryo-electron tomography reveals novel features of a viral RNA replication compartment. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28653620 PMCID: PMC5515581 DOI: 10.7554/elife.25940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Positive-strand RNA viruses, the largest genetic class of viruses, include numerous important pathogens such as Zika virus. These viruses replicate their RNA genomes in novel, membrane-bounded mini-organelles, but the organization of viral proteins and RNAs in these compartments has been largely unknown. We used cryo-electron tomography to reveal many previously unrecognized features of Flock house nodavirus (FHV) RNA replication compartments. These spherular invaginations of outer mitochondrial membranes are packed with electron-dense RNA fibrils and their volumes are closely correlated with RNA replication template length. Each spherule’s necked aperture is crowned by a striking cupped ring structure containing multifunctional FHV RNA replication protein A. Subtomogram averaging of these crowns revealed twelve-fold symmetry, concentric flanking protrusions, and a central electron density. Many crowns were associated with long cytoplasmic fibrils, likely to be exported progeny RNA. These results provide new mechanistic insights into positive-strand RNA virus replication compartment structure, assembly, function and control. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.25940.001
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth J Ertel
- Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States
| | - Desirée Benefield
- Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States.,Morgridge Institute for Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States
| | | | - Janice G Pennington
- Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States
| | - Mark Horswill
- Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States.,Morgridge Institute for Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States
| | - Johan A den Boon
- Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States.,Morgridge Institute for Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States
| | - Marisa S Otegui
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States.,Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States
| | - Paul Ahlquist
- Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States.,Morgridge Institute for Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, United States
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Scutigliani EM, Kikkert M. Interaction of the innate immune system with positive-strand RNA virus replication organelles. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2017; 37:17-27. [PMID: 28709747 PMCID: PMC7108334 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2017.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
All +RNA viruses induce replication organelles to shield viral RNA from innate immune surveillance. Recent literature suggests that non-self or aberrant-self membrane structures can be tagged with LC3 or ubiquitin. Interferon-induced GTPases then recognize these tags and destroy the membrane structures, thereby exposing PAMPs. More research will have to indicate whether this is a general antiviral mechanism affecting +RNA virus infections.
The potential health risks associated with (re-)emerging positive-strand RNA (+RNA) viruses emphasizes the need for understanding host-pathogen interactions for these viruses. The innate immune system forms the first line of defense against pathogenic organisms like these and is responsible for detecting pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Viral RNA is a potent inducer of antiviral innate immune signaling, provoking an antiviral state by directing expression of interferons (IFNs) and pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, +RNA viruses developed various methods to avoid detection and downstream signaling, including isolation of viral RNA replication in membranous viral replication organelles (ROs). These structures therefore play a central role in infection, and consequently, loss of RO integrity might simultaneously result in impaired viral replication and enhanced antiviral signaling. This review summarizes the first indications that the innate immune system indeed has tools to disrupt viral ROs and other non- or aberrant-self membrane structures, and may do this by marking these membranes with proteins such as microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3 (LC3) and ubiquitin, resulting in the recruitment of IFN-inducible GTPases. Further studies should evaluate whether this process forms a general effector mechanism in +RNA virus infection, thereby creating the opportunity for development of novel antiviral therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enzo Maxim Scutigliani
- Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marjolein Kikkert
- Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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